Handbook of Competence and Motivation- Theory and Application

Handbook of Competence and Motivation- Theory and Application

HANDBOOK OF COMPETENCE AND MOTIVATION Handbook of Competence and Motivation SECOND EDITION Theory and Application Edited by Andrew J Elliot Carol S Dweck David S Yeager THE GUILFORD PRESS New York  London Copyright © 2017 The Guilford Press A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc 370 Seventh Avenue, Suite 1200, New York, NY 10001 www.guilford.com All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Elliot, Andrew J., editor | Dweck, Carol S., 1946– editor | Yeager,   David S., editor Title: Handbook of competence and motivation : theory and application /   edited by Andrew J Elliot, Carol S Dweck, David S Yeager Description: Second edition | New York : Guilford Press, [2017] | Includes   bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2016036820 | ISBN 9781462529605 (hardcover) Subjects: LCSH: Achievement motivation Classification: LCC BF504 H36 2017 | DDC 153.8—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016036820 About the Editors Andrew J Elliot, PhD, is Professor of Psychology at the University of Rochester He has been a visiting professor at Cambridge University and Oxford University, United Kingdom; King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia; and the University of Munich, Germany; and a Visiting Fellow at Churchill College (Cambridge) and Jesus College (Oxford) Dr. Elliot’s research focuses on achievement motivation and approach–­avoidance motivation He is editor of Advances in Motivation Science and author of approximately 200 scholarly publications The recipient of multiple awards for his teaching and research contributions to educational and social/personality psychology, Dr Elliot has given keynote or university addresses in more than 20 countries, and his lab regularly hosts professors, postdocs, and graduate students from around the globe Carol S Dweck, PhD, is the Lewis and Virginia Eaton Professor of Psychology at Stanford University Her research focuses on the critical role of mindsets in students’ achievement and has led to successful intervention to foster student learning She is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the U.S National Academy of Sciences, and is the recipient of nine different lifetime achievement awards for her research Dr. Dweck addressed the United Nations at the beginning of its new global development agenda and has advised governments on educational and economic policies Her bestselling book Mindset: The New Psychology of Success brought her research to the wider public David S Yeager, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of Texas at Austin His research focuses on motivation and adolescent development and on the use of behavioral science to make improvements toward pressing social issues Dr Yeager is co-chair of the Mindset Scholars Network, an interdisciplinary network devoted to improving the science of learning mindsets and expanding educational opportunity He holds appointments at the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, the Population Research Center and the Charles A Dana Center at the University of Texas at Austin, and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences Dr. Yeager is the recipient of more than 15 awards in social, developmental, and educational psychology v Contributors Katherine A. Adams, PhD, Department of Applied Psychology, New York University, New York, New York Eric M. Anderman, PhD, Department of Educational Studies, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Sian L. Beilock, PhD, Department of Psychology and Committee on Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Rebecca S. Bigler, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas Clancy Blair, PhD, Department of Applied Psychology, New York University, New York, New York Kathryn L. Boucher, PhD, School of Psychological Sciences, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana Shannon T. Brady, MS, Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, California Fabrizio Butera, PhD, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland Ruth Butler, PhD, School of Education, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel Andrei Cimpian, PhD, Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York Geoffrey L. Cohen, PhD, Department of Psychology and Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, California David E. Conroy, PhD, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania; Department of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois Rhonda G. Craven, PhD, Institute of Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia Ronald E. Dahl, MD, Community Health Sciences Division, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California Céline Darnon, PhD, Social and Cognitive Psychology Laboratory, Clermont Auvergne University, Clermont‑Ferrand, France Carsten K. W. De Dreu, PhD, Institute of Psychology, Social and Organizational Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands; Center for Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands vii viii Maria K. DiBenedetto, PhD, Bishop McGuinness Catholic High School, Kernersville, North Carolina Andrea G. Dittmann, BA, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois Carol S. Dweck, PhD, Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California Jacquelynne S. Eccles, PhD, School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California Andrew J. Elliot, PhD, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York Meiyu Fang, PhD, Graduate Institute of Human Resource Management, National Central University, Jhongli City, Taiwan Julio Garcia, PhD, Department of Psychology and Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, California Barry Gerhart, PhD, Department of Management and Human Resources, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin J. Parker Goyer, PhD, Department of Psychology and Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, California DeLeon L. Gray, PhD, Department of Teacher Education and Learning Sciences, College of Education, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina Wendy S. Grolnick, PhD, Department of Psychology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts Jeremy M. Hamm, PhD, Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California Contributors Judith M. Harackiewicz, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Liat Hasenfratz, PhD, Martin Buber Society of Fellows, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel Amy Roberson Hayes, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas Jutta Heckhausen, PhD, Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California Chris S. Hulleman, PhD, Center for the Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia Jeremy P. Jamieson, PhD, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York Ruth Kanfer, PhD, Department of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia Maximilian Knogler, PhD, School of Education, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany Beth E. Kurtz-Costes, PhD, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Hae Yeon Lee, MA, Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas Michael P. Leiter, PhD, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia Herbert W. Marsh, PhD, DSc, Institute of Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia Contributors ix Andrew J. Martin, PhD, School of Education, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia Christina Maslach, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California Daniel C. Molden, PhD, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois Arlen C. Moller, PhD, Department of Psychology, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois Bernard A. Nijstad, PhD, Department of Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Making, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands Meagan M. Patterson, PhD, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas Reinhard Pekrun, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia Raymond P. Perry, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Richard M. Ryan, PhD, Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia; Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York Robert J. Rydell, PhD, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Marjorie W. Schaeffer, MA, Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Dale H. Schunk, PhD, Department of Teacher Education and Higher Education, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina Jacob Shane, PhD, Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, Brooklyn, New York Christopher M. Spray, PhD, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom Nicole M. Stephens, PhD, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois Robert J. Sternberg, PhD, Department of Human Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York Eva M. Pomerantz, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Champaign, Illinois Sarah S. M. Townsend, PhD, Marshall School of Business, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California C. Cybele Raver, PhD, Department of Applied Psychology, New York University, New York, New York Elliot M. Tucker-Drob, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas Christopher S. Rozek, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Katie J. Van Loo, PhD, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Emily Q. Rozenzweig, PhD, Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland Nico W. Van Yperen, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands Subject Index 709 Approach–avoidance system, 357 Approval, 588–589, 592–593 Aptitude × Treatment Interaction (ATI) approaches, 70–71, 71t Aptitudes, 118f, 198–199 Areas of worklife (AW) model burnout and, 373–376, 374f, 375f interventions and, 378–379, 378f Arousal biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat and, 177 challenge and threat reappraisals and, 181, 182, 183f creativity and, 358 performance anxiety and, 164, 164f reappraisals and, 165t stereotype threat and, 298 Aspirations, 225–226, 504, 575 Assessing skills, 10 Assessment achievement emotions and, 265–266 achievement goals and, 636–638, 638f appraisals and, 185 belongingness and, 274 big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) and, 105 competence motivation and, 611–613 interdependence and, 523–524 interest and, 336 job performance and, 641–642 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 221–222 parents’ involvement in learning and, 567–568 pay for performance and, 235 performance anxiety and, 163 self-efficacy beliefs, 317–319, 318t social class and, 523–524 social comparison and, 198–199 sports and physical education and, 624–625 See also Competence assessment Assimilation, 107–108 Attachment, Self-Regulation, and Competency (ARC) framework, 420 Attachment styles, 377–378 Attainment value, 119, 121, 124f See also Values Attention shifting, 410 See also Executive functions Attentional focusing achievement emotions and, 255, 265 developmental processes and, 408–409 emotion regulation and, 413–414 gender and, 493 interest and, 336 interventions in early childhood and, 420–421 mindsets and perceptions of competence and, 142–144 regulation of, 408–409, 414, 415–416 social comparison and, 195–196 Attentional Network Task (ANT) battery, 410 Attitudes balanced identity model and, 552–553, 553f children’s views of groups and the self, 555 gender and, 504, 552 gene–environment transactions and, 477f math anxiety and, 159 pay for performance and, 236 performance anxiety and, 156f, 164f Attribution perspective, 61–66, 63f, 64f, 66f, 256–257 Attributional ambiguity, 273 Attribution-based personality inferences, 62 Attribution-based treatments changing competence