ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 11 ppt

11 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 11 Michael Orleans Staff Senior Editor: Paula K. Byers Project Editor: Suzanne M. Bourgoin Managing Editor: Neil E. Walker Editorial Staff: Luann Brennan, Frank V. Castronova, Laura S. Hightower, Karen E. Lemerand, Stacy A. McConnell, Jennifer Mossman, Maria L. Munoz, Katherine H. Nemeh, Terrie M. Rooney, Geri Speace Permissions Manager: Susan M. Tosky Production Director: Mary Beth Trimper Permissions Specialist: Maria L. Franklin Production Manager: Evi Seoud Permissions Associate: Michele M. Lonoconus Production Associate: Shanna Heilveil Image Cataloger: Mary K. Grimes Product Design Manager: Cynthia Baldwin Senior Art Director: Mary Claire Krzewinski Research Manager: Victoria B. Cariappa Research Specialists: Michele P. LaMeau, Andrew Guy Malonis, Barbara McNeil, Gary J. Oudersluys Research Associates: Julia C. Daniel, Tamara C. Nott, Norma Sawaya, Cheryl L. Warnock Research Assistant: Talitha A. Jean Graphic Services Supervisor: Barbara Yarrow Image Database Supervisor: Randy Bassett Imaging Specialist: Mike Lugosz Manager of Data Entry Services: Eleanor M. Allison Manager of Technology Support Services: Theresa A. Rocklin Data Entry Coordinator: Kenneth D. Benson Programmers/Analysts: Mira Bossowska, Jeffrey Muhr, Christopher Ward Copyright © 1998 Gale Research 835 Penobscot Bldg. Detroit, MI 48226-4094 ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (Set) ISBN 0-7876-2551-5 (Volume 11) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of world biography / [edited by Suzanne Michele Bourgoin and Paula Kay Byers]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: Presents brief biographical sketches which provide vital statistics as well as information on the importance of the person listed. ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (set : alk. paper) 1. Biography—Dictionaries—Juvenile literature. [1. Biography.] I. Bourgoin, Suzanne Michele, 1968- . II. Byers, Paula K. (Paula Kay), 1954- . CT 103.E56 1997 920’ .003—dc21 97-42327 CIP AC While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research Inc. does not guar- antee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions. a This book is printed on acid-free paper that meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences— Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair compe- tition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 11 9/10/02 6:29 PM Page iv 11 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World Biography FM 11 9/10/02 6:29 PM Page v Michael VIII Michael VIII (1224/1225-1282) was Byzantine em- peror from 1259 to 1282. An ambitious and unscru- pulous usurper, he founded Byzantium’s last dynasty. B elonging to one of the most powerful Byzantine aris- tocratic families, Michael rose to prominence under the Lascarid rulers, who had built, in the Empire of Nicaea, the chief of the Greek successor states after the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople. The Lascarids’ ul- timate goal of restoring Byzantine government in Constanti- nople had eluded them up to the accession (1258) of the last of the family, John IV, a boy of 8. A restless and untrustworthy noble, Michael had several times outraged John IV’s father and grandfather with his machinations. But he was popular with the other aristocrats. Michael soon had himself made the young emperor’s guardian; he was then given the title of Despot, and, by the beginning of 1259, he was finally proclaimed emperor. Thereafter, he systemati- cally pushed John IV into the background. Ruthless in seeking power, Michael was able in exer- cising it. In the autumn of 1259, at the important battle of Pelagonia, his armies defeated the dangerous coalition of King Manfred of Sicily, the Latin prince of Achaea, and Michael’s Greek rival, the despot of Epirus. Then, in July 1261, by unexpected good luck, one of his generals suc- ceeded in slipping into Constantinople and expelling the Latin regime. So Michael achieved the glorious Byzantine restoration in the old capital, which he entered triumphantly on Aug. 15, 1261. Having himself recrowned there, he associated his son with him in power, and at the end of the year had little John IV blinded, thus completing the Palaeologan replacement of the Lascarid house. Michael was determined to recover old Byzantine terri- tories in Europe, especially in the Peloponnesus, from the Latin regimes there. Western leaders, regarding Michael as a schismatic as well as a usurper, wished to drive him out of Constantinople. After numerous diplomatic shiftings, a powerful new Western coalition against Michael was orga- nized in 1267 by the Treaty of Viterbo between the Pope, the former Latin emperor of Constantinople, the