ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 12 pptx

12 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 12 Orozco Radisson Staff Senior Editor: Paula K. Byers Project Editor: Suzanne M. Bourgoin Managing Editor: Neil E. Walker Editorial Staff: Luann Brennan, Frank V. Castronova, Laura S. Hightower, Karen E. Lemerand, Stacy A. McConnell, Jennifer Mossman, Maria L. Munoz, Katherine H. Nemeh, Terrie M. Rooney, Geri Speace Permissions Manager: Susan M. Tosky Production Director: Mary Beth Trimper Permissions Specialist: Maria L. Franklin Production Manager: Evi Seoud Permissions Associate: Michele M. Lonoconus Production Associate: Shanna Heilveil Image Cataloger: Mary K. Grimes Product Design Manager: Cynthia Baldwin Senior Art Director: Mary Claire Krzewinski Research Manager: Victoria B. Cariappa Research Specialists: Michele P. LaMeau, Andrew Guy Malonis, Barbara McNeil, Gary J. Oudersluys Research Associates: Julia C. Daniel, Tamara C. Nott, Norma Sawaya, Cheryl L. Warnock Research Assistant: Talitha A. Jean Graphic Services Supervisor: Barbara Yarrow Image Database Supervisor: Randy Bassett Imaging Specialist: Mike Lugosz Manager of Data Entry Services: Eleanor M. Allison Manager of Technology Support Services: Theresa A. Rocklin Data Entry Coordinator: Kenneth D. Benson Programmers/Analysts: Mira Bossowska, Jeffrey Muhr, Christopher Ward Copyright © 1998 Gale Research 835 Penobscot Bldg. Detroit, MI 48226-4094 ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (Set) ISBN 0-7876-2552-3 (Volume 12) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of world biography / [edited by Suzanne Michele Bourgoin and Paula Kay Byers]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: Presents brief biographical sketches which provide vital statistics as well as information on the importance of the person listed. ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (set : alk. paper) 1. Biography—Dictionaries—Juvenile literature. [1. Biography.] I. Bourgoin, Suzanne Michele, 1968- . II. Byers, Paula K. (Paula Kay), 1954- . CT 103.E56 1997 920’ .003—dc21 97-42327 CIP AC While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research Inc. does not guar- antee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions. a This book is printed on acid-free paper that meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences— Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair compe- tition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 12 9/10/02 6:29 PM Page iv 12 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World Biography FM 12 9/10/02 6:29 PM Page v Jose´ Clemente Orozco The Mexican painter Jose´ Clemente Orozco (1883- 1949) was one of the artists responsible for the renaissance of mural painting in Mexico in the 1920s. J ose´ Clemente Orozco was born on Nov. 23, 1883, in Zapotla´n el Grande (now Ciudad Guzma´n) in the state of Jalisco. In Mexico City he studied at the School of Agri- culture (1897-1899), the National Preparatory School (1899-1908), and the National School of Fine Arts (1908- 1914). He exhibited some of his drawings in the Centennial Exposition in 1910 and had his first one-man show in 1916. He visited the United States in 1917-1918. In 1922 Orozco initiated his mural work. His first mu- rals at the National Preparatory School (1923-1924) are derivative and stiff, but with the work he executed there on the patio walls and staircase vaulting (1926-1927) he began to develop his own style. During this period he also exe- cuted the mural Omniscience (1925) in the House of Tiles (now Sanborn’s Restaurant) and Social Revolution (1926) in the Industrial School in Orizaba. His first period as a mu- ralist culminated in the magnificent Prometheus (1930) at Pomona College, Claremont, Calif. In 1931 Orozco did the murals for the New School for Social Research in New York City, and, following a brief trip to Europe in 1932, he painted the frescoes for the Baker Library at Dartmouth College in Hanover, N.H. (1932- 1934). There he initiated a new manner of expression, em- ploying brilliant coloring and original forms and ideas. The theme is America, with its Indian and Spanish past, its present filled with wars and atrocities, in which Christ appears destroying everything, even his own cross. On his return to Mexico City, Orozco painted the mural Catharsis in the Palace of Fine Arts (1934). He then executed a series of masterpieces at Guadalajara in the auditorium of the university (1936), the Government Palace (1937), and the Hospicio Caban˜as (1938-1939). In 1940 he created new forms in the murals of the Gabino Ortiz Library in Jiquilpan, Michoaca´n, using themes from the Revolution, and in the six movable panels entitled Dive Bomber in the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. Orozco’s mural (1941) in the Supreme Court Building in Mexico City depicts the moral power of justice. His unfinished works in the Hospital de Jesu´s Nazareno (1942- 1944) in Mexico City are unrivaled in their emotional inten- sity. He also did the mural National Allegory for the open- air theater of the National School for Teachers (1948) and Jua´ rez Resuscitated for the Museum of History at Chapultepec. His last complete work was the frescoes in the dome of the Legislative Chamber of the Government Palace in Guadalajara (1949). Orozco was one of the founders of the National Col- lege in 1943, and there he presented six exhibitions be- tween 1943 and 1948. In 1946 he was awarded the National Prize in the Arts and Sciences, and that same year a great retrospective exhibition of his works was presented in the Palace of Fine Arts. He died in Mexico City on Sept. 7, 1949. Further Reading Orozco’s own account is his An Autobiography, translated by Robert C. Stephenson (1962). A study of Orozco is MacKinley Helm, Man of Fire, J. C. Orozco: An Interpretive Memoir (1953). See also Alma Reed, The Mexican Muralists (1960), O 1 and Jon H. Hopkins, Orozco: A Catalogue of His Graphic Work (1967). Additional Sources Hurlburt, Laurance P. The Mexican muralists in the United States, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989. Rochfort, Desmond. Mexican muralists: Orozco, Rivera, Siqueiros, London: Laurence King, 1993. Ⅺ Bobby Orr One of hockey’s greats, Bobby Orr (born 1948) was the Boston Bruins’ star player in the late 1960s to mid-1970s. He added to the position of defenseman the responsibility of offensive play as well. A lthough he played for only nine full seasons (1966- 1975) in the National Hockey League, and his name isn’t found near the top of the list of all time high scorers, Bobby Orr of the Boston Bruins is widely regarded as one of the greatest hockey players of all time. ‘‘The great ones all bear a mark of originality, but Bobby Orr’s mark on hockey, too brief in the etching, may have been the most distinctive of any player’s He changed the sport by redefining the parameters of his position. A defenseman, as interpreted by Orr, became both a defender and an aggressor, both a protector and a producer,’’ wrote E.M. Swift in Sports Illustrated. Robert Gordon Orr was born in 1948 in Parry Sound, Ontario, a resort town on Lake Huron’s Georgian Bay. Orr’s father, Douglas, was a packer of dynamite at a munitions factory. His mother, Arva, worked as a waitress at a motel restaurant. The family included four other children, Ron, Patricia, Douglas, Jr., and Penny. Like most youngsters in Parry Sound, Orr began skating soon after he had learned to walk. Since, as Orr told People, ‘‘You don’t skate without a stick in your hand,’’ he also began playing hockey at an early age. Orr’s extraordinary ability was evident from the start. By the time he was nine years old, he could hold his own in games with adults on his father’s amateur team. Shorter and thinner than most of his peers, the blonde, young blue-eyed Orr dazzled the coaches of Parry Sound’s bantam league team with his skill, speed, and tenacity, rather than brute strength (even in his prime years in the NHL Orr was a solid but unprepossessing 5 feet, 11 inches, and weighed 175 pounds). In 1960, at age twelve, he led his bantam team to the final round of the Ontario champion- ship. It was during this game that Orr began attracting the attention of professional hockey scouts. Several organiza- tions showed interest, but the Boston Bruins, then the NHL’s worst team, were most aggressive in pursuing Orr. To gain the boy’s favor, the Bruins donated money to the Parry Sound youth hockey program, and team representatives made regular visits to the Orr family home. This persistence paid off. In 1962, fourteen-year-old Bobby Orr signed a ORR ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 2 contract to play Junior A hockey for the Oshawa (Ontario) Generals, a Bruins farm team. In return, the Orr family received a small cash payment and a new coat of stucco for their house. At Oshawa, Orr’s living expenses were paid for and he received $10 a week in pocket money. Realizing that the deal was not to his son’s advantage, Douglas Orr re- tained the services of Alan Eagleson, a savvy young Toronto lawyer, to represent Bobby in future contract negotiations. ‘‘Sure I was homesick, and the family I lived with was tougher on me than my own folks,’’ Orr later told People about his four years of playing junior hockey in Oshawa. ‘‘It was the way you served your apprenticeship. If you were good, you knew you’d turn pro at 18.’’ Rookie of the Year Orr played so well in junior hockey that the Bruins would have promoted him to the NHL a year sooner, if not for a league rule against players under 18 years of age. When Orr joined the Bruins in 1966, he arrived as the most highly touted rookie in years. He was also the highest paid rookie in NHL history, rumored to be earning somewhere around $25,000 a year, when the average NHL salary was $17,000 a year and the league’s greatest star, the legendary Gordie Howe of the Detroit Red Wings, was earning about $50,000 annually. Showing the team spirit that would earn him the sincere affection and respect of his fellow-players, Orr urged his attorney Alan Eagleson to organize the NHL Players Association, which was instrumental in raising ev- eryone’s salary. By the end of his career, Orr was earning $500,000 per year, although this did not compare to the salaries earned by later players such as Wayne Gretzky. ‘‘People ask me if I’m upset when I see current players’ salaries,’’ Orr told the Boston Globe in 1995. ‘‘I’m not upset. What upsets me is knowing Player A makes big money and seeing him give you three good games out of ten.’’ Orr entered the NHL with such hype, it seemed impos- sible for him to live up to the reputation that preceded him. Often called ‘‘unbelievable,’’ Orr did not disappoint his fans. Although the Bruins again finished at the bottom of the then six-team NHL in the 1966-67 season, Orr won the Calder Trophy as Rookie of the Year. The following season the Bruins, enhanced by the acquisition of Phil Esposito, Ken Hodge, and Fred Stanfield from the Chicago Black Hawks, finished third in the Eastern Division of the ex- panded NHL and earned a place in the Stanley Cup playoffs. Orr won the Norris Trophy, awarded to the NHL’s outstand- ing defenseman (he would win the Norris Trophy for the next seven seasons). The once pitiful Bruins were now among the most competitive teams in the league. Stanley Cup Champions In the 1969-70 season, the Bruins won the Stanley Cup for the first time in 29 years, defeating the St. Louis Blues in four straight games in the playoff final. Orr secured the Cup for Boston by scoring a winning goal in an overtime period of the fourth game. In addition to the Norris Trophy, Orr won the Hart Trophy (for most valuable player in the NHL), the Ross Trophy (for Leading Scorer in the NHL), and the Smythe Trophy (for most valuable player in the playoffs). It was the first time a single player has one all four awards in one season. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the NHL was expanding rapidly into cities where hockey was not tradi- tionally popular. The unprecedented exploits of Bobby Orr sold tickets in these cities and enabled hockey to become a truly national sport in the United States. ‘‘Orr remains the pivot figure in the game, the single charismatic personality around whom the entire sport will coalesce in the decade of the ‘70s, as golf once coalesced around Arnold Palmer, baseball around Babe Ruth, football around John Unitas,’’ wrote Jack Olsen in the Sports Illustrated issue that named Orr the magazine’s ‘‘Sportsman of the Year’’ for 1970. The ‘‘Big, Bad Bruins’’ of the late 1960s and early 1970s, played a tough, messy game of hockey (as opposed to the elegantly classic moves of the Montreal Canadiens, the most frequent possessors of the Stanley Cup). Orr was remarkably polite and well-mannered off the ice but during a game he never shied away from a scrap. ‘‘We’re not dirty. It’s just that we’re always determined to get the job done— no matter what it takes,’’ Orr told Newsweek in 1969. An older and wiser Orr came to realize that brawling and belligerence set a bad example for children. In 1982, he made a short film called ‘‘First Goal’’ (sponsored by Na- bisco Brands for whom he was doing public relations) advis- ing young athletes, and their parents, that having fun is more important than winning. Announced Retirement at Age 30 After being eliminated by the Montreal Canadiens in the playoffs of the 1970-71 season, the Bruins came back to win the Stanley Cup again in 1971-72. Then the team’s fortunes quickly began to fade. At the end of the 1971-72 season several top players, including flamboyant center Derek Sanderson, were lured away to the newly founded World Hockey Association and a number of good second- string players were lost in a further expansion draft. Orr stayed on with the Bruins, but knee injuries, which had plagued him since the start of his professional career, were becoming increasingly serious. ‘‘When you are young, you think you can lick the world, that you are indestructible . . . But around 1974-75, I knew it had changed. I was playing, but I wasn’t playing like I could before. My knees were gone. They hurt before the game, in the game, after the game. Things that I did easily on the ice I could not do anymore,’’ Orr explained to Will McDonough of the Boston Globe. In 1976, a bitter contract dispute ended Orr’s long-time relationship with the Bruins. He signed as a free-agent with the Chicago Black Hawks but knee problems kept him off the ice for all but a handful of games over two seasons. In 1978, he reluctantly announced his retirement. Having left Boston under strained circumstances, Orr was unprepared for the reaction he received from Bruins fans when his number 4 sweater was retired to the rafters of the Boston Garden in 1979. The outpouring of