appraisals and, 78–80 gender and, 502–503 overview, 66–71, 68f, 71t research on, 71–78, 75f See also Interventions Attributions adolescence and, 440 attribution induction, 72 belongingness and, 281–282 feedback and, 323 mindsets and, 137–138 overview, performance anxiety and, 167 race and ethnicity and, 529–530 self-efficacy beliefs and, 320, 323 self-regulation and, 314f, 317 social-psychological interventions and, 668 sports and physical education and, 623, 626, 628 threat and, 416–417 Autobiographical Survey, 163 Automatic tasks, 300 Autonomous motivation, 216f, 575 Autonomy adolescence and, 437–439, 438t autonomy support, 264 basic psychological needs and, 217, 218, 219, 221, 223, 226–227 burnout and, 371, 374, 374f, 377–378 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–460 competition and, 225 dual pathway to creativity model and, 355f institutionalization of the independent model of competence, 516 instructional contexts and, 610 interest and, 335 overview, 215 parents’ involvement in learning and, 569, 575, 577 race and ethnicity and, 529–530 sports and physical education and, 628 Average achievement, 104–105 See also Achievement Aversive achievement motives, 33–34, 35–36, 37–38 Avoidance appraisals and, 185 gender and, 495 mindsets and, 138 performance anxiety and, 155, 159 See also Avoidance goals; Avoidance motivation Avoidance attachment, 378 Avoidance goals × model achievement goal model and, 46–48 × model achievement goal model and, 48–50 academic assessments and, 612 achievement goals and, 45–46 interventions and, 52 job performance and, 645 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 222–223 See also Avoidance; Goals; Performance–avoidance goals Avoidance motivation affective states and, 358 assessment of, 31–32, 32f creativity and, 354, 360–361, 363–364 developmental origins of, 36 dual pathway to creativity model and, 355f, 357–358 overview, 26 See also Avoidance; Motivation Avoidant coping, 138 See also Coping styles Balance theory perspective, 296 Balanced identity model, 552–553, 553f Basic psychological needs burnout and, 370–376, 374f, 375f optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 221–225 overview, 217–219, 226–227 role of in motivation, 219–221 See also Autonomy; Competence; Need satisfaction; Relatedness Behavior achievement emotions and, 260 adolescence and, 433–435, 433f, 439, 440 attributional perspective and, 64f belongingness and, 285–286 burnout and, 372–373 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 461 challenge and threat appraisals and, 179f discontinuities between younger and older children and, 398–399 expectancy–value theory (EVT) and, 118f gender and, 490 interest and, 341–342 interventions and, 658–659, 675–676 job performance and, 648 mastery and performance goals and, 44 math anxiety and, 159 pay for performance and, 236 peer relationships and, 597 performance anxiety and, 155, 156f, 164f self-perceptions and, 85 self-regulation and, 315, 409, 410, 422 transactional models and, 483 Behavior regulation, 298–299 See also Self-regulation Behavioral activation system (BAS), 357, 363 See also Activation Behavioral genetic methodology, 471–473 See also Genetic factors Behavioral inhibition system (BIS), 357, 363 See also Inhibition Behavioral measures, 235 See also Assessment Behavioral regulation, 28, 28f Behaviorism, 86 Beliefs achievement goals and, 259 compared to self-efficacy beliefs, 318t competence motivation and, 612 expectancy–value theory (EVT) and, 118f gender and, 493, 502–503 overview, 313 parents’ involvement in learning and, 573–575 self-efficacy beliefs, 317–324, 318t self-regulation and, 314f, 315 sports and physical education and, 623, 624–625 stereotypes and discrimination and, 537 See also Mindsets; Self-efficacy Belonging uncertainty, 274 See also Belongingness 710 Belongingness adolescence and, 439–440 burnout and, 370, 374f children’s views of groups and the self, 553–559 gender and, 503 interventions and, 274–286, 276t, 284t, 287–288, 671–672, 677–678 overview, 272–273, 286–288, 559–561 stereotype threat and, 297, 304 theoretical background of, 273–275 See also Group membership; Relatedness; Social factors Bias belongingness and, 273 children’s views of groups and the self, 555 gender and, 492, 504 interventions and, 675–676 metacognitive monitoring and, 325 race and ethnicity and, 530 self-regulation in early childhood and, 420–421 stereotypes and discrimination and, 537–538 Big Brothers Big Sisters program, 540 Big Five personality factors, 475–476, 477, 477f Big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) achievement emotions and, 265 generalizability of, 100, 102–103 internal/external frame-of-reference (I/E) model and, 97 overview, 89, 100–106, 101f, 108 Biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat appraisal theory of stress and coping and, 175–176 challenge and threat reappraisals and, 180–184, 181f, 183f integration and future directions, 184–187 overview, 175, 176–178, 187–188 Boosters, 70, 74, 183–184 Boredom, 255–256, 258 See also Emotions Brain functioning attention regulation and, 414 emotion regulation and, 411, 413 executive functions and, 410–411 interventions in early childhood and, 420 performance anxiety and, 158–159 poverty and self-regulation and, 415 See also Neuroscience Brief interventions, 579–580 See also Interventions Burnout, 370, 376–382, 378f, 380f See also Employment Calibration, 319, 324–328, 325, 326f Canonical view case against, 394–401 overview, 388, 391–394, 402 positivity in judgments and, 401–402 Cardiovascular (CV) system, 177–178, 182, 187 Career goals, 456–459, 456f, 457f See also Goals; Worklife Careers, 454–455 See also Employment; Worklife CareerStart intervention, 126 Caregiving, 415–416 See also Parenting Causal attribution mapping (CAM) technology, 74, 79 Causal attributions attributional perspective and, 64f attributional retraining and, 66–68, 68f Subject Index discontinuities between younger and older children and, 397–398 overview, 61–66, 63f, 64f, 66f race and ethnicity and, 529–530 self-regulation and, 314f, 317 See also Attribution perspective Causal hypothesis, 97 Causal search activation, 72 Causation achievement emotions and, 254 attributional perspective and, 64f children’s views of groups and the self, 555 discontinuities between younger and older children and, 397–398 gene–environment transactions and, 476 overview, 548–551, 642–644 peer relationships and, 596–597 reciprocal causation and emotion regulation and, 260–261 transactional models and, 474 Ceiling effects, 623–624 Challenge states appraisal theory of stress and coping and, 175–176 biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat and, 176–178 dynamics of, 178–180, 179f integration and future directions, 184–187 overview, 187–188 reappraisals and, 180–184, 181f, 183f sports and physical education and, 627, 628 Change, 624–625, 658, 678–679 Channel factors, 661, 665–670 Character traits, 476–477, 476f Charter schools, 535–536 See also Education Cheating, 240–241 Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), 420 Child Development Project (CDP), 595 Children, role of, 570–572 Choice adolescence and, 437, 439 burnout and, 375 expectancy–value theory (EVT) and, 117 interest and, 343 interventions and, 674–675 self-efficacy beliefs and, 320–321 values and, 120–121 Civility, 379–381, 380f Class factors, 295 See also Social class Classification skills, 558 Classroom environment adolescence and, 439 gender and, 496, 504–505 peer relationships and, 595–596 self-regulation in early childhood and, 418 social comparison and, 208 See also Environments; School environment Clerical/conventional trait complex, 453 Coaches, 37–38, 223, 261–262, 627 See also Sports Cognition attributional perspective and, 65–66, 66f attributional retraining and, 66–68, 68f, 71 developmental processes and, 408–409 mastery and performance goals and, 44 overview, 408 self-perceptions and, 85 Cognitive appraisals achievement goals and, 259 appraisal theory of stress and coping and, 176 biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat and, 176–178 See also Appraisals Cognitive attributions See Attributions Cognitive control, 158–159 Cognitive development early childhood and, 392–393 emotion regulation and, 411–413 genetic factors and, 471 overview, 388–390 peer relationships and, 589–590 transactional models and, 473–475 See also Developmental factors; Mental representations Cognitive engagement, 254, 336 Cognitive evaluation theory (CET), 242–243, 244–245 Cognitive flexibility, 355f, 356 Cognitive functioning adulthood and, 451–454 creativity and, 353 gene–environment transactions and, 475–477, 476f, 478f job performance and, 642 monitoring and, 298 overview, 21, 413 peer relationships and, 592–593 problem solving and, 253 See also Problem solving regulation of, 28, 28f strategies and, 254 Cognitive quality of tasks, 263–264 Cognitive resources, 159–161, 253, 255–256 Cognitive treatments, 61, 258f, 267 Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), 181, 381 Collaboration, 589, 594, 648 Collective identity, 550 Collectivist cultures, 362 See also Cultural influences College Life Questionnaire, 15–16 Common Sense Questionnaire, 15–16 Communication, 577, 626 Community, 373–374, 374f Comparisons, 236, 317 See also Social comparisons Compensation career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–460 management context and, 233–234 overview, 232–233, 245–247 pay level and, 234–235 See also Pay for performance; Rewards Compensatory primary control, 458 See also Control; Primary control Competence × model achievement goal model and, 46–47 adolescence and, 433–437, 433f, 436f, 438t, 440–441 adulthood and, 459–464 basic psychological needs and, 217, 218, 221, 226–227 burnout and, 371, 374f, 381–382 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–464 discontinuities between younger and older children and, 394–397 instructional contexts and, 609–613 interest and, 335 interpersonal context and, 613–615 meaning systems and, 141–144 Subject Index 711 mindsets and, 140–141 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 221–225 overview, 11, 43, 61–62, 226, 232, 604–605, 635 parenting and, 566–570 parents’ involvement in learning and, 578–580 race and ethnicity and, 529–530 relationship to achievement, 94–96, 95f schools and, 615–616 social comparisons of, 198–200 sociocognitive conflicts and, 197–198 sports and physical education and, 620, 622–627, 628 worklife and, 449–450 See also Academic competencies; Models of competence; Reasoning about competence and achievement Competence appraisal, 62, 65–66, 66f, 78–80 Competence assessment, 192, 193, 198– 199, 207–209 See also Assessment Competence cues, 571 See also Cues Competence goals, 135 See also Goals Competence judgments, 394–397 Competence motivation academic assessments and, 611–613 achievement goal theory and, 92–93 attributional retraining and, 76 challenge and threat reappraisals and, 182–183 gender and, 489, 494–496 instructional contexts and, 609–613 interpersonal context and, 613–615 mindsets and, 135 organizational contexts and, 606–609 overview, 3–5, 232, 604–605 schools and, 605, 615–616 sports and physical education and, 620, 622–627 See also Achievement motivation Competence retraining treatments, 66–71, 68f, 71t Competence satisfaction, 91–92 Competence threat, 200–202 See also Threat Competence training, 258f, 267 Competence–demand gap, 460 Competence-oriented regulation, 261 See also Emotion regulation Competition, 225, 498, 555 Competitive conflict regulation, 205 Competitive social comparisons, 201, 203 See also Social comparisons Completion-contingent rewards See Rewards Compliance, 680 Concentration, 626 Conceptions of the Nature of Athletic Ability Questionnaire (CNAAQ or CNAAQ-2), 614–615, 621–622, 624–625, 626 Concept-oriented reading instruction (CORI), 127–129, 128t Confidence academic competencies and, 325 gender and, 492–493, 498, 505 sports and physical education and, 626 See also Self-confidence Conflict, 197–198, 354 See also Conflict resolution; Sociocognitive conflicts Conflict elaboration theory, 198–200 Conflict of competences, 199–200 Conflict of incompetences, 199–200, 201–202 Conflict resolution job performance and, 647–648 overview, 192, 207–209 peer relationships and, 589, 595, 597 social comparison and, 197–198, 202–207, 208 trichotomous view of, 204–206 Congruence, 34–35 Connectedness, 439–440, 529–530 See also Relatedness Conscientiousness, 476f, 477, 477f Conservation of resources perspective (COR), 371–373 Consolidation, 69–70, 72, 74 Constraints adulthood and, 454–455 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–464 creativity and, 359–361 motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) and, 456–459, 456f, 457f worklife and, 454–455 Constructivist models, 550–551, 590–591 Context gender and, 496, 503–504 interest and, 343 interventions and, 658–659 motivational processes and, 660–665, 661f, 664f need satisfaction and, 221–225 overview, 11 social-psychological interventions and, 669–670 sports and physical education and, 625 Contingent rewards, 243 See also Rewards Continued education, 462–463 See also Education Control dual pathway to creativity model and, 357 motivational processes and, 665 motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) and, 456–457, 456f, 458 overview, 120 parents’ involvement in learning and, 569, 571, 575 sports and physical education and, 626, 628 strivings and, 456–457, 456f Control appraisals achievement emotions and, 257–259, 258f, 261 burnout and, 373, 374f, 375–376 See also Appraisals Controllability, 62–63, 63f, 256–257 Controlled motivation optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 223 parents’ involvement in learning and, 575 self-determination theory (SDT) and, 216f Control-value model, 120, 257–259, 258f Cool processes, 409–410, 421 Coping strategies, 203 Coping styles appraisal theory of stress and coping and, 175–176 challenge and threat appraisals and, 179 mindsets and, 138, 150 self-efficacy beliefs and, 324 stereotype threat and, 298 Core needs See Basic psychological needs Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 412 Cortisol, 158, 187 Cost, 119–120 Crafting, job See Job crafting Creative process engagement (CPE), 359 Creativity achievement motivation and, 37 Advanced Placement Project and, 18 cultural norms and construals and, 361–362 dual pathway to creativity model and, 354–358, 355f emotions and, 358–359 employment and, 358–362 future research directions, 363–364 general (g) factor of human intelligence and, 13–14 job performance and, 648 Kaleidoscope Project and, 19–21 opportunities and constraints and, 359–361 overview, 10, 353–354, 363–364 CREW (Civility, Respect, and Engagement with Work) intervention approach, 379–381, 380f Criticism, 144–145, 679 Critiquing skills, 10 Cross-cultural influences, 102 See also Cultural influences Cues, 280, 281, 417, 571–572 Cultural competence, 538–539, 541–542 Cultural influences achievement and, 50, 261 adolescence and, 433 belongingness and, 280, 281 big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) and, 102 competence and, 287, 604–605 competence motivation and, 614–615 creativity and, 361–362 cultural competence and, 538–539 expectancy–value theory (EVT) and, 118f gender and, 490, 496–500 immigrant experience and, 530–533 independent model of competence and, 517–520 interpersonal context and, 614–615 job performance and, 648 models of competence and, 513 overview, 541–542 parents’ involvement in learning and, 577–578 school-based interventions and, 531–533 sports and physical education and, 628 stereotypes and discrimination and, 536–538 structural racism and, 533–534 See also Ethnicity; Immigrant experience; Race Cultural mismatch, 517–520, 524 See also Cultural influences Curriculum, 344, 347–348, 390, 504–505, 609–610 See also Instructional practices Cyclical models, 313–317, 314f, 321, 323 Cynicism, 377–378, 381–382 Decision making, 375, 432, 594, 674–675 See also Adaptive decisions Declarative knowledge, 10 See also Knowledge Declarative memory, 32 Defenses, 138, 317, 679 See also Coping styles Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), 532 Demand–competence gaps, 453 712 Demonstration, 628, 629t Depression, 194, 255, 275, 370, 494 Desire cues, 571–572 See also Cues Devalued, feelings of, 276t, 278–283, 287 See also Valuation Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors (DREAM) Act, 532–533 Developmental factors achievement motivation and, 37 adulthood and, 449–450 attributional retraining and, 66, 79–80 discontinuities between younger and older children and, 391–401 genetic factors and, 471 heritability and, 478–482, 481f interest and, 340–341, 347 math anxiety and, 160 overview, 35–37, 408, 458 parents’ involvement in learning and, 572 peer relationships and, 589–590, 595–596 poverty and self-regulation and, 414–418 self-concept and, 105–106 self-perceptions and, 85 self-regulation in early childhood and, 409–414 stage theory of cognitive development and, 388–389 worklife and, 449–450 See also Adolescence; Cognitive development; Early childhood; Lifespan; Motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) Difference, 319 Difference–education intervention, 280, 520–521 See also Interventions Dimensional comparison theory, 99–100, 107–108 Direct instruction, 590–591 See also Instructional practices Disability, 295 Disadvantaged students, 103–104 Disappointment, 257 Discipline, 282, 538 Disconnection, 277–278 Discontinuity view See Canonical view Discovering, 10 Discriminant function analyses (DFA), 76 Discrimination belongingness and, 273 cultural competence and, 538–539 overview, 541–542 race and ethnicity and, 536–538 stereotype threat and, 303 Disengagement, 463–464, 499, 537 See also Engagement Dispositional context, 363, 398–400 See also Traits Dissonance theory, 195 Distress regulation, 413 See also Emotion regulation Diversity, 614–615, 648 Domain knowledge, 452–453 See also Knowledge Domain specificity, 99, 157–158, 159–161, 461 Dominant achievement goals, 50, 637–638, 638f See also Achievement goals Downward social comparisons, 194 See also Social comparisons Drills, 628, 629t Dual pathway to creativity model (DPCM) affective states and, 358–359 employment and, 361 Subject Index future research directions, 363–364 overview, 354–358, 355f, 363–364 See also Creativity Dual-pathway model (DPM), 551–553, 551f, 552f, 553f Dual-process models achievement motivation and, 27–34, 28f, 29t, 30t, 32f emotion regulation and, 411–412 self-regulation in early childhood and, 409–410 stereotype threat and, 299 Dynamical systems theory, 260 Early childhood attention regulation and, 408–409, 414 discontinuities between younger and older children and, 391–401 emotion regulation and, 411–413 executive functions and, 410–411 interventions that support selfregulation and, 418–421 mental representations and, 390–391 mindsets and, 144–145 overview, 387–391, 402 positivity in judgments and, 401–402 poverty and self-regulation and, 414–418 reasoning about competence and achievement and, 389–390 self-concept and, 105–106 self-regulation and, 408–409, 421–422 See also Developmental factors Eccles expectancy–value theory (EEVT) history of, 116–117 interest and, 345–346 interventions and, 127–129 overview, 116, 117–120, 118f, 130 See also Achievement values; Expectancy–value theory (EVT) Education belongingness and, 278–283 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 460, 461, 462, 462–463 competence and, 515, 517–518, 518, 538–539 competence motivation and, 615–616 early childhood and, 390 emotion regulation and, 410 gender and, 489–490 general (g) factor of human intelligence and, 12 incentives and, 241 interest and, 341–348 interventions and, 149–150 mindsets and, 140–143, 149–150, 151n parents’ involvement in learning and, 566–580 pay level and, 234–235 peer relationships and, 593–596 policy and structural interventions and, 534–536 race and ethnicity and, 541–542 role models and mentors and, 539–541 self-determination theory (SDT) and, 226 self-regulation in early childhood and, 418 societal and occupational opportunities and constraints, 454–455 stereotypes and discrimination and, 536–538 structural racism and, 533–534 worklife and, 454–455 See also Academic competencies; Higher education; Instructional practices; Learning; Physical education Educational interventions, 51–53, 501–505 See also Interventions Effectance, 34, 90, 218 Efficacy beliefs, 574, 677 Effort attributions and, 63 beliefs and, 137, 138 cost and, 123–125, 124f cues and, 143 dual pathway to creativity model and, 357 gender and, 493–495, 499–501, 502–503 interventions and academic motivation and, 502–503 pay for performance and, 239 self-efficacy beliefs and, 320–321, 323 sports and physical education and, 627 Effortful control, 414, 420 Ego goals, 54n, 495 Ego involvement, 54n Ego orientation, 636 Egocentrism, 396–397 EL Education schools, 443, 444 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 534–535 Emerging individual interest, 341 See also Interest Emotion regulation caregiving quality and, 415–416 challenge and threat appraisals and, 178–179, 180–184, 181f, 183f, 187–188 developmental processes and, 408–409 early childhood and, 412–413, 422 interventions in early childhood and, 418–420 overview, 411–413 reciprocal causation and, 260–261 Emotional competence, 412 Emotional costs, 124f See also Cost Emotional processing, 435–436 Emotional reactivity See Reactivity Emotional self-concept, 88f See also Selfconcept Emotion-oriented treatment, 258f, 267 Emotions achievement and, 26–27, 27f, 259–260 attributional retraining and, 66–68, 68f, 71 burnout and, 377–378 control–value model and, 257–259, 258f creativity and, 358–359 origins of, 256–260, 258f overview, 65–66, 66f, 251–252 self-efficacy beliefs and, 321 sports and physical education and, 628 universality versus specificity of, 261 See also Achievement emotions Empathy, 414 Empirical fidelity, 70–71, 75–78 See also Fidelity Employment belongingness and, 283 creativity and, 358–362 institutionalization of the independent model of competence, 516 mindsets and, 145–146 mindsets and perceptions of competence and, 140–141 See also Burnout; Industrialorganizational (I/O) psychology; Management context; Organizational behavior; Pay for performance; Worklife Engagement achievement emotions and, 254 adolescence and, 431–432, 442 Subject Index 713 burnout and, 370, 379–381, 380f career-related challenges across adulthood and, 461–464 emotion regulation and, 412 gender and, 501, 503 interest and, 346 motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) and, 457–459, 457f stereotypes and discrimination and, 537 Engagement-contingent rewards See Rewards English language learning (ELL) students, 532, 535–536 See also Language factors Enjoyment, 254, 257–258, 261 See also Emotions Entity theory, 186, 621, 626 See also Fixed mindsets Environmental structuring, 314f, 315–316 Environmentalist models, 549–550 Environments academic motivation and, 477 achievement emotions and, 258f, 260, 263–265 adolescent developmental changes and, 435 belongingness and, 283 gender and, 504–505 interest and, 336, 340–341, 342–343 interventions in early childhood and, 420 parents’ involvement in learning and, 576–578 peer relationships and, 597 positivity in judgments and, 401 self-regulation and, 313–314, 315–316, 416–418 social comparison and, 208 transactional models and, 473 See also Gene–environment transactions; School environment; Workplace environment Epigenetics, 549 See also Genetic factors Epistemic conflict regulation, 198 See also Conflict resolution Epistemic emotions, 252 See also Emotions Equal