Latin prince of Achaea in the Peloponnesus, and Charles of Anjou. Tak- ing advantage of hostility toward Charles of a new pope, Gregory X (reigned 1271-1276), Michael cultivated the Pontiff as a buffer to Angevin ambitions. But the Pope’s price was the submission of the Eastern Church to Rome in full union. Michael was forced to accept an official union dictated at the Council of Lyons (1274). This union with the hated Latins provoked uproar and factionalism among his subjects. The Emperor was therefore forced to forestall im- plementation of the union, and the pro-Angevin pontiff Martin IV renewed papal support for Charles and his allies against Michael. With disaster in the offing, Michael pulled his last diplomatic trick by helping to promote the ‘‘Sicilian Vespers’’ rising of 1282, which expelled the Angevins and introduced Michael’s ally Pedro III of Aragon (reigned 1276- 1285) as ruler of the island. Charles’s power was shattered as a result, and he died in 1285, his ambitions against Byzantium unrealized. Meanwhile, Michael’s forces continued to make prog- ress in the Peloponnesus, widening Byzantine power there. But his fears of the independent aristocrats, who were the bulwarks of the Eastern frontiers, only further weakened the Byzantine position there and opened the way for subse- quent Turkish expansion during the next century. In his M 1 internal policies Michael attempted to restore the economy, but his heavy expenses for his diplomacy, wars, and rebuilding of Constantinople placed such strains on the rev- enues that a drastic cutback was required under his son and successor, Andronicus II, who was also obliged to heal the fierce ecclesiastical strife which Michael’s hated Church policies had enflamed. Michael died on Dec. 11, 1282, while campaigning in Greece. Further Reading The most recent scholarly study of Michael is Deno J. Geanakoplos, Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258-1282 (1959), a solid, though selective account. Mi- chael’s place in international affairs is shown in Steven Runciman, The Sicilian Vespers (1958). Good general ac- counts are in The Cambridge Medieval History planned by J. B. Bury, vol. 4 (1923; 2d ed., pt. 1, 1966), and George Ostrogorski, History of the Byzantine State (trans. 1956; rev. ed. 1969). Ⅺ Michelangelo Buonarroti Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) was the great- est sculptor of the Italian Renaissance and one of its greatest painters and architects. M ichelangelo Buonarroti was born on March 6, 1475, in Caprese, a village where his father was briefly serving as a Florentine government agent. The family, of higher rank than most from which artists came in Florence, had been bankers, but Michelangelo’s grandfather had failed, and his father, too genteel for trade, lived on the income from his land and a few official appoint- ments. Michelangelo’s mother died when he was 6. After grammar school, Michelangelo was apprenticed at the age of 13 to Domenico Ghirlandaio, the most fashion- able painter in Florence. That this should have happened is surprising, and no satisfactory explanation has been pro- posed. Michelangelo’s implication in his old age that he had to overcome his family’s opposition is likely to be mythical in part. In any case, after a year his apprenticeship was broken off, and an even odder arrangement followed: the boy was given access to the collection of ancient Roman sculpture of the ruler of Florence, Lorenzo de’ Medici, dined with the family, and was looked after by the retired sculptor who was in charge of the collection. This arrangement was quite unprecedented at the time. Michelangelo’s earliest sculpture, a stone relief exe- cuted when he was about 17, in its composition echoes the Roman sarcophagi of the Medici collection and in its sub- ject, the Battle of the Centaurs, a Latin poem a court poet read to him. Compared to the sarcophagi, Michelangelo’s work is remarkable for the simple, solid forms and squarish proportions of the figures, which add intensity to their vio- lent interaction. Soon after Lorenzo died in 1492, the Medici fell from power and Michelangelo fled the city. In Bologna in 1494 he obtained a small but distinguished commission to carve the three saints needed to complete the elaborate tomb of St. Dominic in the church of S. Domenico. They too show dense forms, which contrast with the linear forms, either decorative or realistic, then dominant in sculpture, but are congruent with the work of Nicola Pisano, who had begun the tomb about 1265. On returning home Michelangelo found Florence dominated by the famous ascetic monk Savonarola. Michelangelo was in contact with the junior branch of the Medici family, and he carved a Cupid (lost) which he took to Rome to sell, palming it off as an ancient