affection left him speechless and on the brink of tears. Similar emotion ac- companied the closing ceremonies of the cavernous old Boston Garden in 1995, as Orr took one last skate on the Garden’s ice. Perhaps only Ted Williams, the great Boston Volume 12 ORR 3 Red Sox slugger of the 1940s and 1950s, is held in as high esteem by New England sports fans. Orr and his wife, Peggy, a former speech therapist, live in suburban Boston (with additional homes on Cape Cod and in Florida). They have two sons, Darren and Brent. Orr spends his time tending to a wide variety of business invest- ments and charitable endeavors. He has no interest in coaching and would like to return to professional hockey as a team owner. ‘‘It was good that I retired so young,’’ Orr told Joseph P. Kahn of the Boston Globe. ‘‘The adjustment pe- riod was difficult but at least I had things I could do. I have a great life now.’’ Further Reading Fischler, Stan, Hockey’s Greatest Teams, Henry Regnery Co., 1973. Dowling, Tom, ‘‘The Orr Effect,’’ in the Atlantic, April 1971, pp. 62-68. Boston Globe, May 13, 1990, pp. 43, 57; May 10, 1995, pp. 49, 59; July 13, 1995, pp. 53, 58. New Yorker, March 27, 1971, pp. 107-114. Newsweek, March 21, 1969, pp. 64, 67; February 15, 1982, p. 20. People, March 27, 1978, pp. 62-64. Sports Illustrated, December 21, 1970, pp. 36-42; October 19, 1971, pp. 28-35; August 5, 1985, pp. 60-64; September 19, 1994, pp. 125-26. Ⅺ John Boyd Orr The Scottish medical scientist John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron of Brechin (1880-1971), pioneered the sci- ence of human nutrition and developed new corre- lations between health, food, and poverty. He was the first director general of the Food and Agricul- tural Organization. B orn in Kilmaurs, Ayrshire, on Sept. 23, 1880, to a family of Covenanters, John Boyd Orr overcame the pressures of poverty in his youth by relentless work and the pursuit of greatly varied intellectual aspirations, mainly at Glasgow University. After taking his master’s de- gree in preparation for the ministry, he turned first to science and medicine, finishing a medical degree with the prix d’honneur of the medical faculty, and then to research in metabolic diseases, for which he earned a doctoral degree. Orr’s major moral and scientific concern, deepened by close observations of life in Glasgow’s slums, was the medi- cal meaning of poverty and ignorance, notably in respect to malnutrition and preventable diseases among schoolchil- dren in the working population. Convinced of the need for modern research facilities in nutrition, he was instrumental, between 1906 and 1914, in establishing the Rowett Insti- tute. World War I drew him into service as a frontline doctor with the army and the navy. He earned renown for develop- ing a diet that greatly reduced the incidence of disease in his battalion. After the war he resumed the directorate of the Rowett Institute and extended its researches to agricultural and dietary problems in the colonies and dominions, parts of continental Europe, and the Jewish settlements of Pales- tine. In 1931 Orr floated the journal Nutrition Abstracts and Views . He published numerous works, among them the report The Effect of the Wasted Pastures in Kikuyu and Masai Territories upon Native Herds, which is a classic in nutritional literature, and Minerals in Pastures and Their Relation to Animal Nutrition (1928). His pathbreaking sur- vey Food, Health and Income (1936) defines the physiologi- cal ideal as a state of well-being requiring no improvement by a change of diet, finds that a diet completely adequate for health was reached in the United Kingdom in 1933-1934 at an income level above that of 50 percent of the population, and argues for the need of reconciling the interests of agri- culture and public health. For these achievements Orr was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1932 and knighted in 1935 for his services to agriculture. Orr’s chief objectives during World War II were the prevention of food shortages in the military and civilian sectors of the nation; the development of world food poli- cies capable of banning the specter of a postwar famine; and the planning of a supranational agency in the context of which food would be removed from international politics and trade by being treated differently from other goods. These aims dominated his term of office (1945-1948) as director general of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Thus he was instrumental in present- ing, for the first time in history, a precise appraisal of the ORR ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 4 world food situation and in inducing governments to coop- erate in the International Emergency Food Council and re- lated common enterprises. After resigning from the Rowett Institute in 1945, Orr won a Parliament seat, representing the Scottish universi- ties, which he relinquished in 1947, and served at Glasgow