Handbook of bowen family systems theory and research methods mignonette n keller, robert j noone, routledge, 2020 scan

“One of the important contributions of Keller and Noone’s volume of collected studies from the perspective of Bowen Theory is its focus on concepts in family systems theory and related constructs in the wider multidisciplinary research literature The authors of these studies are deeply conversant with Bowen theory and its potential as an integrative theory to guide research and practice This is a project that aims to carry forth Bowen’s most ambitious goal for his family systems theory, that of moving towards a science of human behavior.” Laura Havstad, Ph.D., director, Programs in Bowen Theory, Northern California “Diverse perspectives of empirical research are necessary to address the complexities of research in family systems Reciprocal influences of individuals and families, families and communities, and communities and culture require a consistent theoretical grounding for approaching meaningful questions Launched from Bowen family systems theory, Keller and Noone have assembled a knowledgeable group of scholars and practitioners to address important concerns of family research for an invaluable resource for family systems researchers It is an important text for those seeking to design and interpret systems research.” David S Hargrove, Ph.D., is professor emeritus at the University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, where he served as chairperson of the Department of Psychology, interim chair of the Department of Modern Languages and interim chair of the Department of Exercise Science “The Bowen family systems theory field will advance as a natural science when the ideas are applied and systematically researched by many professionals in varying fields of study This book has collected the research and explorations of seasoned experts in our field, investigating ways of advancing the theory and its applications The effort to research families as an emotional system is daunting and complex This collection of works documents how many authors and researchers have undertaken the challenge It will be a valued resource in my library.” Walter Howard Smith, Jr., Ph.D., is a trustee of the Casey Family Programs Foundation based in Seattle, WA He is the retired Deputy Director and Clinical Director at the Allegheny County Department of Human Services in Pittsburgh, PA, where he served as Deputy Director of the Office of Children, Youth, and Family Services He is a licensed psychologist in private practice Handbook of Bowen Family Systems Theory and Research Methods The Handbook of Bowen Family Systems Theory and Research Methods presents innovative approaches on a range of issues inherent in family research and discusses the links between theory, data collection, and data analysis based on Bowen family systems theory This multi-authored volume discusses core issues within family systems theory, including anxiety, stress, emotional cutoff, differentiation of self, multigenerational transmission process, and nuclear family emotional process Chapters also examine related constructs in the research literature such as adaptation, resilience, social support, social networks, and intergenerational family relations Readers will be able to view theoretical and methodological issues from the perspective of Bowen theory and develop a clearer knowledge of ways to navigate the challenges faced when studying individual, familial, and societal problems An essential resource for clinicians and researchers in the social and natural sciences, the Handbook of Bowen Family Systems Theory and Research Methods provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the application of Bowen theory to family practice and family research Mignonette N Keller, Ph.D., is faculty at the Bowen Center for the Study of the Family in Washington, D.C., and former assistant professor in the School of Social Work at Howard University, Washington, D.C She received her doctorate from Howard University, Washington, D.C., master’s from the University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, and postgraduate training at Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, D.C Robert J Noone, Ph.D., is faculty at the Center for Family Consultation, Evanston, IL, and the Bowen Center for the Study of the Family in Washington, D.C He is the editor of the journal Family Systems and co-editor of The Family Emotional System (2015) He received his doctorate from the University of Illinois at Chicago and postgraduate training at Georgetown University Medical Center in Washington, D.C Handbook of Bowen Family Systems Theory and Research Methods A Systems Model for Family Research Edited by Mignonette N Keller and Robert J Noone First published 2020 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 Taylor & Francis The right of Mignonette N Keller and Robert J Noone to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this title has been requested ISBN: 978-1-138-47811-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-47812-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-10328-2 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Swales & Willis, Exeter, Devon, UK Contents Notes on Editors Notes on Contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Introduction Mignonette N Keller and Robert J Noone x xi xiv xxi xxviii PART I Foundations of Family Research Introduction 13 The Role of Theory in Family Research Mignonette N Keller and C Margaret Hall 15 The Origins of Family Research John F Butler 24 Developing a Systems Model for Family Assessment Daniel V Papero 36 PART II Bowen Theory: A Systems Model for Family Research 47 Bowen Theory: A Systems Model for Family Research Mignonette N Keller 49 Data Collection and Family Research Mignonette N Keller 62 Data Analysis and Family Research Carrie E Collier 74 vii Contents PART III Mechanisms Influencing Family Functioning: Stress/Anxiety, Differentiation of Self and Emotional Cutoff Stress/Anxiety Stress, Chronic Anxiety, and Symptom Development: A Family Systems Perspective Robert J Noone 91 93 Bowen Theory in the Study of Physiology and Family Systems Victoria Harrison 