compensation principle, 239–240, 241–242 Equity theory, 236, 243–244 Ethical behavior, 648 Ethnicity belongingness and, 273–274, 280, 281, 287 children’s views of groups and the self, 555 competence motivation and, 614–615 cultural competence and, 538–539 identity and, 550 immigrant experience and, 530–533 interpersonal context and, 614–615 overview, 529, 541–542 parents’ involvement in learning and, 577–578 policy and structural interventions and, 534–536 role models and mentors and, 539–541 school-based interventions and, 531–533 stereotypes and, 295, 305–306, 536–538 structural racism and, 533–534 theories of motivation and, 529–530 See also Cultural influences; Immigrant experience Evaluation anxiety and, 33 early childhood and, 393–394 gender and, 493–494, 504 interdependence and, 523–524 social class and, 519–520, 523–524 See also Self-evaluations Event-related potentials (ERPs), 142–143, 411, 414 Everyday Situational Judgment Inventory, 15–16 Evocative rGE, 473–474 See also Genotype–environment correlation (rGE) Exclusion, 281–282, 440 Executive functions caregiving quality and, 415–416 developmental processes and, 408–409 emotion regulation and, 413 interventions in early childhood and, 418–421 overview, 410–411 self-regulation in early childhood and, 410, 418–421, 422 stereotype threat and, 300 See also Attention shifting; Inhibitory control; Working memory Exhaustion, 377–378, 381–382 Exogenous factors, 61–62, 359–361 Expectancy–value theory (EVT) attributional perspective and, 65 cost and, 122–125, 124f gender and, 490–494 interest and, 345–346 interventions and, 127–129 outcomes and, 121–122 overview, 90–91, 117–120, 118f, 130 race and ethnicity and, 530 relations of values to outcomes and, 120–121 self-concept and, 107 See also Eccles expectancy–value theory (EEVT) Expectancy–value–cost motivation model, 123 Expectations achievement emotions and, 264 burnout and, 378–379 discontinuities between younger and older children and, 398–399 gender and, 490–494, 492, 497, 500 outcomes and, 121–122 overview, 232 parents’ involvement in learning and, 575 peer relationships and, 591 race and ethnicity and, 530 self-regulation and, 315 social-psychological interventions and, 666 sports and physical education and, 627–628 stereotype threat and, 301 worklife and, 454 See also Stereotype threat Experiences gene–environment transactions and, 476f self-efficacy beliefs and, 318, 318t self-regulation in early childhood and, 416–418 sports and physical education and, 628 transactional models and, 483 Experimental design achievement emotions and, 253–254 attributional retraining and, 72–74, 75f job performance and, 642 math anxiety and, 160 motivation treatments and, 69–70 performance anxiety and, 159 sports and physical education and, 625 Explicit motives, 28 Explicit tracking, 103–104 Exposure interventions, 165–166, 165t See also Interventions Expressive writing techniques, 165t, 168, 306 Extended process model, 178–179, 179f External regulation, 216f, 219, 575 External validity, 69 See also Validity Externalization, 215–217, 216f Extraversion, 357, 377–378, 477f Extrinsic action values, 120 Extrinsic aspirations, 226 See also Aspirations Extrinsic motivation basic psychological needs and, 219–221 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–460 creativity and, 354 overview, 215–217 parents’ involvement in learning and, 575 pay for performance and, 242–246 peer relationships and, 592 See also Motivation Extrinsic outcome values, 120 Extrinsic pay, 232 See also Pay for performance Failure achievement emotions and, 254–255 aversive consequences of, 33–34 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 463–464 early childhood and, 392 sports and physical education and, 626, 627 See also Fear of failure Fairness burnout and, 374, 374f, 375–376 gender and, 504–505 race and ethnicity and, 530 Fast Track Program, 595 Fear of failure, 163, 392 See also Failure Feedback achievement and, 54n, 255, 266 adolescence and, 441 belongingness and, 287 feedback loops, 260, 329 gender and, 493–494, 500 interventions and, 675–676 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 222 peer relationships and, 594 self-efficacy beliefs and, 320, 322, 323 self-regulation and, 313–314, 314f sports and physical education and, 628, 630t stereotype threat and, 305–306 Fidelity, 70–71, 72, 75–78 Field research, 253–254 Field theory, 664, 664f Fight-or-flight response, 177–178 Financial aid, 532–533, 540 First-Generation Low Income Partnership (FLIP) program, 521 Fit, 518–519 Fixed mindsets attentional strategies and, 142–143 competence and, 140–141 employment and, 145–146 overview, 136–137, 150–151, 621 parents’ involvement in learning and, 574–575 relationships and, 146–147 self-esteem and, 143–144 sports and, 147 stereotype threat and, 306–307 See also Entity theory; Mindsets 714 Flexibility adolescence and, 432 developmental processes and, 408 dual pathway to creativity model and, 355f, 356 executive functions and, 410 Flow theory, 335 Fluidity, 452, 477, 625 See also Intelligence Forethought, 314, 323 Frame-of-reference models, 100–106, 101f Friendships See Peer relationships Frustration, 258, 571 Fulfillment, 370, 377 See also Burnout Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Program (GEAR UP), 540 Gain-oriented goals, 454 Gatekeepers, 679–680 Gender academic motivation and, 500–505 achievement and, 259, 261 adolescent developmental changes and, 436f, 437 belongingness and, 273–274, 280, 281–282, 287 children’s views of groups and the self, 553–555, 558 choice and, 675 competence motivation and, 494–496 dual-pathway model and, 551–553, 551f, 552f, 553f expectancy–value theory (EVT) and, 490–494 identity and, 550 intelligence and, 490–494 interest and, 340 internal/external frame-of-reference (I/E) model and, 97, 99 interventions and academic motivation and, 501–505, 560 mindsets and, 141–142, 149 overview, 489–490 performance anxiety and, 163 role models and mentors and, 540 self-efficacy beliefs and, 323 self-esteem and, 94 social factors and, 550–551 sociocultural influences and, 496–500 stereotype threat and, 295, 297, 298, 302–303, 305–306, 307 Gender rejection sensitivity, 303 Gender salience filter, 551, 551f Gender schema filter, 551, 551f Gene–environment transactions academic motivation and, 475–477, 476f, 478f interventions and, 482–484 overview, 471, 484 transactional processes and, 479–482, 481f See also Environments; Genetic factors General (g) factor of human intelligence, 11–14 Generalizability, 302–303 Generalized anxiety, 156 See also Anxiety Genetic factors overview, 471–473, 484 social factors and, 549 transactional models and, 473–475, 478–482, 481f See also Gene–environment transactions Genotype–environment correlation (rGE), 473–474 Gestalt Completion Task (GCT), 354 Gestalt visual shift, 661, 661f Subject Index Gifted students, 103–104, 493 Global Financial Crisis, 240 Global self-esteem construct, 94 Goal pursuit × model achievement goal model and, 47 motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) and, 456–459, 456f, 457f peer relationships and, 588–589 See also Goals Goal setting career-related challenges across adulthood and, 461–462 gender and, 493 self-efficacy beliefs and, 318, 321, 322–323, 324 self-regulation and, 314–315 See also Goals Goals academic assessments and, 612 achievement emotions and, 255, 260 across adulthood, 453–454 appraisals and, 185, 185–186 belongingness and, 277–278 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 461–462 engagement and, 457–458, 457f expectancy–value theory (EVT) and, 118f job performance and, 645–646 mastery and, 317 mindsets and, 135, 137, 150 motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) and, 456–459, 456f, 457f optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 222–223 overview, 4, 43–44, 232, 264, 638 peer relationships and, 593 race and ethnicity and, 529–530 self-determination theory (SDT) and, 225–226 self-regulation and, 314–315, 315 sports and physical education and, 623, 628 See also Achievement goals; Avoidance goals; Competence goals; Goal pursuit; Goal setting; Learning goals; Mastery goals; Mastery-approach goals; Mastery-avoidance goals; Performance goals Grades basic psychological needs and, 221 belongingness and, 282–283 interventions and, 149–150, 673, 677 Kaleidoscope Project and, 19–21 metacognitive monitoring and, 327 mindsets and, 138, 149–150, 151n motivational processes and, 664 role models and mentors and, 541 social-psychological interventions and, 667 stereotype threat and, 303 Group membership achievement emotions and, 264–265 belongingness and, 287 children’s views of groups and the self, 553–559 contagion and, 592 creativity and, 361, 362 identity and, 592 overview, 280, 559–561 peer relationships and, 588–589, 592 standards and, 266 stereotype threat and, 297 See also Belongingness Grouping, 628, 629t Growth mindsets attentional strategies and, 142–143 competence and, 140–141 employment and, 145–146 gender and, 503, 505 overview, 136–137, 150–151, 621 parents’ involvement in learning and, 574–575 relationships and, 146–147 self-esteem and, 143–144 social-psychological interventions and, 668–669 sports and, 147 stereotype threat and, 306–307 See also Incremental theory; Mindsets Head Start REDI (REsearch-based, Developmentally Informed) program, 418–419 Health, 624 Heart rate (HR), 177–178 Help-seeking methods, 315–316 Heritability, 472–473, 478–479 See also Genetic factors Hierarchical perspectives, 97 Higher education competence and, 515–517, 518, 607–608 immigrant experience and, 532–533 race and ethnicity and, 541–542 role models and mentors and, 540 stereotypes and discrimination and, 536–537 structural racism and, 533–534 See also Education Home environments, 597 See also Environments; Parenting Homework, 162–163, 568, 576, 577–578 See also Education Hope, 254, 257, 258 See also Emotions Hopelessness, 255–256, 257, 258 See also Emotions Hormonal functioning, 412, 435–437, 436f Hot processes, 409–410, 421 See also Self-regulation Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal–cortical (HPA) system, 177–178, 412 Idea generation tasks, 354–355 Identity balanced identity model and, 552–553, 553f children’s views of groups and the self, 553–559 emotions and, 261–262 peer relationships and, 592, 597 race and ethnicity and, 536–537 social factors and, 550 Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility (IIRIR) Act, 533 Illegitimate tasks, 379 Immigrant experience cultural competence and, 538–539 overview, 530–533, 541–542 policy and structural interventions and, 534–536 school-based interventions and, 531–533 stereotypes and discrimination and, 536–538 structural racism and, 533–534 See also Cultural influences; Ethnicity; Race Implicit Association Test (IAT), 30–31 Incentive intensity, 235 See also Incentives Incentives effects of on performance, 237–242 overview, 232, 235, 244–245 self-efficacy beliefs and, 320–321 Subject Index 715 social class and, 523 See also Pay for performance Inclusion, 273, 281–282 See also Belongingness Incompetence, 4, 433–434 Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (IY-TCM) program, 419 Incremental mindset, 477f Incremental theory adolescence and, 440 appraisals and, 186 overview, 621 sports and physical education and, 622–623, 627–628 See also Growth mindsets Independent model of competence effects of on the working-class, 517–520 institutionalization of the independent model of competence, 515–517 interventions and, 522 overview, 513–515, 514f, 524 Indirect coping, 138 See also Coping styles Individual factors achievement emotions and, 262 attention regulation and, 414 burnout and, 377–378 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 462–463 children’s views of groups and the self, 558 emotions and, 256–260, 258f genetic factors and, 472–473, 484 instructional