University as rector in 1945 and as chancellor in 1946. In 1948 he received a peerage, in 1949 the Harben Medal from the Royal Institute of Public Health, and in 1949 the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his efforts to ensure peace by applying science to the removal of hunger and poverty. He died near Edzell, Scotland, on June 25, 1971. Further Reading Two books that deal with Orr’s life and work are Gove Hambidge, The Story of FAO (1955), and Orr’s own As I Recall (1966). Ⅺ Daniel Ortega Daniel Ortega (born 1945) joined the revolutionary Sandinista National Liberation Front (Frente Sand- inista de Liberacio´n National—FSLN) in 1963, helped lead its overthrow of the Somoza dynasty, and was elected president of Nicaragua on Novem- ber 4, 1984. D aniel Ortega Saavedra was born on November 11, 1945, in the mining and ranching town of La Libertad, Nicaragua, in the municipality of Chontales. He was the third son of Daniel Ortega Serda, an accountant for a mining firm. The family later moved to Managua, where his father owned a small export-import business. Ortega received his education in private and Catholic schools. He was an active Catholic during his youth, be- coming a catechist and giving Bible studies to those who lived in poor neighborhoods. His seriousness, intelligence, oratorical skills, and religious devotion suggested to many that he would become a priest. He made good grades, but his parents sent him to four different high schools—trying fruitlessly to keep him out of a growing student opposition movement in the late 1950s. Ortega studied law for one year at Managua’s Jesuit-run Central American University (c. 1961), but abandoned his formal education for revolu- tionary politics. Much of the Ortega family had revolutionary creden- tials. Father Daniel fought in A.C. Sandino’s 1927-1934 rebellion against U.S. occupation of Nicaragua, for which he served three months in prison. Daniel’s younger broth- ers, Humberto (born 1948) and Camilo (born 1950) also became Sandinista revolutionaries. Humberto, a top mili- tary strategist, eventually became minister of defense of the revolutionary government, beginning in 1979. Camilo died fighting in the insurrection (1978). Their mother, Lidia Saavedra, became active in the 1970s in protests and went to jail for these actions. Daniel Ortega’s wife was poetess Rosario Murillo; they had seven children. She worked with the FSLN after 1969 and was captured by the Somoza regime’s security forces in 1979. After the victory she be- came general secretary of the Sandinista Cultural Workers Association and in 1985 became an FSLN delegate in the National Assembly. Revolutionary Activity After the 1956 assassination of Anastasio Somoza Gar- cia, founder of the Somoza dynasty, Luis Somoza Debayle succeeded his father as president and Anastasio Somoza Debayle assumed command of the National Guard. They terrorized suspected opponents of the regime to avenge their father’s death. Repression kindled opposition, which surfaced after Fidel Castro overthrew the Batista regime in 1959. Ortega, still in high school in Managua in 1959, took part in a widespread student struggle against the Somoza regime. The protests of 1959 were organized by the Nicara- guan Patriotic Youth (Juventud Patrio´ tico Nicaragu¨ense— JPN), which Ortega joined in 1960. JPN members later took part in several guerrilla insurgent movements, but only the FSLN survived. In 1960 Ortega was captured and tortured for his role in the protests. Not deterred from his opposition to the Somoza dynasty, he helped establish the Nicaraguan Revolutionary Youth (Juventud Revolucionaria Nica- ragu¨ense—JRN), along with the FSLN’s Marxist founders Carlos Fonseca Amador and Toma´s Borge Martı´nez. In 1961 Ortega was again arrested and tortured by the regime. Volume 12 ORTEGA 5 But by 1962 he was again organizing JRN revolutionary cells in Managua’s poor barrios. In 1963 Ortega was recruited into the FSLN, a Marxist- Leninist vanguard revolutionary party committed to the armed overthrow of the Somozas. He helped organize the Federation of Secondary Students (Federacio´n de Estudiantes de Secundaria—FES) and was again arrested and tortured. In 1964 he was captured in Guatemala with other Sandinistas and deported to Nicaragua, again to be imprisoned and tortured. Free in 1965, he cofounded the newspaper El Estudiante (The Student), the official paper of the Revolutionary Student Front (Frente Estudiantil Revolu- cionario—FER), the university support wing of the FSLN. By 1965 he had earned sufficient respect from other top Sand- inistas that they named him to the FSLN’s Direccio´n Nacional (National Directorate), the organization’s top pol- icy council. In 1966-1967 Ortega headed the Internal Front, an urban underground that robbed several banks and in 1967 assassinated Gonzalo Lacayo, a reputed National Guard torturer. In November 1967 the security police captured Ortega, and he was given a