105 Human Stress Genomics and Bowen Theory: Potential for Future Research Laurie Lassiter 120 10 Use of Differentiation of Self in Family Research Randall T Frost 138 11 Emotional Cutoff Anne S McKnight 157 12 Cutoff and Self-Functioning in Three Generations of Families with Substance Abusing Teenagers Anne S McKnight 174 13 Within Family Variability: Intergenerational Cutoff and Family Projection in an Adopted Family Laura R Brooks 188 PART IV Mechanisms Influencing Multigenerational Family Functioning 201 14 Nuclear Family Emotional Process Robert J Noone 203 15 The Primary Triangle and Variation in Family Functioning Phillip Klever 216 16 Family Emotional System and the African American Family Mignonette N Keller 236 17 Multigenerational Transmission Process Robert J Noone 254 18 The Multigenerational Transmission of Family Unit Functioning Phillip Klever 265 viii Contents 19 The Multigenerational Transmission Process and Family Functioning Mignonette N Keller 278 PART V Interdisciplinary Use of Bowen Family Systems Theory 299 20 Anthropological Contributions to the Study of the Human Family Joanne Bowen 301 21 Bowen Theory Integrated into Nursing Phyllis W Sharps 321 22 The Family: A Public Health Approach Yvonne Bronner, Paul Archibald, Ian Lindong, and Barbara Laymon 332 23 The Family and Academic Achievement Clancie Mavello Wilson 347 PART VI Implications for Future Directions in Family Research 363 24 Extension of Bowen Theory to Include Natural Systems of Human Societies and Their Sustaining Environments Patricia A Comella 365 25 Future Directions of Family Research C Margaret Hall Appendix A: Cutoff and Self-Functioning in Three Generations of Families and Substance Abusing Teenagers Anne S McKnight 389 396 Appendix B: Standardized Questions for Annual Interviews Laura R Brooks 397 Appendix C: Multigenerational Family History Assessment Module Mignonette N Keller 398 Index 427 ix Mignonette N Keller What was or is your father’s occupation? Please specify position _ 10 What was or is your mother’s occupation? Please specify position _ 11 What was or is the occupation for each of your siblings? Please specify the position for each sibling below ranging from the eldest to the youngest One _ Two _ Three _ Four _ Five _ Six _ References American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Test Revision Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Bowen, M (1978) Family Therapy in Clinical Practice New York: Jason Aronson Harrison, V (2018) The family diagram & family research: An illustrated guide to tools for working on differentiation of self in one’s family Houston, TX: Center for the Study of Natural Systems and the Family Kerr, M (1974) The Family Evaluation Interview Washington, DC: Georgetown University Family Center McGoldrick, M & Gerson, R (1985) Genograms in Family Assessment New York: W W Norton 426 Index Aburn, G 140 abuse 152, 163, 168, 170, 177, 178 academic achievement 347–362 accounting records, as data source 311–312 adaptiveness: adaptive mechanisms 54–55; anxiety 53; automatic adaptive behavior 206; continuum of 99; epigenetics 261; family adaptive mechanisms 6, 36, 100–102; framework for assessing family unit functioning 42; human ecology 305; lack of unifying theory 139; launching independent children 336; marital conflict 209; measurement problems 140; models of family functioning 175; multigenerational transmission process 258; multiple definitions of 139; slavery 237; in spousal relationships 55; and stress 93, 94, 99, 100; systems theory 140 adolescence 165, 174–187, 246–247, 250, 257, 327–328, 336, 352–353, 356 adoption 189 Adoptive Family Study 188, 191, 192–199 adrenalin 108, 109, 112, 113 advanced practice nurses 325 adverse childhood experiences 279; see also trauma adversity, coping with 37, 38 affairs 165 African American families 236–253, 333, 347–362 Agillias, K 170 aging 165, 281, 334, 339 Ainsworth, M 98, 204 Akhavain, P 327 alcohol 176, 270, 274, 281, 328; see also substance abuse Aldous, J 278 Allman, John 109 allostatic load 94, 97, 100, 335 Alvard, M S 304, 316 Alzheimer’s disease 58, 59, 340 American Psychiatric Association 180, 183 American Psychological Association 139, 335 amygdala 95–96, 97, 112 ancestor veneration 315–316, 318 Anderson, D 243, 244, 245 Anderson, K H 323 Andreasen, N C 63, 64 anger 87 animal behavioral studies 376, 380–381 anterior cingulate gyrus (ACG) 109 anthropology 7, 301–320 anxiety: absorption of 85; and academic achievement 356–357; adaptive mechanisms 54–55; African American families study 245–246; anthropology 309; anxiety-driven roles 87; data analysis 75–77, 78, 82, 83; and differential parenting 190–191; and differentiation of self 145–146, 328; and emotional cutoff 166, 167; in emotional triangles 107; family diagrams 77, 78; family projection processes 168, 188; focus on child (over-) 189; framework for assessing family unit functioning 42; and functioning xv, 38, 39, 52–53, 266; and infertility 291–292; and instinct 374, 376; measuring changes in 86; multigenerational transmission process 78, 257, 290–291; nuclear family emotional process 166–167, 242, 245–246; nursing 326, 327; nutrient insecurity 377–378; physiological reactivity 113–116; and physiology 99–100, 106; as shared emotional process 82–83; and sibling position 169; societal emotional processes 301; and stress response 99–100; transfer of 82–83, 132, 205, 208, 211–212, 265; and triangles 217, 230, 371; unmanaged anxiety 42, 83; unresolved anxiety 78; see also chronic anxiety approval, seeking 125, 127, 163 archival records 59, 70, 282 Arnsten, A F T 96, 97, 99, 207 attachment theory xiii, 88, 98, 111, 116, 204 attrition analysis 28, 33 audio recordings 30, 32, 88 Auerbach, C F 151, 192, 223 authoritarian parenting 176 autobiographies 58, 69, 88 automaticity 163, 206, 258, 369–370 autonomic nervous system (ANS) 95, 96, 97, 107, 144, 207, 338 autonomy, individual 1, 37, 88, 101, 166, 207, 256, 259; see also differentiation of self autonomy-in-connection 150 Avant, K C 322 avoidance 76, 87 427 Index Babbie, E 57, 67, 68, 69, 70, 74 Bailey, J A 139 Baker, K G 66, 150, 153, 162–163 Barnard, A 306, 307 Barnes, G M 175, 176 basic needs, meeting family members’ 36, 37, 43 Bates, Daniel 