contexts and, 610 interest and, 336–337 self-regulation in early childhood and, 421 worklife and, 449 Individual interest, 336–337, 338–340 See also Interest Individualistic cultures, 362 See also Cultural influences Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology achievement goals and, 635–638, 638f job performance and, 639–642 measurement and, 636–638, 638f overview, 635 See also Employment; Organizational behavior; Organizational environment; Workplace environment Inefficacy, 377–378, 381–382 Inflexibility, 408 See also Flexibility Influence, 589–592 Informal knowledge, 11–12, 14 See also Knowledge Information flow, 607–608 Information processing, 198 Informational constraint, 199–200 Informational elements, 221 Informational feedback, 222 See also Feedback Informational interdependence, 201, 208 Inhibition, 300, 357 See also Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) Inhibitory control, 408, 410, 413 See also Executive functions Innovation, 479, 648 Insecurity, 274 Inspiring social comparisons, 193–197 See also Social comparisons Institutionalization, 515–517 Institution-level interventions, 522–524, 668–669 Instructional practices achievement values and, 127–129, 128t competence and, 605, 609–613 early childhood and, 390 English language learning (ELL) students, 532 gender and, 501–505 interest and, 341–348 peer relationships and, 590–591, 593–595 sports and physical education and, 628 See also Education; Learning; Teachers Instrumental values, 119 See also Values Integrated process model, 296–300, 297f Integrated regulation, 216f Intellectual/cultural trait complex, 453 Intelligence burnout and, 377–378 cognitive aging and, 452 discontinuities between younger and older children and, 399–400 fixed and growth mindsets and, 136–137 gender and, 490–494, 499 gene–environment transactions and, 474–475, 477 general (g) factor of, 11–14 mindsets and, 151n overview, 4, 9–10, 21–22 peer relationships and, 589, 592–593 stereotype threat and, 295, 306–307 Intelligence tests, 9, 273, 420, 589 See also Testing Intensity, 638 Intention, 476f Interactionism, 471 Interdependent model of competence, 513–515, 514f, 523–524 Interest development of, 340–341, 347 dual-pathway model and, 552 in educational contexts, 341–348 enhancement, 315–316, 316 gender and, 491, 497 gene–environment transactions and, 476f interventions and, 344–348 overview, 334–341, 348 self-efficacy beliefs and, 324 sports and physical education and, 628 stereotypes and discrimination and, 537 theory and, 335–341 values and, 121 See also Intrinsic motivation Interest theory, 335–341 Internal validity, 69, 72–73 See also Validity Internal/external frame-of-reference (I/E) model, 96–100, 98f, 261 Internalization, 215–217, 216f, 680 Interpersonal attributional processes, 63–65, 64f, 78–79 Interpersonal behavior, 51 Interpersonal context belongingness and, 281–282 competence and, 605 competence motivation and, 613–615 gene–environment transactions and, 476f job performance and, 647–648 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 223 social-psychological interventions and, 668 Interventions achievement and, 51–53, 54n, 258f, 266–267, 644–646 adolescence and, 442–443 belongingness and, 274–286, 276t, 284t, 287–288 burnout and, 376–381, 378f, 380f challenge and threat reappraisals and, 183–184, 188 cognitive aging and, 452, 453 cultural competence and, 538–539 gender and academic motivation and, 501–505 gene–environment transactions and, 482–484 group membership and, 559–560 immigrant experience and, 531–533 interest and, 344–348 job performance and, 644–646 mindsets and, 136, 148–150 motivational processes and social influences and, 659–660 overview, 665–670, 675–680 parents’ involvement in learning and, 578–580 peer relationships and, 595–596 performance anxiety and, 158–159, 163–169, 164f, 165t, 170 role models and mentors and, 539–541 self-concept and, 106 self-efficacy beliefs and, 321–324 self-regulation and, 321–324, 418–421 social class and, 520–524 stereotype threat and, 305–308 targeted, tailored, and timely, 670–675 transactional models and, 482–484 values and, 125–130, 128t See also Psychological interventions; Social-psychological intervention; Treatment Intrapersonal attributional processes, 63–65, 64f, 78–79 Intrinsic action values, 120 Intrinsic aspirations, 225–226 See also Aspirations Intrinsic motivation adolescence and, 431–432, 431f basic psychological needs and, 219–221 burnout and, 375–376 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 462 creativity and, 353–354 interest and, 334–335 job performance and, 648 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 224–225 overview, 214, 215–217, 216f, 232 parents’ involvement in learning and, 575 pay for performance and, 242–245, 243–246 peer relationships and, 592 See also Motivation Intrinsic outcome values, 120 Intrinsic pay, 232 See also Pay for performance Intrinsic regulation, 216f Intrinsic value, 119, 124f See also Values Introjected regulation, 216f, 219–220, 575 Investing in States to Achieve Tuition Equality for Dreamers (IN-STATE) Act, 532–533 Invisibility, 275, 276t Job burnout See Burnout Job crafting, 373, 379 See also Burnout; Employment Job demands–resources model (JD/R), 371–373 Job performance achievement goals and, 639–642 causal pathways and, 642–644 interpersonal behavior and, 647–648 interventions and, 644–646 overview, 648–649 See also Employment; Worklife Judgments, 10, 391–402 716 Kaleidoscope Project, 19–21 Kindness Curriculum, 168 Knowledge career-related challenges across adulthood and, 461 cognitive aging and, 452 creativity and, 353 English language learning (ELL) students, 532 gene–environment transactions and, 476f, 477 interest and, 339–340 overview, 10 self-efficacy beliefs and, 320 Laboratory experiments, 625 Lack-of-ability attributions, 138 Language factors, 530–531, 532, 533 Learning achievement emotions and, 254, 255 adolescence and, 431–433, 431f, 434, 441–442 adulthood and, 451–454 gender and, 493, 503–505 interest and, 339–340, 341–348 meaning and purpose and, 441–442 metacognitive monitoring and, 327–328 organizational contexts and, 606–609 parenting and, 566–580 peer relationships and, 593–596, 597 policy and structural interventions and, 534–536 positivity in judgments and, 401 self-efficacy beliefs and, 319, 320–323, 324 self-regulation and, 315, 328–329 skills and strategies, 10, 254 social comparison and, 208, 209 sociocognitive conflicts and, 198 sports and physical education and, 627 transactional models and, 483 transmission of emotions and, 265 See also Academic interest; Education; Learning goals Learning goals achievement and, 254, 255, 636, 637 interventions and, 52 mindsets and, 137, 138, 147 overview, 53n–54n self-efficacy beliefs and, 322 self-regulation and, 315 See also Goals; Learning Lifespan attributional retraining and, 79–80 self-concept and, 105–106 worklife and, 449–450, 464–465 See also Developmental factors; Motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) Local dominance effects, 100–101 Locus of causality, 62–63, 63f Loneliness, 275 Longitudinal field studies, 74, 303, 673–674 Loss-prevention-oriented goals, 454 Maintained situational interest, 341 See also Interest Management context burnout and, 375, 375f, 378–379 incentive structures and, 523 job performance and, 644 pay for performance and, 233–234, 236 See also Employment; Organizational behavior Managerial skills, 145–146, 223, 261–262 Manifest Anxiety Scale, 163 Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study (MADICS), 537 Subject Index Mastery goals × model achievement goal model and, 46–48 achievement and, 44, 260, 636, 637 dichotomous achievement goal model and, 44–45 emotions and, 259–260 gender and, 495–496 gene–environment transactions and, 477f interest and, 337 interpersonal context and, 647–648 interventions and, 52 job performance and, 639–646 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 223 overview, 53n–54n social comparison and, 203, 208–209 trichotomous achievement goal model and, 45–46 See also Goals; Mastery-approach goals; Mastery-avoidance goals Mastery-approach goals achievement and, 260, 637–638 interpersonal context and, 647–648 job performance and, 639–646 overview, 648–649 sports and physical education and, 623 See also Goals; Mastery goals Mastery-avoidance goals achievement goals and, 637–638 interpersonal context and, 647–648 job performance and, 639–646 overview, 648–649 sports and physical education and, 623 See also Goals; Mastery goals Mastery-oriented strategies, 138, 150, 503–504, 505 Math anxiety interventions and, 166 overview, 170 performance anxiety and, 157–158, 159–161 person-to-person transmission of, 162–163 See also Academic competencies Math competencies children’s views of groups and the self, 553 gender and, 491–495, 497 policy and structural interventions and, 536 See also Academic competencies Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) internal/external frame-of-reference (I/E) model and, 96–100, 98f multidimensional perspective and, 93–94 overview, 87 Meaning, 437, 438t, 441–442 Meaning systems competence and, 141–144 interventions and, 148–150 mindsets and, 137–140, 141–144 overview, 621 socialization and, 144–145 sports and physical education and, 628 Measurement, 105, 636–638, 638f See also Assessment Mediation approach, 70 Mediators, 77–78, 301, 422 Memory achievement emotions and, 253, 265 expectancy–value theory (EVT) and, 118f math anxiety and, 159–161 performance and, 452 performance anxiety and, 164 stereotype threat and, 299–300 See also Working memory Mental control, 148 See also Self-control Mental representations discontinuities between younger and older children and, 391–401 overview, 387–391 positivity in judgments and, 401–402 See also Representations Mentors, 305–306, 307, 539–541 Metacognitive monitoring overview, 325 self-efficacy beliefs and, 324–328, 326f self-regulation and, 314f, 316 Metacognitive processes, 10, 11, 597 Microanalytic methodology, 319 Middle class See Social class Mindfulness, 165t, 168 Mindset interventions, 165t, 166–169, 668–669, 677–678 See also Interventions; Mindsets Mindsets across multiple skills domains, 145–148 competence and, 140–141 competence motivation and, 608 gender and, 503 interventions and, 148–150 meaning systems and, 137–140, 141–144 overview, 135–136, 150–151, 621 performance anxiety and, 165t self-regulation in early childhood and, 422 socialization and, 144–145 social-psychological interventions and, 668–669 stereotype threat and, 306–307 See also Fixed mindsets; Growth mindsets; Mindset interventions Modeling, 591, 593 Models of competence, 513–517, 514f, 524 See also Competence Models of self, 513–515, 514f See also Models of competence Moderation, 102–103 Moderators, 77–78, 355f, 422 Mood and Anxiety Symptoms Questionnaire (MASQ), 157 Moods, 252, 253, 358–359 See also Achievement emotions Moral behavior, 51 Motivation achievement emotions and, 253–256 adolescence and, 431–433, 431f, 435–437, 436f, 437–442, 438t attributional perspective and, 65–66, 66f attributional retraining and, 71 basic psychological needs and, 217, 219–221, 226–227 belongingness and, 277–278, 282 biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat and, 177 burnout and, 377, 381–382 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 461 challenge and threat reappraisals and, 180–184, 181f, 183f context and, 660–665, 661f, 664f creativity and, 363–364 emotions and, 261–262 gender and, 505 gene–environment transactions and, 475–477, 476f, 478f, 484 group membership and, 559 instructional contexts and, 609–613 interactions of with context over time, 662–665, 664f interest and, 334–335 Subject Index 717 interpersonal context and, 613–615 interventions and, 127–129, 128t, 657–659 intrinsic motivation, 214 mindsets and, 135, 150 organizational contexts