lengthy sentence for the Lacayo killing. During his seven years in prison he and other Sand- inistas exercised, wrote poetry, studied, and continued po- litical activity—including resistance within the prison. During the seven years Ortega spent in jail the FSLN devel- oped and grew. In a December 1974 commando raid in Managua, the FSLN took hostage several top regime officials and Somoza kin. The hostages were freed in exchange for a $5 million ransom, publicity, and the freedom of many Sandinistas, including Ortega and Toma´s Borge. In 1974 President Anastasio Somoza Debayle declared a state of siege (1974-1977) and sharply increased repres- sion of opponents. Under fierce persecution and with many of its elements isolated, the FSLN began to develop different ‘‘tendencies’’ (factions) based on different political-military strategies. In 1975 Ortega rejoined the National Director- ate. The next year he resumed clandestine organizing in Managua and Masaya. He helped his brother Humberto and others shape the strategy of the Tercerista (Third Force) tendency of the FSLN. The Terceristas allied with the rapidly growing non-Marxist opposition, and their ranks swelled. Militarily much bolder than the other tendencies in 1977- 1978, the Terceristas helped spark a general popular insur- rection in September and October of 1978. Ortega helped form and lead the Terceristas’ northern front campaign in 1977, and in 1978-1979 helped lead the rapidly expanding southern front. The FSLN’s three tenden- cies reunited in early 1979 as popular rebellion spread. Daniel and Humberto Ortega became members of the new, joint National Directorate. During the final offensive in June 1979 Ortega was named to the junta of the rebel coalition’s National Reconstruction Government. On July 19 the Somoza regime collapsed and the junta took over the shat- tered nation. Role in Revolutionary Government Ortega served on the junta of the National Reconstruc- tion Government from 1979 until its dissolution in January 1985 and was the key liaison between the junta and the National Directorate, which set general policy guidelines for the revolution. In 1981 Ortega became coordinator of the junta, consolidating his leadership role. Within the Na- tional Directorate he became a leader of a pragmatic major- ity faction and emerged as the directorate’s and junta’s major international representative and domestic policy spokesman. When the FSLN had to choose a nominee for president for the November 4, 1984 election, the directorate selected Ortega. He won with 67 percent of the vote, com- peting against six other candidates. The National Directorate and the junta in 1979 adopted, and have since followed, two pragmatic policies that are unusual for a Marxist regime: the economy would be mixed—40 percent in the public sector, 60 percent private—and political parties other than the FSLN (except those linked to the Somozas) could take part in politics and hold cabinet posts. The FSLN quickly consolidated its politi- cal advantage in the revolutionary government, fusing itself with the new Sandinista popular army and police and add- ing new seats to the Council of State in a move denounced by opponents as a power grab. Ortega exercised no charismatic dominance of the Nicaraguan revolution, but gradually emerged as a first among equals within the top Sandinista leadership. A some- what gruff and intensely private person, he showed little threat of developing the charismatic mass following that other directorate members feared. Moreover, his ability to concentrate power remained limited by the control of key ministries by other members of the National Directorate. Ortega’s sometimes abrasive or confrontational public style at times caused friction for the revolutionary govern- ment, especially with the United States. Members of the U.S. Bipartisan Commission on Central America, for exam- ple, reported that Ortega’s comments during two 1983 meetings were rather hostile in tone. In contrast, his reli- gious background and longtime acquaintance with Miguel Obando y Bravo, Archbishop of Managua, made him a useful emissary to the Catholic Church hierarchy. But rela- tions with the Catholic Church grew increasingly strained as the Church became an outspoken critic of the Sandinistas in the early 1980s. As president of Nicaragua, Ortega established a mod- ern team of technical advisers; his cabinet included other top Sandinistas as well as non-Sandinistas. Ortega’s rise to the presidency was regarded by many as a commitment by the FSLN’s National Directorate to continue the pragmatism of 1979-1985, a sign also reflected in his moderate inaugu- ral speech. However, daunting problems faced the Ortega admin- istration and the FSLN’s National Directorate. Under their leadership Nicaragua expressed solidarity with other Cen- tral American rebel movements, built up its military with the help of Cuban advisers, purchased Soviet-bloc arms, in- creased trade and friendship with the Soviet Union, and sought to increase independence from the United States while remaining friendly with Western Europe and Latin America. U.S. disapproval, however, had severe conse- quences. The Reagan administration financed a revolt by ORTEGA ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 6 [...]