work. Rome, 1496-1501 In Rome, Michelangelo next executed a Bacchus for the garden of ancient sculpture of a banker. This, Michelan- gelo’s earliest surviving large-scale work, shows the god teetering, either drunk or dancing. It is his only sculpture meant to be viewed from all sides; all the others, generally set in front of walls, possess to some extent the visual character of reliefs. In 1498, through the same banker, came Michelan- gelo’s first important commission: the Pieta` now in St. Pe- ter’s. The term pieta` refers to a type of image in which Mary supports the dead Christ across her knees; Michelangelo’s version is today the most famous one. In both the Pieta` and the Bacchus the effects of hard polished marble and of curved yielding flesh coexist. Over life size, the Pieta` has mutually reinforcing contrasts: vertical and horizontal, cloth and skin, allude to the living and the dead, female and male, MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 2 but the unity of the pyramidal composition is strongly im- posed. Florence, 1501-1505 On his return to Florence in 1501 Michelangelo was recognized as the most talented sculptor of central Italy, but his work was still in the early Renaissance tradition, as is the marble David, commissioned in 1501 for Florence Cathe- dral but when finished, in 1504, more suitably installed in front of the Palazzo Vecchio. (The original is now in the Accademia; the statue at the original site is a copy.) It shares the clear and strong but bland presence of the Pieta` . Before he finished the David, Michelangelo’s style had begun to change, as indicated by his drawing of a very different bronze David (lost) and by other works, particularly the Battle of Cascina . All these works resulted from the city fathers’ desire to revive monumental public art, characteris- tic of the period before the Medici early in the 15th century. The new Council Hall of the Palazzo Vecchio was to have patriotic murals that would also show the special skills of Florence’s leading artists: Leonardo da Vinci and Michelan- gelo. Michelangelo’s Battle of Cascina was commissioned in 1504; several sketches and a copy of the cartoon exist. The central scene shows a group of muscular nudes, soldiers climbing from a river where they had been swimming, to answer a military alarm. Inevitably Michelangelo felt the influence of Leonardo and his evocation of continuous flowing motion through living forms. Michelangelo’s great- ness lay partly in his ability to absorb Leonardo’s innova- tions and yet not reduce the heavy solidity and impressive dignity of his earlier work. This fusion of throbbing life with colossal grandeur henceforth was the special quality of Michelangelo’s art. From then on too Michelangelo’s work consisted mainly of very large projects that he never finished because of his inability to turn down the vast commissions of his great clients which appealed to his preference for the grand scale. Of the 12 Apostles he was to execute for Florence Cathedral, he began only the St. Matthew; this was the first monumental sculpture suggesting a Leonardesque agitation. Tomb of Julius II The project of the Apostles was put aside when Pope Julius II called Michelangelo to Rome in 1505 to design his tomb, which was to include about 40 life-size statues. This project occupied Michelangelo off and on for the next 40 years. Of it he wrote, ‘‘I find I have lost all my youth bound to this tomb.’’ In 1506 a dispute over funds for the tomb led Michelangelo, who had spent almost a year at the quarries in Carrara, to flee to Florence. A reconciliation between Julius II and Michelangelo took place in Bologna, which the Pope had just conquered, and Michelangelo modeled a colossal bronze statue of Julius for S. Petronio in Bologna, which he completed in 1508 (destroyed). Sistine Chapel In 1508 Julius commissioned Michelangelo to decorate the ceiling of the chief Vatican chapel, the Sistine. This work was relatively modest at first, and Michelangelo felt he was being pushed aside by rival claimants on funds. But he soon was able to alter the traditional format of ceiling painting, whereby only single figures could be represented, not scenes calling for dramas in space; his introduction of dra- matic scenes was so successful that it set the standard for the future. The elaborate program with hundreds of figures was arranged in an original framing system that was Michelan- gelo’s earliest architectonic design. He approached the ceil- ing as a surface on which to attach planes built up in various degrees of projection, like a relief sculpture except that its basic units are blocks rather than malleable forms. The many planes and painted architectural framework make the many categories of images so easily readable that the fram- ing system tends