304, 310, 314 Bateson, Gregory 303 Baumeister, R F 139, 140 Beavers, R 266 Beck, B B 380 Beck, R L 65 behavior theories behavioral change, encouraging 238 behavioral genetics 189 behavioral information, collecting 63 behavioral markers 4, 18, 87 behavioral parameters 305 behavioral patterns 17, 206 behaviorism Bell, J 323 Belsky, J 217, 218, 233 Bengtson, V 8, 49, 64, 278, 282 Ben-Jacob, E 206 Berardo, F M 282 bereavement 126 Bethesda, Maryland 2, 25 Bibles as data source 59, 70, 248, 283 Biesecker, B 139, 141, 142 biofeedback 107, 108, 112, 153, 160 biological psychiatry 204 biology 3–4, 5, 6, 8, 98, 105–119, 120–137, 153, 260, 279, 390 birth order/sibling positions 102, 168–169, 257, 328, 338, 374, 391–392, 393 Blake, L 157, 169, 170 blame of others 87, 197, 198, 211 Blassingame, J 237, 238 blood pressure 108 blood work 108, 110, 128 Bonner, John Tyler 379–380 Borke, H 64, 68 Boszormenyi-Nagy, I 55 Bourdieu, P 356 Bouvier, L F 290–291 Bowen, Murray xii, xv–xvi, 1, 302–303 Bowen Archives 25, 31, 32, 33 Bowen Center for the Study of the Family 24, 107, 225, 380 Bowlby, J 204 Boyer, E 322, 323 Boykin, A W 349 Bradt, J 65, 68 Braudel, Fernand 310 Bray, J H 217 Bridges, L 171 Brodey, Warren 31 Brody, G 233 428 Bronfenbrenner, U 347–348, 350–352, 356 Brooks, L 151, 190, 197 Brown, R 109 Buchanan, Tony 109 bullying 140 Burghardt, Gordon M 380 burnout 328–329, 330 Burr, W R 49 Burt, K B 110–111 Butler, E 111–112 Butler, J F 6, 15, 18, 37, 44, 62, 164, 211, 280, 368, 369 Cabot, John 310 Cacioppo, J T 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 131, 133 Calgary family assessment model 323, 324 Calgary family intervention model 323, 324 Calhoun, John B 380 cancer and social stress 127–128 cancer diagnosis, as stressor 126 cancer studies 64, 65 capitalism 304, 313 Carr, Aaron 242 Carter, C S 204 Carter, E A 50 case study data 55–57, 58, 65, 70–71, 160–163, 191, 339–343, 390–391 catastrophic thinking 42 catecholamine 108 cause-and-effect associations 38, 84, 85 CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy) 171 census data 69, 70 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 333 central nervous system 95, 107, 125, 131 chain of evidence 71 Champagne, F A 261, 262 change, analysis of 85–87, 116, 152, 153 chart audits 64 Chase, P G 304, 305, 307, 316 Chen, Z 282 child abuse 152, 177 Child and Adolescent Functional Assessment Scale (CAFAS) 179, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185 child development 88, 140–141, 328, 350, 351 China 302, 314–317, 318 chronic anxiety: data analysis 78, 79, 81; data collection 52–53; differentiation of self 149–150, 195, 328; downward spirals 131; emotional cutoff 191; and external social systems 212; family projection processes 190, 197, 256; and instinct 376; multigenerational transmission process 293; nuclear family emotional process 207, 208; nursing 327; and under- or over-functioning 211; and physiology 106; societal emotional processes 301; and stress 93, 98, 99–100, 108, 337; tension management 42; and triangles 217, 231 chronologies, as method 16–17 circadian rhythms 124 Index circumplex model of family functioning 175 Clark, Delphina H 311–312 Clark, R 354, 355 coaching 86, 326, 383 coding of data 63, 111, 192, 223, 225 cognitive reserve concept 340–341 cognitive theory 7, 109, 110 cohorts 8, 67 Cole, M 349 Cole, S 120, 123, 124, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133 Coleman, J S 348 collaborative practice 327 Colletta, N 354 Comella, P 377, 387 communication content 84 communication within families 175, 176, 226–227, 324 comparison groups 29 competition for resources 304 computational biology xvi–xvii computer science Comte, A 278 conflict: conflict theory 1, 8; effect on child of 88; and emotional cutoff 167; family diagrams 77–78; marital conflict 209–210; mechanism to manage anxiety 76; nuclear family emotional process 208; nursing research 329; social conflict 125–126; in spousal relationships 54, 55, 88, 209–210; and stress response 100–101; and substance abuse 328; and triangles 228, 230 Conley, D 189 consensus-building 384–385 conserved transcriptional response to adversity (CTRA) 123, 125–128, 129, 132 construct validity 68–69 constructive parenting 282 continua-based model for assessing family functioning 40–44, 86, 88, 99 Cook, L 328, 329–330 coping: developmental theory 141; lack of unifying theory 139; measurement problems 140; multiple definitions of 139; nuclear family emotional process 248; and substance abuse 176; systems theory 140; see also resilience correlational data 85, 178–179 corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) 107, 108 cortisol 95–96, 108, 110, 111, 112, 116, 153, 280, 292, 335 counseling 86 Cowan, A 49 Cox, M J 88 C-reactive protein 108 Creswell, J W 56, 57 criterion-related validity 68 critical care units 326 cross-sectional studies 58, 64 culture 303, 305, 307, 314, 318, 349, 351, 353, 356, 377, 380, 394 culture of health 333 Cummings, E M 88 Curley, J P 261, 262 cutoff see emotional cutoff; geographical cutoff; multigenerational cutoff cybernetics 1, Damasio, Antonio 6, 95, 206 Daniels, D 189 Darwin, Charles 304 data analysis 74–90; Adoptive Family Study 192; African American families study 242; Family Study Project 32; methodological significance of Bowen theory 9–10; multigenerational transmission process 283; physiological reactivity 115–116; systems theory 56; theory development 16, 19–20; triangles study 225 data coding 63, 111, 192, 223, 225 data collection 9, 16, 19, 26, 30–32, 50–51, 62–73, 241 data visualization 116 Dattilio, F 171 Davis, D 355 Davydov, D 138–139, 140–141 Day, L H 180, 186 Deater-Deckard, K 336 death, responses to 208 Deatrick, J 323 dementia 58, 59, 339–343 demographic information on study participants 33 Denenberg, V 260 Denham, S A 323 depression 94, 108, 112, 126, 128, 165, 270, 280, 342–343, 356 deprivation xiv DeShong, H 65 detachment 26, 27, 107 de-triangling 43 Deutsch, M 348, 356 developmental theory 1, 8, 88, 93, 140–141, 151, 154, 328, 350–352 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder 180–181 diagnostic models 18 diaries 58, 69 Dietz, F 112 Dietz, M 112 differentiation of self 138–156; and academic achievement 350, 352; as basis for stability