... failure of the league in no way dims the brilliance of Otto’s religious and ethical vision nor the relevance of that vision to the way in which different religious groups confront the rational, moral, aesthetic, and religious chal- 31 32 OUD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY lenges of contemporary culture Otto was quite aware of the threat of Nazism and of other forms of brutalization and manipulation of. .. (Chronicle or History of the Two Cities), a history of the world in eight books covering events up to 1146 Otto of St Blaise later continued the history to events through 120 9 A moral history of the world, Otto’s chronicle depends upon St Augustine’s On the City of God and upon Aristotle’s philosophy and ranks as one of the most remarkable creations of the Middle Ages On the basis of material secured... independent state It is uncertain whether the minting of coins and the pronouncement of prayers to the house of Osman, the signs of independence, began in the last years of Osman’s rule or in the beginning of Orhan’s Still, by the time of his death, Osman had created a state independent of either Byzantine or Mongol control Recognizing the weakness of the Byzantine Empire, Osman had directed his efforts... story of Ortiz himself and the world he knows most and loves Ortiz is a writer of accomplishment who combines the often hurtful knowledge of reality with mythic wholeness In each of his travels, he incorporates his journey into his writings In 1970 he went in search of ‘‘Indians.’’ He concluded that Native Americans were not credited with any part of America’s history, other than the bare mention of the... 1983 Wagner, Frederick B., The twilight years of Lady Osler: letters of a doctor’s wife, Canton, MA: Science History Publications, U.S.A., 1985 Ⅺ Osman I Osman I (125 9-1326) was the leader of a tribe of conquering warriors, who formed an independent state out of which arose the great Ottoman Empire B orn in 125 9, Osman I entered a world desperately in need of a leader In Eastern Europe and the Middle... for his ‘‘Theatrum orbis terrarum,’’ one of the first major atlases He accelerated the movement away from Ptolemaic geographical conceptions ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY A braham Ortelius was born Abraham Ortels of German parents in Antwerp on April 14, 1527 He was trained as an engraver, worked as an illuminator of maps, and by 1554 was in the business of selling maps and antiquities This business... already fixed the date of independence as July 4, 1946 Osmena’s perseverance and quiet style of working did ˜ not appeal to Gen MacArthur or to Commissioner Paul V McNutt, both of whom supported Roxas in his bid for the presidency in the election of April 23, 1945 Roxas won over the weary and self-effacing Osmena, who refused to ˜ campaign for reelection 23 24 OTI S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Osmena’s... Osmena’s situation during the early days of the libera˜ tion demanded aggressive tactics and bold policies in order to solve the complicated questions of collaboration, of the domination of the government by feudal landlords, and of the moral rehabilitation of citizens who had been driven to cynicism and pragmatic individualism by the contingencies of war Osmena, in spite of his tenacity and astute skill in... unanswerable As a leader of the antiadministration party, he worked with the radicals after the Sugar Act and Stamp Act convinced him that the British Empire could not be maintained without some moderation of the old system of parliamentary domination 25 26 OTI S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY James Otis, Jr., was born on Feb 5, 1725, in West Barnstable, Mass., the eldest of 13 children His father... Although relationships between members of the Reformed Church and the Mennonites were far from cordial, after Boehm’s sermon Otterbein embraced him and exclaimed, ‘‘We are brethren!’’ 27 28 OTT O I ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Otterbein believed in the necessity of education He advocated the establishment of parochial schools and supported education for the members of the clergy He was pietistic, evangelistic, . classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 12 9/10/02 6:29 PM Page iv 12 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World Biography FM 12 9/10/02. 12 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 12 Orozco Radisson Staff Senior Editor: Paula K. Byers Project. (Set) ISBN 0-7876-2552-3 (Volume 12) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of world biography / [edited by Suzanne