to pass unnoticed, but its rich, heavy ornament is typical of the High Renaissance. The chief figural elements of the program are the 12 male and female prophets (the latter known as sibyls) and the nine stories from Genesis. Michelangelo began painting at the end of the story, with the three Noah scenes and the adjacent prophets and sibyls, and in 4 years worked through the three Adam stories to the three Creation stories at the other end of the ceiling. Michelangelo paused for some months halfway along, and when he returned to the ceiling, he made the prophets more monumental (in keeping with the fewer and hence bigger figures in the nearby Creation scenes). At that point his style also underwent a shift. He had begun with a manner reverting to his sculptural style in the Pieta` and David, as if he was uncertain when facing the unfamiliar task of painting on such a scale. The first prophets are harmonious but static, as is the Flood scene. But soon there develops a forceful grandeur, with a richer emotional ten- sion than in any previous work. This is well illustrated in the Ezekiel, whose massive torso seems to be in tension with the centrifugally twisted head and legs. The prophet peers ques- tioningly into the unknown. After the pause, Michelangelo began the second half of the ceiling with a newly acquired subtlety of expression, as in the Creation of Adam . The images become freer and more mobile in the last parts painted, such as the Separation of Light and Darkness, but the mood remains introspective. As soon as the ceiling was completed in 1512, Michel- angelo returned to the tomb of Julius and carved for it (1513- 1514) the Moses (S. Pietro in Vincoli, Rome) and two Slaves (Louvre, Paris), using the same types he employed for the prophets and their attendants painted in the Sistine ceiling. The Moses seems to represent a final synthesis of all those variants, although it is more restrained owing to the sculp- tural medium. It was meant to be placed above eye level, and some of its dramatic force would probably have been mitigated when seen from the intended distance. Julius’s death in 1513 halted the work on his tomb. From now on the successive popes determined Michel- angelo’s activity, as they were all anxious to have work by the recognized greatest maker of monuments for them- selves, their families, and the Church. Pope Leo X, son of Lorenzo de’ Medici, proposed a marble facade for the fam- Volume 11 MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI 3 ily parish church of S. Lorenzo in Florence, to be decorated with statues by Michelangelo, but his project was canceled after four years of quarrying and designing. Medici Chapel In 1520 Michelangelo was commissioned to execute a tomb chapel for two young Medici dukes. The Medici Chapel (1520-1534), an annex to S. Lorenzo, is the most nearly complete large sculptural project of Michelangelo’s career. The two tombs, each with an image of the deceased and two allegorical figures, are placed against elaborately articulated walls; these six statues and a seventh on a third wall, the Madonna, are by Michelangelo’s own hand. The two saints flanking the Madonna are by assistants from his clay sketches. Four river gods were planned but not exe- cuted. The interior architecture of the Medici Chapel develops the treatment seen in the painted architectural framework of the Sistine ceiling; the walls are treated as relief sculptures, with intersecting moldings and pillars on many planes, giv- ing a loose freedom typical of a non-professional approach to architecture. Whimsical reversals of what is proper— trapezoidal windows and capitals smaller than their col- umns—introduce what is now called mannerism in archi- tecture. The allegories on the curved lids of the tombs are also innovative: Day and Night recline on one tomb, Morning and Evening on the other. The choice of imagery was left to the artist, and these figures seem to symbolize the endless round of time leading to death. Michelangelo said that the death of the dukes cut off the light of the times of day, and such courtly adulation, which is hard to accept as Michelangelesque, is also suggested in the dukes’ fancy costumes and idealized representations. Political absolut- ism was growing at the time, and Michelangelo’s statues were often used as precedents in formulating new types of royal portraiture. A similar style is seen in the sinuous Vic- tory overcoming a tough old warrior. This statue, Michelan- gelo’s last serious contribution to the tomb of Julius, also embodied the artist’s interest in Neoplatonism, a philoso- phy that urged man to rise above his body into the spiritual plane. The architecture of the Medici Chapel has a fuller ana- log in the library, the Biblioteca Laurenziana, built at the same time on the