and, 606–609 overview, 4, 10–11, 232 parenting and, 566–570, 567, 575–576 parents’ involvement in learning and, 578–580 pay for performance and, 233–234, 242–246 peer relationships and, 588–589 schools and, 605, 615–616 self-regulation and, 314f social influences and, 659–660 social-psychological interventions and, 665–670 sports and physical education and, 620, 622–627 stereotype threat and, 304 types of, 215–217, 216f, 219–221 worklife and, 449–450 See also Academic motivation; AMO model; Avoidance motivation; Extrinsic motivation; Intrinsic motivation Motivation treatments, 68–71 See also Interventions Motivational quality of tasks, 264 Motivational resources, 158–159 Motivational supports, 591–592 Motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–464 cognitive aging and, 452–453 control potential and, 450–454 overview, 450, 455–459, 456f, 457f, 464–465 Multidimensional perspectives, 93–94, 97, 106, 451 Multidirectionality, 451 Multimodal therapies, 267 Multi-Motive Grid, 30 Multiple goal adoption, 50 Multitasking, 239–240 Multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVA), 76 My Teaching Partner–Secondary (MTP-S) intervention, 594–595 Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Need for Achievement Scale, 163 Need satisfaction, 217, 221–225 See also Basic psychological needs Needs, basic See Basic psychological needs Negative emotions, 358–359 See also Emotions Negative feedback loop, 155–156 Neuroscience adolescence and, 431–432, 439–440 attention regulation and, 414 emotion regulation and, 411, 412, 413 executive functions and, 410–411 interventions in early childhood and, 420 poverty and self-regulation and, 415 self-regulation in early childhood and, 409–410 See also Brain functioning Neuroticism, 357, 477f No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 241, 489 Norms, 222, 361–362, 498–499, 593 Object focus, 252t, 253 Observation, 628, 629t Older adults, 80, 451–454 See also Adulthood One Goal program, 522 Openness, 357, 476f, 477, 477f Operant Motive Test, 29–30 Opportunity adolescence and, 434 adulthood and, 454–455 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–464 control striving and, 456–457 creativity and, 359–361 dual pathway to creativity model and, 355f motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) and, 456–459, 456f, 457f overview, 635 pay for performance and, 233–234 social-psychological interventions and, 678 worklife and, 454–455 See also AMO model Opportunity costs, 123–125, 124f See also Cost Opportunity to perform, 635 See also Opportunity; Performance Optimism career-related challenges across adulthood and, 462 early childhood and, 401–402 positivity in judgments and, 401–402 self-efficacy beliefs and, 324 social comparison and, 194 Organization competence, 245 Organizational behavior, 145–146, 282– 283, 376–377 See also Employment; Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology; Management context; Pay for performance Organizational environment competence and, 605 competence motivation and, 606–609 job performance and, 646 sports and physical education and, 627, 628 See also Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology Origins of competence, 66 Outcome expectancies, 315, 321 See also Expectations; Outcomes Outcome-dependent affect, 64f Outcome-focused interventions, 188 See also Interventions Outcomes adolescence and, 439 adulthood and, 454 belongingness and, 286 burnout and, 375f discontinuities between younger and older children and, 394–395 expectancies and values and, 121–122 gender and, 495 genetic factors and, 472–473 goals and, 50 incentive structures and, 523 mindsets and, 150 motivation treatments and, 70 relationship to values, 120–121 self-regulation and, 313–314 social-psychological interventions and, 669 sports and physical education and, 623 Overconfidence, 325, 492–493 Panorama Project, 21 Parallel memory systems, 27–28 Parental conditional regard (PCR), 221 Parent–child relationship, 36, 415–416, 497 Parenting achievement motivation and, 36 basic psychological needs and, 221 beliefs and, 573–575 gender and, 491, 497–498 immigrant experience and, 530–531 interventions and, 578–580, 660–661 learning and, 566–580 mindsets and, 144–145 models of competence and, 514 motivation and competence and, 566–570, 578–580 overview, 566 performance anxiety and, 162–163 self-regulation and, 415–416 Parents, role of, 572–576 Passive avoidance, 138 See also Avoidance Passive rGE, 473–474 See also Genotype– environment correlation (rGE) Pay for performance career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–460 intrinsic motivation and, 242–245 job performance and, 643–644 management context and, 233–234 overview, 232–233, 235–247 pay level and, 234–235 worklife and, 449–450 See also Compensation; Employment; Organizational behavior; Performance Pay level, 234–245, 237–242, 643–644 Peer approval, 588–589, 592–593 Peer contagion, 592 Peer relationships adolescence and, 439–440 gender and, 498–499 gene–environment transactions and, 476f learning and, 593–596 mindsets and, 146–147 overview, 586–593, 596–598 race and ethnicity and, 530 social comparison and, 208 See also Relationships; Social competencies Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ), 157 Perceived locus of causality, 216, 219 Perceptions adolescence and, 434 big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) and, 100–106, 101f challenge and threat appraisals and, 179f competence, 44, 225–226 gender and, 489–490, 499 interest and, 336 mindsets and perceptions of competence, 140–141 overview, performance anxiety and, 167–168 social comparison and, 193–197 stereotypes and discrimination and, 537–538 task values and, 119 threat and, 416–417 See also Self-perceptions Performance achievement emotions and, 253–256, 254, 258f adulthood and, 451–454 anxiety and, 412 attainment and, 66–68, 68f attributions and, 65–66, 66f, 71 biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat and, 177 718 Performance (cont.) burnout and, 376 dual pathway to creativity model and, 354–355, 355f effects of incentives and sorting on, 237–242 emotions and, 261–262 expectancy–value theory (EVT) and, 118f gender and, 492 independent model of competence and, 518–519 interpersonal context and, 647–648 job performance and, 639–642, 645–646 math anxiety and, 159–160 metacognitive monitoring and, 325 outcomes and, 121–122 overview, 635, 638 parents’ involvement in learning and, 576 performance anxiety and, 156f, 158–159, 164f self-efficacy beliefs and, 320, 323 self-regulation and, 314, 315–316 social comparison and, 196, 204 social-psychological interventions and, 666, 667 sports and physical education and, 623 stereotype threat and, 162, 299–300 stereotypes and discrimination and, 536–537 strategies, 504 worklife and, 450–454 See also Academic performance; Pay for performance; Performance anxiety; Performance goals Performance anxiety achievement emotions and, 265 conceptual model of, 156–159, 156f control–value model and, 257–259, 258f interventions and, 163–169, 164f, 165t, 266–267 math anxiety as an example of, 157–158, 159–161 overview, 155–156, 159, 169–170, 253–254, 255 social factors in, 161–163 See also Achievement emotions; Anxiety; Performance Performance–approach goals × model achievement goal model and, 47–48 achievement goals and, 45–46, 636–637 interpersonal context and, 647–648 job performance and, 639–642, 644 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 222–223 overview, 648–649 social comparison and, 196, 205–206 See also Approach goals; Goals Performance–avoidance goals × model achievement goal model and, 47–48 achievement goals and, 45–46, 636–637 appraisals and, 185 emotions and, 259–260 interpersonal context and, 647–648 job performance and, 639–642, 645–646 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 222–223 overview, 648–649 social comparison and, 205–206 See also Avoidance goals; Goals Performance goals achievement goals and, 44, 51–52, 636–637 appraisals and, 185 Subject Index dichotomous achievement goal model and, 44–45 emotions and, 259–260 gender and, 496, 501, 502 mindsets and, 147 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 222–223 overview, 53n–54n, 648–649 pay for performance and, 245 self-efficacy beliefs and, 322 social comparison and, 203, 206 trichotomous achievement goal model and, 45–46 See also Goals; Performance Performance orientation, 636 Perry Preschool enrichment programs, 663 Persistence adolescence and, 432–433 attributional retraining and, 77 dual pathway to creativity model and, 355f, 356 early childhood and, 391–392 sports and physical education and, 627 Personal pathway model, 552, 552f Personality adolescence and, 440 attributional retraining and, 78–79 burnout and, 377–378 causal attributions and, 61–62 dual pathway to creativity model and, 354–355, 355f, 356–357 emotions and, 261–262 fixed and growth mindsets and, 136–137 gene–environment transactions and, 475–477, 476f, 477f mindsets and, 150 overview, 232, 657 self-perceptions and, 85 sports and physical education and, 624 Personality psychology, 354 Personality Research Form (PRF), 32 Person-intrinsic motivation, 336–337 Person-to-person transmission, 162–163 Perspective, 165t, 169, 393 Phobias, 318–319 Physical causality, 397–398 See also Causation Physical education applications of theory and research and, 627–631, 629t–630t competence motivation and, 622–627 overview, 620, 631 research regarding, 622–627 self-theories in, 620–622 See also Education; Sports Physical self-concept, 88f See also Selfconcept Physiological arousal, 157–158 Picture Story Exercise stimuli, 29–30 Pituitary–adrenocortical (PAC) system, 177–178 Planning, 493, 628, 629t Policies gender and, 503–504 group membership and, 559–560 immigrant experience and, 531–533 pay for performance and, 240 policy and structural interventions and, 534–536 poverty and self-regulation and, 415 transactional models and, 482–483 Positive emotions achievement emotions and, 262–263 creativity and, 358–359 parents’ involvement in learning and, 569–570 See also Emotions Positive psychology, 85–86 Positivity, 165t, 401–402 Poverty gene–environment transactions and, 480–482, 481f interventions and, 419–421, 535–536, 660–661 parents’ involvement in learning and, 572–573 policy and structural interventions and, 535–536 self-regulation in early childhood and, 409, 414–418, 419–420, 421 stereotype threat and, 303 See also Social class; Socioeconomic status Practical competencies, 11–18, 21–22 Practice under pressure techniques, 165t Praise, 36, 144–145, 224–225 See also Rewards Prediction, 121–122, 389–390 Pre-ejection period (PEP), 177–178 Preoperational stage of cognitive development, 388 Preschool PATHS (Promoting Alternative THinking Strategies) model, 418–419, 421 Pretreatment activation, 69–70 Prevention, 170, 376–381, 378f, 380f Pride, 254, 257, 258, 261 See also Emotions Primary control, 456, 456f See also Control Prior knowledge, 337, 340, 353, 532 See also Knowledge Privilege, 273–274, 541–542 Problem solving achievement emotions and, 253 dual pathway to creativity model and, 357 mindsets and, 138 overview, 10 performance anxiety and, 161 Problem-based instruction, 346–348 See also Instructional practices Procedural knowledge, 10, 14 See also Knowledge Process focus, 188, 569, 570 See also Interventions Process models, 296–300, 297f, 323 Processing capacity, 355f, 357 Profiles of goal orientation, 638 See also Goals Profit sharing, 235–236 See also Pay for performance Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), 89–90 Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS), 595 Protection, 494–495, 505 Proving, 494–495, 505 Psychological attributes, 626 See also Attributions Psychological costs, 123–125, 124f See also Cost Psychological factors, 64f, 69, 78 Psychological interventions, 158, 288, 657–659 See