and health 116; and burnout 328–329; characteristics of xv, 38, 86–87; and connection to extended family 150, 259; continuum of 143–144, 293; data analysis 77; and emotional cutoff 87, 150, 153–154, 158, 164, 166, 190, 191, 195–196; family diagrams 78, 79; of family leader 39–40; 429 Index Family Study Project xiv; functional versus basic 146–149, 150; and functioning 266; and fusion 150, 166, 208, 337; future research directions 390, 393; goal structures 43–44; and the human metagenome 132; intergenerational connection 81; levels of differentiation 80; life forces 147–148; and marital conflict 209; and the marital relationship 81–82; and maturity 356; measures of 82; measuring dimensions of family functioning 52, 53–54; at molecular level 129–130; multigenerational transmission process 256, 257, 265, 293–294; nuclear family emotional process 238, 239, 247–248; nursing 324–325, 326, 327, 328; parents’ 81; and physiology 106–107, 116; premature/accidental deaths 293; public health 335–336, 337; in researchers xvii; and resourcefulness 40–41; and slavery 247–248; and stress 93, 99, 271, 294; and taking sides 125; theoretical conceptualizations 143–149; as theoretical construct 4; and triangles 217, 231; use in family research 138–156 Differentiation of Self Inventory (DSI-R) 89, 150, 153, 158, 328 Differentiation of Self Inventory for Nurses (DSI-RN) 329 differentiation-of-self scale 50, 53 digital skin temperature (DST) 108, 112, 113 Dillon, C A 175 dimensional model for assessing family functioning 40–44, 86, 88, 99 disability 165, 169, 336 distance: behavioral markers 87; and emotional cutoff 167; emotional distancing 208–209; mechanism to manage anxiety 76; nuclear family emotional process 208; and stability 116; and stress response 100–101; and triangles 218, 220–221, 225–226, 228, 231, 232 divorce 54, 55, 165, 171, 176, 229, 232, 274, 355, 356 DNA 121, 260, 280 doctor-patient transference relationship xii domestic violence 274 dominance rank 122, 123 Dowd, S 151 Downey, H K 57 Doyle, M 171 drugs see substance abuse Durkheim, Emile 303 Dysinger, R H Earle, T 302, 304, 314, 316 early childhood adversity 94, 101 earth, connection to the 310, 314, 315, 316, 366–367, 392–393 Eccles, J S 357 ecological approaches 7, 333 ecological systems model 347–348, 350–352 ecology of society 305 430 ecomaps 63, 324, 325, 326; see also family diagrams econometric methods 189 economic anthropology 304, 305 ecosystems 1, 315 Edmund, A 355 EEG 110 ego development scores 217–218 ego fusion see fusion Eichholz, A 160 electrodermal response (EDR) 108, 109, 112, 113, 115 electromyography 108, 109, 110 Elston, G N 96 embodied histories 39 EMG (skeletal muscle activity) 108, 109, 113, 114 emotional abuse 170 emotional cutoff 157–173; behavioral markers 87; and contact with extended family 150–151; definition 175, 185; and differentiation of self 87, 150, 153–154, 158, 164, 166, 190, 191, 195–196; difficulties of defining and measuring 185–186; family diagrams 78; framework for assessing family unit functioning 41; future research directions 391; and instinct 374; intensity of relationship 80; intergenerational 163, 188–200; and levels of reproduction 292; life stages 165; measurement tools 180–186; measuring dimensions of family functioning 52, 54; in the midst of family 176–177; multigenerational transmission process 87, 162–163, 258–260, 281–282, 283, 291–292, 295; multiple generations of substance-abusing teenagers 174–187; nuclear family emotional process 213, 246–247; nursing 324; origins of the concept 164–165; and the other seven core concepts 165–171; preservative quality of 177, 186; public health 334, 338; qualitative methods 160–163; quantitative methods 158–160; and social isolation 123–124; societal emotional processes 161–163, 169–171, 375; and substance abuse 328; theoretical conceptualizations 4, 163–171, 176–178, 189–192, 195; and triangles 229, 231, 232; see also distance Emotional Cutoff Scale (ECS) 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184 emotional process in society 59, 303, 370, 372–375, 390, 392–393, 394 emotional processes: anxiety as 82–83; basic to life 6, 75, 106, 144, 205–206; data analysis 76; future research directions 390, 391 emotional reactiveness: and differentiation of self 166; and emotional cutoff 158; and family functioning 38; human stress genomics 131; and levels of reproduction 292; as marker of tension 42; and ovulation 160, 294; and triangles 228, 230, 231 emotional system, family as 4–6, 15–16, 22, 32, 205–206 emotional system, society as 372 emotional unit, family as 15–16, 27, 369–370 Index emotional units larger than the family 372 empathy 111 empirical methods 2–10, 15–16, 49–50, 68, 77 empty nest 336 epidemiology 124 epigenetics 93, 94, 96, 100, 121, 126, 153, 260–261, 262, 279, 280–281, 290, 292 equality 291, 354, 390, 393–394 Erby, L 139, 141, 142 Erickson, P A 303 estrangement 157, 167, 169–171, 175 ethnography 303, 311, 315, 316–317, 318, 355 eudaimonic happiness 128–129 eustress 336 evaluation, family 50, 54–55 evolution xii, 3, 4–6, 95, 98, 107, 121, 125, 126, 128, 131, 153, 204, 206, 279–280, 302, 366, 377 evolutionary anthropology 304–305 exchange networks 313 exchange theory 1, experimental research designs 86, 126, 329 experimental tasks for data collection 63 extended family: cutoff 159, 258–260, 294–295; family diagrams 67; nuclear family emotional process 239; nursing 326; relationships with family of origin 53, 54, 55, 102, 150, 163, 213, 246, 294–295; see also emotional cutoff; multigenerational transmission process face validity 68 Family Adaptability Cohesion Enmeshment Scales (FACES) I, II, and III 175, 266 family Bibles 59, 70, 248, 283 family cohesion 175, 176 family diagrams: Adoptive Family Study 192, 194; African American families study 241, 243, 244; content 67; cross-sectional and longitudinal 58; data analysis 76–78, 84, 86; format 66; history of 24; methodological significance of Bowen theory 9; multigenerational transmission process 283–290, 284, 286, 287, 288, 289; nursing 324, 325; as research tool 4, 18, 57, 62–73; showing patterns of family history 55; standardization of 88–89; structure 66–67; systems model for family research 50; unit of analysis 67; validity