opposite side of S. Lorenzo to house Leo X’s books. The reading room has functional suggestions in its window and pillar system and refined ornament on floor and ceiling. But the entrance hall and staircase are Michel- angelo’s most astonishing illustration of capricious paradox, with recessed columns resting on scroll brackets set halfway up the wall and corners stretched open rather than sealed. His Poetry Most of Michelangelo’s 300 surviving poems were written in the 1530s and 1540s and fall into two groups. The earlier poems are on the theme of Neoplatonic love and are full of logical contradictions and conceits, often very in- tricate. They belong to an international trend best known in the work of Luis de Go´ngora and John Donne and make an interesting parallel to mannerist architecture. The later po- ems are Christian; their mood is penitent; and they are written in a simple, direct style. These match a phase of Michelangelo’s plastic art that slightly precedes them. ‘‘Last Judgment’’ In 1534 Michelangelo left Florence for the last time, settling in Rome. The next 10 years were mainly given over to painting for Pope Paul III, who is best known for con- vening the Council of Trent and thus organizing the Catho- lic Reformation. The first project Michelangelo executed for Paul III is the huge Last Judgment (1536-1541) on the end wall of the Sistine Chapel. It revives a medieval approach to the same theme in using an entire end wall in an undivided field and in the composition of the parts. The design functions like a pair of scales, with some angels pushing the damned down to hell on one side and some pulling up the saved on the other side, both directed by Christ, who ‘‘conducts’’ with both arms; in the two top corners are the cross and other symbols of the Passion, which serve as his credentials to be judge. The flow of movement in the Last Judgment is greater than in the medieval tradition, with the two streams of figures tending to shear against each other, but it is slower compared to Michelangelo’s own earlier work. The colors, blue and brown, are simple, as are the bodies. The figure type is new, with thick, waistless torsos and loosely con- nected limbs. The new sobriety seems to parallel the ideas of the Counter Reformation, with whose leaders Michelan- gelo had intimate contact through his admired mentor, the devout widow Vittoria Colonna, the addressee of many of his poems. Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Pauline Chapel in the Vatican (1541-1545) are similar to the Last Judgment, but here he added a remarkable technical novelty by exploring perspective movement and coloristic subtlety as major ex- pressive components. He may have turned to these typically painterly concerns because the Pauline frescoes were the first ones he executed on a normal scale and eye level. The only sculpture of these years, the Rachel and the Leah, executed so that a small amended version of the tomb of Julius could at last be erected, are so neat and unemphatic that they are often disregarded or not accepted as Michelan- gelo’s work. Works after 1545 Michelangelo devoted himself almost entirely to archi- tecture and poetry after 1545. For Paul III he planned the rebuilding of the Capitol area, the Piazza del Campidoglio, a pioneering scheme of city planning that gave monumental articulation to an area traditionally used for civic ceremo- nies. The geometry is dynamic, marked by a trapezoidal plan (determined by the site) formed by three buildings and an oval pavement; the airy breadth of the piazza produces a relatively gentle effect of a special theatrical locus. The chief emphasis is on the facades of the two new side buildings, executed to Michelangelo’s plans after his death. Two-story pilasters mark the front plane, unifying the open porch on MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 4 the lower story and the closed upper one, thus mingling suggestions of compressed power and clear skeletal con- struction. Michelangelo’s approach to architecture was growing richer and more three-dimensional, as in the Palazzo Farnese, which he completed after the death of Antonio da Sangallo the Younger in 1546. In Michelangelo’s third story of the courtyard, a second row of wide pilasters set behind the front level of narrow ones causes the wall of which they are all part to suggest a wavy continuum. Paul III appointed Michelangelo to take over the direc- tion of the work at St. Peter’s after Sangallo died. Here Michelangelo had less respect for his predecessor’s plan, returning instead to the concepts that the first architect, Donato Bramante, had proposed in 1506. The enormous church was to be an equal-armed cross in plan, concen- trated on a huge central space beneath the dome sur- rounded by a series of secondary spaces