also Interventions Psychological processes, 659–660 Psychology, 85–86 Puberty, 432, 433, 435–436, 436f See also Adolescence Punishment, 282 Purpose, 43, 437, 438t, 441–442 Purpose for learning intervention, 442 Quasi-experimental design, 71–72, 73, 102 Subject Index 719 Race belongingness and, 273–274, 280, 281, 287 children’s views of groups and the self, 555 competence motivation and, 614–615 cultural competence and, 538–539 identity and, 550 immigrant experience and, 530–533 overview, 529, 541–542 parents’ involvement in learning and, 577–578 policy and structural interventions and, 534–536 role models and mentors and, 539–541 school-based interventions and, 531–533 stereotypes and discrimination and, 295, 305–306, 536–538 structural racism and, 533–534 theories of motivation and, 529–530 Race to the Top initiative, 489 Rainbow Project, 14–18, 19–21 Rank-estimation, 396 See also Social comparisons Reactivity, 322, 412 Reappraisals emotion regulation and, 413–414 integration and future directions, 184–187 overview, 180–184, 181f, 183f performance anxiety and, 165t, 166–168 See also Appraisals Reason achievement goals and, 44–45, 53n job performance and, 646 overview, 43 sports and physical education and, 628 Reasoning about competence and achievement, 387–401, 558 See also Achievement; Competence Reattribution of uncertainty technique, 165t Recapping, 628, 630t Reciprocal causal processes, 548 Reciprocal effects models (REMs) challenges to, 96 generalizability of, 95–96 overview, 92–93, 94–96, 95f, 108 with young children, 105–106 Reciprocity, 254, 669 Recognition, 373, 517–518 See also Rewards Reengagement, 463–464 See also Engagement Reflective awareness, 338, 408, 409–410 Reframing, 166–168, 306 Reinforcement, 476f Rejection, 591–592 Relatedness adolescence and, 437, 438t, 439–440 basic psychological needs and, 217–218, 219, 221, 226–227 burnout and, 370 competition and, 225 interest and, 335 overview, 215 race and ethnicity and, 529–530 See also Belongingness Relational conflict regulation, 198, 205 See also Conflict resolution Relational design approach, 522–523 Relational regulation, 203 Relationships adolescent developmental changes and, 435 burnout and, 373–374 mindsets and, 146–147 motivation and, 432 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 223 sports and physical education and, 624 stereotype threat and, 297 See also Belongingness Reliability, 70–71, 235 Relief, 254, 257 See also Emotions Reporting to others, 628, 630t Representations belongingness and, 284–285, 284t discontinuities between younger and older children and, 391–401 overview, 388–391 positivity in judgments and, 401–402 See also Mental representations; Selfrepresentations Research Domain Criteria (RDoC), 188 Resiliency, 320–321 Resources burnout and, 371–373 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 460, 461 competence motivation and, 608–609 math anxiety and, 159–161 performance anxiety and, 156f, 164f policy and structural interventions and, 534–536 resource allocation, 10 structural racism and, 533–534 Respect adolescence and, 432, 443 belongingness and, 281–282 burnout and, 379–381, 380f Responsive Classroom (RC) approach, 594 Resultant motivational (RM) tendency, 31 Rewards adolescence and, 443 basic psychological needs and, 219 belongingness and, 282 burnout and, 373, 374f career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–460 contingent rewards, 243 creativity and, 354 interest and, 334–335 job performance and, 644 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 223–225 peer relationships and, 592 See also Pay for performance; Praise Risk behaviors, 240, 433–435, 433f, 440, 443 Risk perception, 380 Role models, 305–306, 539–541 Rumination, 168, 196, 298 Rural Early Adolescent Learning (REAL) program, 595 Sadness, 257 Salience, 244–245, 504, 536–537 Scaffolding, 38, 418, 589–590 School choice, 535–536 See also Education School environment adolescence and, 432, 443 belongingness and, 282–283 big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) and, 100–106, 101f competence motivation and, 605, 615–616 interventions and, 677 parents’ involvement in learning and, 572, 576–577 peer relationships and, 595–596 social comparison and, 208 social-psychological interventions and, 666 structural racism and, 533 See also Environments School-based interventions, 418–420, 531– 533, 539–541 See also Interventions School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS), 419 Science interests, 491–495, 497 Science/math trait complex, 453 Second Step program, 595 Secondary control, 456, 456f See also Control Selective secondary control, 458 See also Control; Secondary control Self-affirmation techniques belongingness and, 284–285, 284t performance anxiety and, 165t, 169 social-psychological interventions and, 667–668, 669–670 Self-affirmation theory, 195 Self-approach goal, 48–50 Self-assessment, 193–197 See also Assessment Self-avoidance goal, 48–50 Self-based evaluation, 266 Self-concept academic competencies and, 408 achievement emotions and, 261, 264–265 achievement values and, 121 balanced identity model and, 552–553, 553f belongingness and, 283–286, 284t big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) and, 100–106, 101f competence assessment and, 194–195, 207 creativity and, 362 early childhood and, 105 gender and, 490, 491, 493 gene–environment transactions and, 477f interest and, 340 internal/external frame-of-reference (I/E) model and, 96–100, 98f interventions and, 106 models of, 93–94 overview, 86–87, 88f, 106–108 peer relationships and, 597 performance anxiety and, 169 reciprocal effects models (REMs) and, 94–96, 95f self-determination theory (SDT) and, 91–92 social comparison and, 194–195, 207 stereotype threat and, 297, 307 See also Academic self-concept (ASC) Self-confidence, 90, 462, 498 Self-control adolescence and, 434, 443 cyclical model of, 314f, 315–316 mindsets and, 148 motivational processes and, 665 See also Self-regulation Self-determination theory (SDT) attainable goals and, 225–226 basic psychological needs and, 217–221 burnout and, 370–371, 372–373, 374, 374f interest and, 335 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 221–225 overview, 90, 91–92, 214–215, 226–227 parenting and, 566–567 pay for performance and, 242–243, 244, 245 race and ethnicity and, 529–530 types of motivation and, 215–217, 216f Self-directed competence analysis, 75–76 720 Self-efficacy assessment and, 317–319, 318t basic psychological needs and, 218 future research directions, 328–329 internal/external frame-of-reference (I/E) model and, 97, 99 interventions and, 127 overview, 87–90, 88f, 232, 313, 317–318, 318t race and ethnicity and, 529–530 self-monitoring and, 324–328, 326f self-regulation and, 315 sources and effects of, 320–321 stereotypes and discrimination and, 537 training, 321–324 See also Beliefs Self-enhancement, 495 Self-esteem balanced identity model and, 553f gender and, 500–501 interventions and, 106 mindsets and, 138–139, 141, 143–144 overview, 93–94 social comparison and, 194–195 strategies to repair, 143–144 See also Self-concept Self-evaluation maintenance model, 195 Self-evaluations early childhood and, 392 gender and, 491–492, 493–494 job performance and, 648 overview, 87 self-efficacy beliefs and, 317, 318t, 322 self-regulation and, 314f, 317 social comparison and, 194–195, 195–197 Self-focused attributions, 63–65, 64f See also Attributions Self-focused mindset interventions, 165t, 168–169 See also Interventions; Mindsets Self-fulfilling prophecy, 668 Self-identity, 550 Self-instruction, 314f, 315–316, 322–323 See also Instructional practices; Learning Self-judgment, 314f, 317–318, 318t Self-monitoring, 319, 320 See also Metacognitive monitoring Self-motivation beliefs/values, 314f, 323 See also Beliefs; Motivation; Values Self-observation, 314f, 315–316 Self-oriented standards of competence, 222 Self-perceptions big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) and, 100–106, 101f internal/external frame-of-reference (I/E) model and, 96–100, 98f interventions and, 106 overview, 85–86, 106–108 reciprocal effects models (REMs) and, 94–96, 95f theoretical conceptualizations of, 86–93, 88f See also Perceptions Self-protection, 495 Self-reaction, 314f, 317 Self-recording, 314f, 316, 323, 324 Self-reflection, 314, 317, 327 Self-regulation achievement and, 46, 254 attributional retraining and, 79 career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–464, 465 cyclical model of, 313–317, 314f early childhood and, 408–409, 421–422 future research directions, 328–329 Subject Index gender and, 493 goal setting and, 322–323 interventions in early childhood and, 418–421 job performance and, 641 learning and, 319, 324 mindsets and, 142–144, 147 motivation and, 216, 216f motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) and, 458 overview, 313, 409–414 peer relationships and, 597 self-determination theory (SDT) and, 215–217, 216f stereotype threat and, 298–299 training, 321–324 See also Self-control Self-Regulation Empowerment Program (SREP), 328–329 Self-report instruments, 318–319, 641–642 See also Assessment Self-representations, 392–393, 403n See also Representations Self-satisfaction, 314f, 317, 324 Self-schemas, 118f, 550 Self-socialization, 550 See also Socialization Self-theories applications of, 627–631, 629t–630t overview, 620–622, 631 sports and physical education and, 621–622, 623, 627–631, 629t–630t Sensation-seeking urges, 433–435, 433f Sex role identify, 119 See also Gender Shame achievement emotions and, 34, 36, 254–255, 256–257, 258, 261 gender and, 494 See also Emotions Single-Category IAT, 31 Situational context, 262, 363 Situational interest, 336, 337–338, 344–348 See also Interest Skills career-related challenges across adulthood and, 462–463 gene–environment transactions and, 476f parenting and, 567 self-efficacy beliefs and, 324 translating into achievement, 9–11 worklife and, 454 Social class independent model of competence and, 515–520 interventions and, 520–524 models of competence and, 513–515, 514f overview, 512–513, 524 stereotype threat and, 295 structural racism and, 533 See also Class factors; Poverty; Socioeconomic status Social comparisons achievement goals and, 202–207 belongingness and, 274 big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) and, 100–106, 101f competence assessment and, 193–197 competence satisfaction and, 91 conflict regulation and, 197–198, 202–207 discontinuities between younger and older children and, 395–396 mindsets and, 143–144 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 222 overview, 192, 207–209 pay for performance and, 236 self-efficacy beliefs and, 320 sociocognitive conflicts and, 197–202 See also Comparisons Social competencies, 88f, 432, 586–593, 596–598 See also Peer relationships Social factors acceptance and rejection, 591–592 achievement emotions and, 256–260, 258f adolescence and, 434, 439–440, 443–444 approval goals, 50 causal pathways and, 549–551 children’s views of groups and the self, 553–559 conflict and, 354 context and, 283–286, 284t cost and, 123–125, 124f emotions and, 252, 435–436, 436f gender and, 496–500 gene–environment transactions and, 476f group membership and, 559–561 job performance and, 642 motivational processes and, 659–660 overview, 547–549 performance anxiety and, 161–163 relationships and, 146–147, 432 self-concept and, 88f self-efficacy beliefs and, 320 self-regulation and, 313–314, 417 social pressure, 161–162 transitions and, 674–675 See also Belongingness Social identity, 550, 551–552 Social information-processing models, 418–419 Social interactions, 192, 373–374, 379–381, 380f, 589–592 Social learning, 434 See also Learning Social psychology, 354 Social reorienting, 432 Social responsibility goals, 50 Social skills, 21, 595 Social status goals adolescence and, 432–433 adolescent developmental