and reliability 67–71 family emotional process xv, 39 family focus 42 family health model 323 family health systems model 323 family history: as data source 58; factual records 58–59, 63, 67, 69, 191, 193, 240–241, 262; importance of 9; primary informants 70, 240; systems thinking about 38–39 Family History Data Base Project 262 family history method 63, 64 Family History Research Criteria 64 family integrity 36 family leadership: and the differentiated family 87; and differentiation of self 40; Family Study Project 27, 30, 31, 32; nuclear family emotional process 239; and resourcefulness 39–41 family life cycle theory 335–336 family management style framework 323 family movement in psychiatry family nursing practices 322–323 family of origin, adult relationships with 53, 54, 55, 102, 150, 163, 213, 246, 294–295 Family of Origin Information Questionnaire (FOIQ) 219, 222 Family of Origin Response Survey (FORS) 158–159 family positioning 122; see also sibling positions family projection processes: and emotional cutoff 168, 190, 197–199; future research directions 391; intergenerational cutoff 188–200; multigenerational functioning 273; multigenerational transmission process 256–257, 283; nuclear family emotional process 208, 211–212, 239; as theoretical construct 4; and triangles 217, 222–223, 233 family secrets 324 family social support 176 Family Stability Inventory (FSI) 219, 222 Family Study Center of the University of Minnesota 62 family study method 64 Family Study Project xiii–xv, 24–35, 37–38, 39, 62, 65, 75, 98, 143, 164, 167, 203, 204, 210, 214, 254, 280, 367–368, 369 Family Systems journal 24, 386 family therapy 151, 255, 390 Family Unit Functioning model 86, 88 family-of-origin data collection 57 fathers: absence of 281, 328; cutoff 178–183; estrangements from 170; Family Study Project 26–27; and triangles 226, 232, 233; see also parentchild relationship Feetham, S B 49 field theory 1, fieldwork 17–18 fight or flight 108, 114, 121, 158–159; see also freeze response Figley, C R 36, 37 Fine, M 57, 282 fingertip temperature 108, 109, 113, 114 Fisher, C S 355 Fisher, L 58, 69 flexibility 76, 130; see also adaptiveness Flinn, Mark 7, 108, 262 focus on child: and anxiety 81; and differentiation of self 129; and emotional cutoff 191; family projection processes 168; multigenerational functioning 273; nuclear family emotional process 211–212, 246; and stress response 100–101; and triangles 217 focused interviews 69 431 Index Fogarty, T 62 food procurement, centrality of 305, 308–313, 315–317, 318, 377–378 foragers 304, 306–310, 315, 316, 318 Fordham, S 349 Foxcroft, D R 176 Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study 171 Franke, Richard 310 Franklin, John Hope 237–238 Frazier, E F 238, 248 Fredrickson, Barbara 128, 129, 132 freeze response 96, 108, 158–159 Freud, Sigmund xii Freudian theory 3, 204, 366 Friedlander, M L 158 Friesen, P 107 Frost, R T 148, 155n3 functional helplessness xiv–xv, 40 functioning: and academic achievement 356–357; and anxiety 82–83; and birth order 374; Bowen’s eight basic concepts of family functioning 19; of couples 53, 210; definition xiv; family as a functional system 37; family emotional functioning 80; framework for assessing family unit functioning 40–44; as fundamental part of Bowen theory 1; global/universal explanations of 19; history of family functioning assessment 36–45; and instinct 373; intergenerational patterns of 54–55; measuring dimensions of family functioning 50, 51–52; models of family functioning 175; multigenerational transmission process 247–249, 255–256, 257–258, 262, 265–277, 278–298; and natural systems 367; nuclear family emotional process 203–215, 265, 272; nursing 326–327; observation 18; parents’ 53; public health 339; quantitative methods 159; rebuilding 383; and resourcefulness 39; sibling positions 338; and societal regression 383–384; and stress response 246; systems model for family research 50; and triangles 223–224, 371; see also under-functioning; over-functioning functioning positions 76, 87, 166–167 functioning up 101 fusion: behavioral markers 87; continuum of differentiation of self 143–145; and differentiation of self 150, 166, 208, 337; family projection processes 168; and instinct 375; intensity of relationship 80, 81, 82; multigenerational functioning 273; multigenerational transmission process 78, 265; nuclear family emotional process 249–250; physiological reactivity 106, 113, 116; as theoretical construct 4; triangles 83; unresolved emotional attachment 152 game theory Garbarino, J 351 Garcia Coll, C T 349 Gardner, D S 65 432 Gavazzi, S M 356 Gazzaniga, M S 109 gender 30, 63, 102, 169, 257, 282, 328 General Social Survey 189 general system theory 3, 98, 266, 323, 366 generalizability 59, 88–89 genetics 93, 97, 120–137, 189, 206, 258, 260–261, 334 genograms 24, 62, 64–65, 324, 325, 326, 328; see also family diagrams genomics 120–137, 261 Genovese, E 238 geographical cutoff 124, 161, 165, 177–178, 259, 291, 295, 334 Georgetown University xii, xv–xvi, 32, 107, 165, 203, 256 Geronimus, Arlene 281 Gianaros, P J 93, 94, 95, 97, 127 Gilligan, M 170–171 Gilliss, C L 49, 70 Gippenreiter, J B 150, 153, 162–163 Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) 179, 180–181, 182, 183–184 global rating scales 63 globalization 301, 310, 313, 317, 394 goal structures 43–44, 53, 87, 196, 250 Golash, K 151 Goodell, T T 326 Gottlieb, E 66, 152, 161 Gottman, John 111 Goudie, Andrew 381–382 grandparents 150–151, 162–163, 171; see also extended family Granger, Doug 108, 109, 110 grief 208 grounded theory approaches 223 Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry 303 Gudeman, S 304, 314 Guerin, P 62, 98, 204 Guice, Aaron 242–251 Guice, Thomas 242–245 Gutman, H G 238 Haber, J 219, 220 Haefner, J 326 Halfon, N 332 Hall, C M 281 Hampson, R 266 Hanson, S M H 326 happiness 128–129 Harrison, V 62, 75, 77, 79, 112, 160, 237, 281, 292, 294 Hartman, A 64–65 Havstad, L 149, 153 Hazan, C 111 Healthy People 2020 334 heart rate variability (HRV) 108, 109, 111 hedonic happiness 128–129 Index Helling, M K 65 helplessness xiv–xv, 39, 40, 255 Henry, J P 112 Herskovits, M 303 hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) 223, 225, 271 Hilbert-McAllister, G 