and their containing structures. The edge thus became a complex outline of changing convex curves, and from that Michelan- gelo built the wall straight up, producing a very active rhythm, all on such a monumental scale that we can never see more than a fragment at one time. Its surface alternates colossal pilasters with stacks of three vertical windows com- pressed between them, providing a measure of the vast scale and also binding the wall into vertical unity. By the time Michelangelo died, a considerable part of St. Peter’s had been built in the form in which we know it, and the drum of the dome was finished up to the springing. The essentially three-dimensional concept of St. Pe- ter’s, inherently architectonic and original, gave way in Michelangelo’s last years to a gleaming, almost dematerialized approach to the wall, suggested in the plans (ca. 1559) for the unexecuted church of S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini and a city gate, the Porta Pia (begun 1561). Michelangelo’s sculpture after 1545 was limited to two Pieta`s that he executed for himself. The first one (1550- 1555, unfinished), which is in the Cathedral of Florence, was meant for his own tomb. This Pieta` employs the body type of the Last Judgment in the Christ and its shearing up and down thrusts in the interrelationships of the figures. His late architectural style has a parallel in his last sculpture, the Rondanini Pieta` in Milan, which is cut away to an almost abstract set of curves. Michelangelo began this sculpture in 1555, and he was working on it on Feb. 12, 1564. He died six days later in Rome and was buried in Florence. Michelangelo’s impact on the younger artists who en- countered his successive styles throughout his long life was immense, but it tended to be crushing. The great baroque artists of the next century, such as Peter Paul Rubens and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, were better able at a distance to study his ideas without danger to their artistic autonomy. Further Reading The Complete Poems and Selected Letters of Michelangelo was translated by Creighton Gilbert and edited by Robert N. Linscott (1963). Charles de Tolnay, Michelangelo (5 vols., 1938-1960), is opinionated but indispensable; and Frederick Hartt’s Michelangelo (1965), Michelangelo: The Complete Sculpture (1969), and Michelangelo Drawings (1970) are also strongly personal but more current. Both deal only with the painting, sculpture, and drawings. James S. Ackerman, The Architecture of Michelangelo (2 vols., 1961), is outstanding for this aspect of his work. Ludwig Goldscheider, Michelan- gelo: Paintings, Sculptures, Architecture (4th ed. 1963), pro- vides a reasonably complete set of good illustrations. Creighton Gilbert, Michelangelo (1967), is the most succinct survey. Still valid for biography is John Addington Symonds, The Life of Michelangelo (1893); many reprints). Ⅺ Jules Michelet The French historian Jules Michelet (1798-1874) wrote the ‘‘Histoire de France’’ and ‘‘Histoire de la Re´volution franc¸aise,’’ which established him as one of France’s greatest 19th-century historians. J ules Michelet was born on Aug. 21, 1798, in Paris. His father was a printer by trade, and his mother’s family was from peasant stock. The family was poor, especially after Napoleon ordered the closing of his father’s press. This family background prompted Michelet’s initial sympathy with the French Revolution. In 1822 Michelet began his long and devoted career as a teacher, becoming professor of history and philosophy at the E ´ cole Normale Supe´rieure in 1827. In one of his earliest works, a translation of Giovanni Battista Vico’s Scienza nuova, Michelet introduced such ideas as the importance of myth and language in historical understanding and the abil- ity of man to forge his own history. His first volumes of French history treated the Middle Ages; already he revealed a passionate adherence to the role of the common people in history. When Michelet joined the faculty at the Colle`ge de France in 1838, his writing became more liberal and more oriented toward contemporary issues. Collaboration with a colleague, Edgar Quinet, on a book against the Jesuits raised the Church’s suspicions. In addition, Michelet was waking up to the esclavage (slavery) of classes in an industrial soci- ety, a concern he expressed in his moving book Le Peuple (1846). Thus Michelet and other writers of the period, en- couraged by the revolutionary spirit growing since 1830, were attracted to the French Revolution. Michelet’s seven- volume Histoire de la Re´volution franc¸aise illustrates his famous concept of history as a resurrection of the past in its spontaneous entirety. Although in this immense achieve- ment the portraits of certain revolutionaries are masterfully