changes and, 435, 436f career-related challenges across adulthood and, 460 overview, 50 See also Social striving Social striving children’s views of groups and the self, 553–559 dual-pathway model and, 551–553, 551f, 552f, 553f overview, 547–549, 559–561 See also Social status goals; Status goals; Strivings Social support, 275, 589–592 Social trait complex, 453 Social-belonging intervention, 279–280, 287 See also Interventions Social-cognitive achievements, 432 Social-cognitive theory (SCT), 218, 590–591 Social-identity threat, 273 Socialization choice and, 675 gender and, 490, 496–500 gene–environment transactions and, 476f meaning systems and, 144–145 mindsets and, 135, 144–145 Subject Index 721 models of competence and, 514–515 overview, 550 parenting and, 567, 575 role of children in, 570–572 self-theories and, 626 stereotype threat and, 303 Social-psychological intervention overview, 662, 665–670, 675–680 tailoring to the individual, 671–672 targeting, 670–671 timing of, 672–675 See also Interventions Sociocognitive conflicts, 192, 197–202, 205, 206, 207, 208 See also Conflict Sociocultural influences, 496–500 See also Cultural influences; Social factors Socioeconomic status career-related challenges across adulthood and, 460 gene–environment transactions and, 480–482, 481f interest and, 340 interventions in early childhood and, 419–421 parents’ involvement in learning and, 572–573, 578, 579 structural racism and, 533 See also Poverty; Social class Socioemotional learning (SEL) model, 418–419, 422 Sports applications of theory and research and, 627–631, 629t–630t competence motivation and, 622–627 interventions and, 51–53 mindsets and, 147 overview, 620, 631 pay for performance and, 246n research regarding, 622–627 self-efficacy beliefs and, 319, 324 self-theories in, 620–622 See also Physical education Stability, 62–63, 63f, 624–625 Stage theory of cognitive development, 388–389 Stage–environment fit theory, 610 Standard Achievement Test (SAT), 14–18, 20–21 Standards, 91, 221–222 State interest, 335–336 See also Interest Status goals, 435, 436f See also Social status goals; Social striving Status-relevant affective learning systems, 435–436 Stereotype threat applications of, 301–308 gender-based stereotype threat and, 491–492 interventions and, 305–308 mechanisms of, 295–301, 297f overview, 294–295, 307–308 performance anxiety and, 162, 167 race and ethnicity and, 536–538 See also Stereotypes; Stigmatization; Threat appraisals Stereotypes adolescence and, 443 balanced identity model and, 553f belongingness and, 273, 281, 284–285, 284t children’s views of groups and the self, 554, 555 choice and, 675 cultural competence and, 538–539 gender and, 499, 500, 501, 503, 504 mindsets and, 141–142, 149 overview, 541–542 performance anxiety and, 161–162 race and ethnicity and, 530, 536–538 social-psychological interventions and, 666–667 See also Stereotype threat Stigmatization, 283, 304, 432 See also Stereotype threat Strategic planning, 315, 325–326 Strategies, 10, 138, 161, 315, 321–322 Strengths, 434–435, 638 Stress appraisal theory of stress and coping and, 175–176 biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat and, 177 challenge and threat reappraisals and, 181 creativity and, 360–361 poverty and self-regulation and, 415, 415–416 self-efficacy beliefs and, 320 stereotype threat and, 298, 301 stress hormones, 158 Strivings career goals and, 456–459, 456f, 457f causal pathways and, 549–551 overview, 226–227 research on, 548–549 See also Social striving Stroke volume (SV), 178 Structural racism, 533–534 Structure, 355f, 360–361, 569, 595–596 Study skills training, 267 Subjective task value, 124f Subjective values, 119 See also Values Success, 627 Suicidal ideation or behavior, 275 Summer Bridge program, 540 Sunk costs, 123–125, 124f See also Cost Supervisors, 261–262, 373 Sympathetic–adrenal–medullary (SAM) system, 177–178, 182 Synchronicity, 657–658 Tailoring intervention, 671–672 See also Interventions TARGET framework, 51–52 See also Achievement goals Targeting interventions, 670–671 See also Interventions Task analysis, 314, 314f, 315–316, 320 Task-approach goal, 48–50 Task-avoidance goal, 48–50 Task-based evaluation, 266 Task-intrinsic motivation, 336 Task-irrelevant thinking, 254–255 Task-oriented standard of competence, 221–222 Task-related behavior, 341–342 See also Behavior Tasks academic tasks and competence motivation and, 610–611 achievement emotions and, 260, 263–265 achievement goals and, 636 adulthood and, 451 burnout and, 379 creativity and, 360–361 dual pathway to creativity model and, 354–355, 355f enjoyment, 254 goals and, 53n–54n interest and, 315, 336 See also Interest motivation and, 305–306 outcomes and, 316, 318, 318t overview, 53n–54n performance and, 90–91, 157, 641 sports and physical education and, 628, 629t strategies, 314f, 315–316 values and, 117, 119 See also Values Task/self-based standard, 44 Teach for America (TFA), 535 Teachers belongingness and, 282–283, 287 competence motivation and, 606–607 emotions and, 261–262 gender and, 491, 499–500 math anxiety and, 162–163 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 223 peer relationships and, 590–591, 593–595 policy and structural interventions and, 535 self-regulation and, 313–314 social-psychological interventions and, 679–680 stereotypes and, 305, 537–538 structural racism and, 533 training, 38 Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) program, 579 Temperaments, 46, 136–137 Test anxiety achievement emotions and, 255, 259–260, 265 appraisals and, 256 control–value model and, 257–259, 258f interventions and, 266–267 math anxiety and, 163 overview, 157, 170 person-to-person transmission of, 162–163 stereotype threat and, 306 See also Achievement emotions; Performance anxiety; Testing Test Anxiety Scale, 163 Test motivation, 477f Testing achievement emotions and, 255 belongingness and, 273 challenge and threat reappraisals and, 183–184 competence motivation and, 607, 611–613 contextual factors and, 11 early childhood and, 390 incentives and, 241 mindsets and, 149–150 optimal conditions for need satisfaction and, 222 overview, 21–22 peer relationships and, 589 performance anxiety and, 157, 162–163 social-psychological interventions and, 666–667 stereotype threat and, 302–303, 304–305, 306 See also Academic competencies; Test anxiety Testosterone, 435–437, 436f See also Hormonal functioning Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 29, 29t, 30 Theoretical perspectives, 68–69, 529–530 Theory of mind, 396–397 Thought suppression, 298–299 Threat, 195–196, 200–202, 416–418, 440 Threat appraisals adolescence and, 440 appraisal theory of stress and coping and, 175–176 722 Threat appraisals (cont.) belongingness and, 281–282 biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat and, 176–178 dynamics of, 178–180, 179f integration and future directions, 184–187 overview, 175, 187–188 self-regulation in early childhood and, 420–421 See also Appraisals; Stereotype threat Threat reappraisals, 180–184, 181f, 183f See also Reappraisals Threatening social comparisons, 193–197 See also Social comparisons Thrill seeking behaviors, 433–435, 433f See also Risk behaviors Time interventions and, 658–659, 672–675 motivation and, 659–660, 662–665, 664f social influences and, 659–660 social-psychological interventions and, 669–670 Time management, 315–316, 354, 360 Total peripheral resistance (TPR), 178, 187 Traits, 338–340, 398–400, 452–453 Transactional models academic achievement and, 480–482, 481f interventions and, 482–484 motivation and, 475–482, 477f, 481f overview, 473–475, 484 Transactional processes, 478–479 Transactional stress model, 257 Transitions attributional retraining and, 79–80 belongingness and, 278–283 interventions and, 674–675 mindsets and, 151n motivation and, 432 parents’ involvement in learning and, 576 peer relationships and, 597 Transmission of emotions, 265 See also Emotions Trauma, 417, 419–420 Treatment achievement emotions and, 258f, 266–267 attributional retraining and, 66–71, 68f, 71t burnout and, 381 effects of, 483 performance anxiety and, 163–169, 164f, 165t, 170 See also Interventions Treatment consolidation, 69–70, 72, 74 Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), 187, 421 Subject Index Triggered situational interest, 341 See also Interest Triggers, 626, 665–670 TRIO Program, 540 Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), 240 Trying See Effort Undoing Racism workshop, 538–539 Unexpected rewards See Rewards Unidimensional perspectives, 93–94 University Leadership Network (ULN), 560 University of Michigan Business School Project, 18–19 Updating, 300 Upward Bound program, 540–541 Upward social comparisons, 194 See also Social comparisons Urgent goal pursuit, 458 See also Goals Utility value, 119, 121, 124f, 344–346 See also Values Utility–value intervention (UVI), 345–346 Valence, 252t, 253, 636, 644–645 Validity, 69, 72–73 Valuation belongingness and, 276t, 278–283, 287 challenge and threat appraisals and, 179f self-regulation and, 315 See also Values Values affirmation, 284–285 appraisals and, 257–259, 258f, 261 basic psychological needs and, 220 belongingness and, 285 burnout and, 372, 374–375, 374f, 375f, 379–381, 380f choice and, 675 cost and, 122–125, 124f dual pathway to creativity model and, 355f gender and, 490, 490–494, 503 interest and, 336, 339, 344 interventions and, 125–130, 128t outcomes and, 121–122 overview, performance anxiety and, 169 race and ethnicity and, 530, 536–537 relationship to outcomes, 120–121 self-efficacy beliefs and, 321–322 self-regulation and, 314f Verbal rewards See Praise; Rewards Verbal self-concept (VSC), 87, 88f, 96–100, 98f Weight factors, 147–148, 295 Well-being emotions and, 261–262 peer relationships and, 591, 597 self-perceptions and, 85 worklife and, 449 Wise feedback, 305–306, 676 See also Feedback Wishful thinking, 393–394, 397 Work and Family Orientation Scale, 32 Work goals, 453–454 See also Employment; Goals Work interventions, 51–53 See also Interventions Work–Family Orientation Questionnaire, 32 Working class See Social class Working memory achievement emotions and, 265 emotion regulation and, 413 math anxiety and, 159–161 overview, 410 performance anxiety and, 164, 170 social comparison and, 196 stereotype threat and, 299–300, 301 See also Executive functions; Memory Working memory capacity (WMC), 299, 356 Worklife career-related challenges across adulthood and, 459–464 cognitive aging and, 452–454 control potential and, 450–454 incentive structures and, 523 institutionalization of the independent model of competence, 516–517 job performance and, 639–642 motivational theory of lifespan development (MTD) and, 455–459, 456f, 457f overview, 449–450, 464–465 social class and, 519–520, 523 societal and occupational opportunities and constraints, 454–455 See also Employment Work–life balance, 376–377 Workload, 373–376, 374f, 375f Workplace environment, 647–648 See also Employment; Environments; Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology Worry gender and, 494, 499 interventions and, 164 job performance and, 641 performance anxiety and, 156–157, 156f, 164f stereotype threat and, 298 See also Anxiety Yerkes–Dodson curve, 412 Young children See Early childhood ebook THE GUILFORD PRESS .. .HANDBOOK OF COMPETENCE AND MOTIVATION Handbook of Competence and Motivation SECOND EDITION Theory and Application Edited by Andrew J Elliot Carol S Dweck David... INTRODUCTION CH A P T ER Competence and Motivation Theory and Application ANDREW J. ELLIOT CAROL S. DWECK DAVID S. YEAGER A dozen years ago, the Handbook of Competence and Motivation (Elliot &... extended focus of the Handbook will broaden and deepen our coverage of this important area of inquiry, and prompt new insights from the theory- ­to-­ practice interface The Handbook reflects and celebrates