158 Hill, L 255 Hill, R 36, 38, 58, 62, 63, 68, 69, 237, 278 Hillel, Daniel 377–378 hippocampus 95–96, 97, 100, 112 Hodges, K 180 Holliday, B 351 Holman, T B 49 Holocaust 161, 280 homeostasis xvii, 111, 116, 206, 207, 208, 211 Hooper, L M 89 hormones 95, 111, 127, 130 housing 333, 337 Huberman, A M 56–57 human ecology 305 humanism hypervigilance 124 hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system 95–96, 97, 108, 207 hypothesis formulation and testing 5, 16, 18–19, 25, 39, 179 identity formation 353; see also differentiation of self Illick, S B 152, 158, 159 illness belief model 323 immaturity: analyzing family patterns 55; behavioral markers 87; emotional cutoff 54; family projection processes 168; intensity of relationship 81; intergenerational nuclear family processes 213; multigenerational transmission process 256, 265; and schizophrenia 164; and stress response 100–101 immune system 95, 108, 122, 124, 125–126 Impact of Multigenerational Stressors Questionnaire (IMSQ) 270–271 inattentional blindness xvii incarceration 52, 157, 171, 186 individual functioning within the family 37–38 individuality 81–82, 87, 147–148, 166, 207, 232, 352 individuation 78, 87 inductive method of research 368–369 inferential data 57 infertility 283, 291–292, 294 inflammation 108, 111, 120, 123, 124, 125–128, 130, 132 inner-directed qualities 53 instability 53–54, 165, 217, 221 instinct 373–375, 383, 386 Institute of Medicine (IOM) 333 integration 41, 52 intensity of relationship 80–81, 107, 113, 122, 249–250, 255, 260 interaction patterns 18 interactionist theory 1, interactive scoring 220 interdependency: Bowen’s studies on xiii, 25; Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model 351; and chronic anxiety 191; effects of a death 208; and evolution 5–6; family as an emotional system 15–16; and family functioning 205; Family Study Project 30, 31; in marriage 81; master-slave relationships 237; multigenerational transmission process 278–279; mutual sensitivity 207; nuclear family emotional process 237; qualitative methods 88; as theoretical construct interdisciplinary working xvi, 6–7 intergenerational connection: cutoff 188–200, 295; and family functioning 54, 159–160; and family system well-being 41; intergenerational nuclear family processes 213; sociology 8; solidarity 64; see also multigenerational transmission process Intergenerational Fusion with Parents Questionnaire (IFPQ) 219, 220 interlocking triangles 5, 75–76, 80, 82, 83, 87, 124–125, 367, 372, 381 interventions 171–172, 330 interviews: Adoptive Family Study 192; African American families study 241; data analysis 86; data collection 58, 63, 65–66, 69, 70; emotional cutoff studies 159; multigenerational transmission process 268–269; primary triangle studies 219, 220, 224; standardized questions 397 introspection 196 Ireland, R D 57 Irwin, M R 120, 123, 124, 126, 127, 131 isolation see social isolation Jackson, Don Jacobs, J F 357 Jankowski, P J 89 Jefferies, S E 158 Jick, T D 57 John Hopkins Johnson, V 176 Journal of the Americal Medical Association 174 Juarez, G 49 Kaplan, H B 282 Karas Montez, Jennifer 110 Keller, E F 120, 121 Keller, M 65–66, 69, 283 Kerr, M 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 15, 16, 24, 39, 51, 53, 54, 59, 62, 65, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79–80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, 98, 100, 102, 107, 147, 150, 153, 175, 180, 185, 207, 236, 238, 247, 250, 265, 267, 273, 291, 333–334, 337, 352, 356, 365, 367–368, 371, 373 Kiecolt-Glaser, J K 111 kin support 354–355 Kinetic Family Drawing Technique 63 King, R H 238 Kiser, L J 36, 37 433 Index Klever, P 65, 124, 153, 159, 163, 213, 219, 220, 222, 237, 262, 267, 268, 273, 281 Knafl, K 323 Knauth, D G 324, 327–328 Knight, C 304 Kottack, C 304 Kuhn, Thomas 138, 154 !Kung 302, 306–310, 318 land, connection to 310, 314, 315, 316–317 Lareau, A 356 launching independent children 336, 352 Layton, R 303 Leahey, M 323, 324 learning theory 1, Leatherman, T L 313 LeDoux, J 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 109 Lee, D 354 Lee, Richard 307, 308, 309 leukocytes 128 Level of Differentiation of Self Scale (LDSS) 219, 220 Levenson, R 111 Levi-Strauss, C 303 Lewis, O LGBT families 330 life course approaches 332, 333, 339–340, 342 life events see stressors Life Events Stress Scale 79 life forces 147–148 life histories 88 life satisfaction 128 limbic systems 95, 110, 112 Litman, T J 63–64 Livingston, G 339 locus of control 41 Lofland, H 56 Lofland, J 56 Lomotey, K 348 loneliness 124, 127 longitudinal studies: Adoptive Family Study 188; data collection generally 63, 64; emotional cutoff 151, 159, 171; future research directions 394; multigenerational functioning 267; multigenerational transmission process 278–298; multilevel growth modeling 88; substance abuse in teenagers 174–187; systems model for family research 58, 59; triangles 218 Lorenz, S 24 love and approval, seeking 53, 207 Lowe, G 176 Lu, M C 332 Lumpkin, M 110 Lupien, S J 95, 96, 97 Lussier, G 171 macaque monkeys 123 macro-family studies 59 mammals (non-human) research 110 434 Marks, R B 314, 315, 316 Marmot, M G 122 marriage: interdependency 81; as stressor 76; see also spousal relationships Masten, A S 140, 141, 142 master-slave relationships 237–238 mastery of self see differentiation of self mathematical modeling xvi–xvii maturity: chronic anxiety 99; and differentiation of self 82, 151, 166; and emotional cutoff 175; multigenerational transmission process 254, 255–256; nuclear family emotional process 167; transferred into marriage 210; triangles 83; see also immaturity Mayr, E 214 McAdoo, H P 354, 355–356 McClintock, B 121, 127 McCollum, E E 180, 184, 186 McCubbin, H I 36, 37, 142, 335 McCubbin, M 142, 335 McEwen, B S 95, 96, 97, 107, 108, 127, 207, 335 McGill group 260 McGoldrick, M 62, 64, 77 McGowan, P O 261 McGuinness, T M 325 McKnight, A S 59, 66, 152, 175 McLanahan, S 354 McPherson, K 355 Mead, Margaret 303 Meaney, Michael 130, 260 meaning, life having 128 meaningful employment 337 medical research 64 memory 95, 97, 107 Menninger Clinic xii, xiii, 24, 203, 256 mental health 325, 333–334, 335, 343 mental health assessment tools 181 metagenome 131–132, 133 meta-theories 