drawn, Michelet is more sympathetic when narrating crowd scenes, for example, the fall of the Bastille. The failure of the 1848 revolutions, Louis Napoleon’s coup d’etat of 1851, and the proclamation of the Second Empire in 1852 profoundly disturbed Michelet. Although he was not exiled, he spent the following year in Italy. Worn by arduous work and depressing historical events, Michelet discovered new life in his second marriage with 20-year-old Atanaı¨s Mialaret. Inspired by her love of Volume 11 MICHELET 5 nature, he wrote four poetical studies: The Bird (1856), The Insect (1857), The Sea (1861), and The Mountain (1867). These fecund later years saw two other outstanding books: one on the medieval witch ( La Sorcie`re, 1862) and the other on world religions, including an attack on Christianity ( La Bible de l’humanite´, 1864). Michelet finally completed his history of France in 1867. Working continuously, he had written three volumes on 19th-century France up to the time of his death on Feb. 9, 1874, when he suffered a heart attack at Hye`res. Further Reading A study of Michelet’s thought is Ann Reese Pugh, Michelet and His Ideas on Social Reform (1923). An excellent profile and analysis appears in Pieter Geyl, Debates with Historians (1955; rev. ed. 1958). Michelet is also considered at length in George Peabody Gooch, History and Historians in the Nine- teenth Century (1913; 2d ed. 1952; with new preface, 1959). See also Fritz Stern, ed., The Varieties of History (1956). Additional Sources Haac, Oscar A., Jules Michelet, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1982. Kippur, Stephen A., Jules Michelet, a study of mind and sensibil- ity, Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1981. Orr, Linda, Jules Michelet: nature, history, and language, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1976. Williams, John R. (John Raymond), Jules Michelet: historian as critic of French literature, Birmingham, Ala.: Summa Publica- tions, 1987. Ⅺ Michelozzo The Italian architect and sculptor Michelozzo (ca. 1396-1472) designed the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi in Florence, which set the standard for Renaissance palace architecture in Tuscany for the next century. B orn in Florence, Michelozzo, also known as Michelozzo Michelozzi, served from about 1417 to 1424 as assistant to the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti. In 1425 Michelozzo became the partner of the sculptor Do- natello and designed the architectural elements for the tombs of the antipope John XXIII (1425-1427) in the Baptis- tery of Florence and Cardinal Brancacci (1427-1428) in Naples and for the outdoor pulpit (1433-1438) of the Cathe- dral at Prato. With his commission to rebuild the monastic church of St. Francesco in Mugello, called Bosco ai Frati (ca. 1427), Michelozzo became the architect of Cosimo de´ Medici, for whom he worked for at least 30 years. Several of the Medici villas near Florence, beginning with the Castello di Trebbio (ca. 1427-1436) and including buildings at Cafaggiolo (ca. 1451) and Careggi (ca. 1457), were converted by Michelozzo from fortified country houses. The Medici villa he designed at Fiesole (1458-1461) lacks any aspect of fortification and in its openness and elegance is a modest forerunner of a type of architecture important in Renais- sance Italy. Michelozzo accompanied Cosimo during his exile in Venice from 1433 to 1434 and on his return rebuilt Cosimo’s favorite retreat, the monastery of St. Marco in Florence (1436-1443) with its impressive library. Michelozzo’s most important building is the Palazzo Me- dici-Riccardi in Florence (1444-1464). The massive, block– like residence, lengthened in the 17th century, has three stories of graded rustication, from the heavy, rough stone of the ground floor to smooth ashlar above capped by a large cornice. The interior court with a ground-floor arcade on Composite columns recalls the architecture of the great, contemporary architect Filippo Brunelleschi. In 1466 Michelozzo succeeded Brunelleschi as capomastro of the Cathedral of Florence and completed the details, including the lantern of the great dome. The church of St. Maria delle Grazie in Pistoia, for which Michelozzo furnished the design (from 1452), although it was completed by others with changes, reveals the influence of Brunel- leschi in its square tribune with a saucer dome flanked by barrel-vaulted arms. However, the pendentives of the dome supported only by freestanding columns create an open spaciousness more suggestive of later-15th-century archi- tecture. In 1462 Michelozzo was in Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia) as engineer for the city walls, and in 1464 he prepared a design for rebuilding the Palazzo dei Rettori there, but the work was carried out with no reference to his style. He died in Florence and was buried in St. Marco on Oct. 7, 1472. MICHELOZZO ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 6 [...]