322 Meunier, J C 189 micro-family studies 58, 59 micro-perspectives 18 migration 161–162, 171, 177–178, 283, 290, 294, 295, 318, 355 Milburn, N G 355–356 Miles, M B 56–57 Miller, B C 70 Miller, D C 56, 58, 69 Miller, M P 69 mind-body-family relationships 153 mirror neurons 109 miscegenation 237 mixed methods research 57 molecular/cellular level 120–137 moral economics Moreno, J L 31 Morgan, Lewis Henry 304 Index mother-child relationship: cutoff 178–183; estrangement 170; Family Study Project 25–26; intensity of relationship 80; over-involvement 165, 232, 233, 257; reciprocity xiv; and social support 260; symbiosis xiii; theoretical conceptualizations 204; and triangles 226, 232; see also attachment theory; parent-child relationship; triangles Moynihan, C 65, 68 Muller, L 141 multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary perspectives 6–7 multi-family groups 31 multigenerational cutoff 124 Multigenerational Family Contact Questionnaire (MFCQ) 219, 220 multigenerational family data 50–51, 62–73; see also family history Multigenerational Family Functioning Questionnaire (MFFQ) 219, 220, 222, 268–269, 274 multigenerational family history analysis 9–10, 242–251, 283–290 multigenerational patterns 55 multigenerational transmission process: development of concept xv; and differentiation of self 150, 151–152; emotional cutoff 87, 162–163, 167, 168, 258–260, 281–282, 283, 291–292, 295; extended family 282; functioning 247–249, 255–256, 257–258, 262, 265–277, 278–298; future research directions 391, 393; nursing 324, 325; observation methods 18; overview 254–264; public health 338; and stress response 94; substance abuse 328; as theoretical construct 4, 254–255, 295; triangles 83, 234 multilevel growth modeling 88 multiple data sources, importance of 70, 85, 88 mutual obligations 307, 309, 313 mutual sensitivity 190, 197, 198, 207, 209 National Assessment of Educational Progress 348 National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) xii, xiii, xv, 2, 4, 24, 37, 75, 98, 143, 164, 167, 189, 203, 204, 254, 280, 352, 368 National Library of Medicine 25, 32, 33, 368 natural systems theory 3, 305–306, 365–388 nature, harmony with 366–387, 392–393 neglect 170, 176 neocortex 112 Nerone, M 325 network genomics 132 neural measurements 110 neuroendocrine systems 94, 109–110, 123, 124, 125, 207, 262 neurophysiology 110 neuroscience 94–100, 107–110, 112, 144, 153, 204, 206–207, 232, 260–261 neutral position of researcher 26, 85 neutral position of therapist 31, 32 Nichols, M 171 nodal events 52, 76, 77, 79, 83, 211, 270, 308; see also stressors Noguera, P A 354 nonprobablility sampling 70 Noone, R J 6, 9, 15, 16, 62, 99, 100, 112, 129, 133, 155n3, 207, 237, 279 Norris, J 57, 282 nuclear family emotional process 203–215; African American families 236, 249–250; alternative family forms 329–330; and emotional cutoff 166–167; and functioning 203–215, 265, 272; future research directions 393; public health 338; and stress response 94; systems model for family research 50, 55; theoretical conceptualizations 238–239; as theoretical construct 4, 204–213 Nuclear Family Functioning Scale (NFFS) 159–160, 219–220, 223, 225, 268, 274 nurse practitioners (NPs) 325 nursing 321–331 nursing notes 30–31, 255 nursing research 327–330 nutrient insecurity 377–378 obesity 149 Obradovic, J 110–111, 140 observation: coding schemes 63; Family Study Project 25, 26, 29–32; as method 4, 16, 17–18 observational blindness xvii Observations of Change Project 152–153 older people 165, 281–282, 334, 339 Olson, D 175, 266 Olson’s circumplex model 175 Olszewski, D I 306, 314, 315 oneness 25, 164, 205, 207, 209 oral histories 10, 18, 242, 246, 248, 282 Orfanidas, M 50 Orth, U 141, 142 over-adequate–inadequate reciprocity 164, 167, 190, 197, 198, 210 over-closeness 82 over-control of children 189 over-distance 82 over-functioning: behavioral markers 87; and emotional cutoff 167; family diagrams 77–78; mechanism to manage anxiety 76, 81; multigenerational transmission process 256; nuclear family emotional process 208, 210; schizophrenia xiv–xv; and stress response 100–101; systems model for family research 54, 55 over-involvement, emotional 27, 102, 212, 232, 233, 257 overprotection 168, 190, 197, 212, 228–229 ovulation 160, 294 pain 125 Paiute people 305 Paley, B 88 palm sweat levels 109, 113, 114 435 Index Palo Alto, California Pandina, R J 176 Panel Study of Income Dynamics 189 panic 112 Papero, D V 9, 15, 16, 51, 62, 75, 80, 83, 86–87, 88, 99, 102, 133, 155n3, 207, 208, 237, 265 parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) 96, 109, 124 parent substitutes, staff as 31 parental favoritism 189 parent-child relationship: and emotional cutoff 163–164; estrangement 169–170; intensity of relationship 80–81; parent-adolescent connectedness 175; physiological research 110, 111; projection 54, 55, 81, 164, 196, 208; psychological well-being of parents 357; same-sex parent-child-grandparent relationships 282; see also attachment theory; mother-child relationship; triangles Parse, R P 321 participation rates 28 Passeron, J C 356 passivity xiv, xv, 41 patterns: behavioral markers 87; data analysis 74–90; data collection 63; measuring change 86; nuclear family emotional process 205; repeated across generations 75, 83 see also multigenerational transmission processstrategies for identifying, organizing and analyzing 55–57; family diagrams Patterson, J M 36, 37 pedigree analysis 325; see also family history Peleg-Popko, O 350, 352, 357 Personal Authority in the Family Questionnaire triangulation subscale 217 Peru 313, 314 phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST) 353 phenomenology 1, physical health 52, 94, 126, 196, 270, 285, 293, 309, 325, 333–334, 335 physiology 105–119, 124 Platt, L F 77, 88 Plomin, R 189 Polanyi, K 304 polymorphisms 258, 261 polyvagal theory 96, 108 Pong, S L 354 population growth 375, 376 Porges, S W 96, 107, 108, 113 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 126, 131 predictability: differentiation of self 149–150, 151; emotional cutoff 158; family history method 64; future research directions 390–391; multigenerational functioning 273; multigenerational transmission process 258, 278–279; primary triangles 233; risk