... DDLETON ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Further Reading A good account of the major work of Michelson’s life is in Bernard Jaffe, Michelson and the Speed of Light (1960) There is a useful biographical memoir of Michelson by Robert A Millikan in National Academy of Sciences, Biographical Memoirs, vol 19 (1938), and another profile of his life and work is in Royal Society of London, Obituary Notices of Fellows... from the war a major general of volunteers and recipient of the Medal of Honor He married Mary Hoyt Sherman in 1868 (a niece of Gen William T Sherman and of Senator John Sherman of Ohio) Family influence brought him a colonelcy in the Army and command of the 40th Infantry Regiment ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY After the Civil War, Miles served extensively in the Indian wars of the American West In 1875... Thus, as principal liberal critic of the war, Miliukov was invited to become minister of MILK Volume 11 foreign affairs of the new provisional government, which the Duma took responsibility for organizing A rush of events during the spring and summer of 1917 proved the inadequacy of Miliukov’s analysis, not only of the motivation for the Revolution but also of the relevance of the entire liberal position... wrote his autobiography twice: Personal Recollections Volume 11 MILHAUD and Observations of General Nelson A Miles (1896) and Serving the Republic: Memoirs of the Civil and Military Life of Nelson A Miles (1 911) Virginia W Johnson, The Unregimented General: A Biography of Nelson A Miles (1962), is sympathetic if uncritical, while Newton F Tolman, The Search for General Miles (1968), is of minor value... appointed to the Case School of Applied Science at Cleveland, Ohio, as professor of physics In 1889 he moved to Clark University as professor of physics, and in 1892 he was invited to head the department of physics at the new University of Chicago, a position which he held until 1931 With few exceptions, all of Michelson’s work bore directly on problems involved in the study of light; he was thus specialized... success His next work, The Creation of the World and Other Business, was a series of comic sketches first produced on Broadway in 1972 It closed after only twenty performances All of Miller’s subsequent works premiered outside of New York Miller staged the musical Up From Paradise (1974, an adaptation of his Creation of the World) , at his alma mater, the University of Michigan Another play, The Archbishop’s... end of his life Michelson’s contributions were numerous He developed, as a by-product of his interference experiments, the first spectroscope having sufficiently high resolution to disclose direct optical evidence of molecular motion; gave the scientific world a new fundamental standard of length when he calibrated the international meter in terms of wavelengths of cadmium; and, using a variation of. .. Robie house and Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye Further Reading A selection of drawings by Mies van der Rohe from the collection of the Museum of Modern Art is in Ludwig Mies van der Rohe: Drawings (1969) Biographies include Philip C Johnson, Mies van der Rohe (1947; rev ed 1953); Ludwig Hilberseimer, 11 12 MI FEI ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Mies van der Rohe (1956); and Arthur Drexler, Ludwig Mies van... (1051 -110 7) created the ‘‘Mi style’’ of ink-wash landscape painting He was one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Sung dynasty and among the most influential art critics in Chinese history M i Fei, also called Mi Fu, was born in Hsiangyang, Hupei Province He was known as a man of Wu, that is, the south-central region of China called Chiang-nan, ‘‘South of the (Yangtze) River.’’ During the reign of. .. wearing a suit and short hair Although he gained the support of ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY several important labor unions, he lost again, this time placing seventh, just behind the six incumbents In recognition of Milk’s growing power base, however, newly-elected Mayor George Moscone appointed Milk to the Board of Permit Appeals, his first public office After just a few weeks, however, Milk announced . classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 11 9/10/02 6:29 PM Page iv 11 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World Biography FM 11 9/10/02. 11 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 11 Michael Orleans Staff Senior Editor: Paula K. Byers Project. (Set) ISBN 0-7876-2551-5 (Volume 11) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of world biography / [edited by Suzanne