and protective factors in teenagers 174; systems model for family research 54–55, 75, 78; theory development 21–22; validity and reliability 68 436 prefrontal cortex (PFC) 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 207 pregnancy 102, 106, 257, 280 premature/accidental deaths 283, 291, 293 pretence 87 prevention of social problems 391–392 primary informants 70, 240 Primary Triangle Relationships Assessment (PTRA) 219, 220–222, 223 primary triangles 80, 81, 216–235, 250, 255, 373 primate research 110, 121–122, 123 Princeton Family Center Research Team (PFCRT) 158 principles, living by 53, 87, 195 problem-defining activities 40 problem-solving processes 16–21, 40, 166, 328 process psychotherapy notes 30 projection: and emotional cutoff 167; family diagrams 78; parents onto children 54, 55, 81, 164, 196, 208; projective techniques 63; and triangles 217, 218; see also family projection processes prospective data 58–59, 192 protective factors 246–247, 333, 339–343 pseudo separation 164, 166 pseudo-self 145, 146–147, 148, 337 psychiatric assessment 325, 326 psychiatric care 325 psychiatric disorder 52, 189, 204, 212; see also schizophrenia psychiatric interdisciplinary teams 327 psychiatric–mental-health nurse practitioners (PMHNPs) 325–326 psychiatry 2, 31, 64, 204 psychoanalytic theory xii, 84, 98, 204, 365 psychodrama 31 psychodynamic theories psychological symbiosis 25 psychology 7–8, 189 psychometry 77, 150 psychosis xii–xiii psychotherapy 26, 27, 30, 31, 32, 85 psychotropic medication 204 public health 332–346 purpose, sense of 128 purposive sampling 70 Puskar, K 325 qualitative methods 57–58, 59, 85, 87–88, 219, 223; see also case study data; interviews qualities of a family researcher 85 quality of life 128, 336 quality of parenting 130, 150 quality of person-to-person connection 41 quantitative methods 9–10, 57–58, 87–88, 219–220, 223, 268, 271, 330 questionnaires 65–66, 69, 86, 219–222, 241, 267, 268–271 quota sampling 70 Index race 63, 176, 236–253, 330 racism 349 Rakow, C 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 RAND Corporation 139 randomized controlled trials 329 Rashoman technique 70 rat studies 260 ratio level scoring 220, 221 Rauseo, L 66, 112, 161–162, 237, 292 RDoc model 40, 44 reality-driven roles 87 recalled data 59 reciprocity: and emotional cutoff 163, 177; mechanism to manage anxiety 76; in mother-child relationship xiv–xv; mutual obligations 307, 309, 313; over-adequate–inadequate reciprocity 164, 167, 190, 197; reciprocal functioning xiv; societal emotional processes 301; transfer of stress in reciprocal spirals 130–131 regression hypothesis 314, 317, 375–377, 379–381, 382–383, 392–393 rejection, sensitivity to 123, 124, 125, 127, 129, 130, 176 reliability and validity 67–71, 85, 88, 152, 159, 180, 220, 225, 269, 271 Rempel, G R 65 repair of relationships 170 replication of research studies 60 research collaborators 70 research methods, and theory 16–21 resilience: attempts to protect 246; and differentiation of self 144; and emotional cutoff 124, 175, 259; lack of unifying theory 138–139; life trajectory approaches 140–141; measurement problems 140; at molecular level 129–130; multigenerational cutoff 124; multiple definitions of 139; overlapping with other concepts 141; physiology of 111; and stress 93; systems theory 140 Resnick, M D 174 resourcefulness 38, 39–41 retirement 336 retrospective data 57, 58–59, 64 Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale (RDAS) 219, 220 Rice University Data Science Consulting Clinic D2K 116 right and left brain hemispheres 109 risk and protective factors 174, 246–247, 333, 339–343 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation 333 Roberts, D 354, 355, 357 robotics Rorschach tests 63 Rosenbaum, L 107, 109 Rosenberg, K 260 Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale 140 Rosenthal, R 28 Rosnow, R L 28 Rubin, A 57 Rutter, M 353–354 Sabarra, D 111 Sabatelli, R M 356 saliva samples 108, 153 Salkind, N J 56, 58, 69 same-sex parent-child-grandparent relationships 282 sample size 28–30, 33 sampling methods 70, 180, 192, 218–219, 223, 240, 267–268, 282 Sapolsky, Robert 121, 122 scapegoats xiv Schedule of Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia 64 schizophrenia xii–xiii, 4–6, 24–35, 164, 205, 213, 260, 280 science of human behavior 2–10, 214, 279, 365, 385, 390 sculpture, as data collection tool 63 secrets, family 324 self, definition of 367–368 self, development of xiv, 353 self-awareness 110, 111 self-blame 141, 211 self-differentiation see differentiation of self self-directed behaviors 196 self-esteem 53, 139, 140, 141, 144–145 self-functioning 174–187 self-observations xvii, 108 self-perception 180 self-regulation 42, 101, 108, 109, 110, 116, 130, 141, 150, 196, 207, 232, 335 self-report data 58, 59, 63, 68, 86 Self-Report Family Inventory (SFI) 266 Selltiz, C sensitivity 80, 97, 120, 126, 130 sensitivity, mutual 190, 197, 198, 207, 209 sensory information 107, 132, 144 sentence completion tasks 63 separation from parents 254–255, 281 separation/divorce 54, 55, 165, 171, 176, 229, 232, 274, 355, 356 Shapiro, J 121 Sheffield, K 149, 153 Sheldon family 312, 313 Shirley, D 356 Shrader, E 65 siblings: family projection processes 168; Family Study Project xiii–xiv, 26–27; maturity 255, 258; sibling positions 102, 168–169, 257, 328, 338, 374, 391–392, 393 Sifri, R D 64 Sikes family 312, 313 Silverstein, L 151, 192, 223 situational approach 1, skeletal muscle activity (EMG) 108, 109, 113, 114 skin sweat response tests 108, 109, 111, 113 437 Index skin temperature measures 108 Skinner, E A 139, 141 Skolnick, M H 64, 68 Skowron, E A 77, 88, 150, 153, 158 slavery 169, 236–253, 312, 315, 375 Slavich, G M 125, 126, 127, 130 sleep 124 snowball sampling 70, 192, 240 social anthropology 303 social biology social determinants of health (SDOH) 332–346 social genome studies 125, 261 social institution, families as 59 social isolation: academic achievement 351; emotional cutoff 157, 165; human stress genomics 123–124, 126, 127, 130, 131; multigenerational transmission process 258–260, 295; public health 341, 342–343; stress 94 social networks 40, 127, 132, 260, 304, 311, 313, 341, 354–355 social positioning 122, 123 social regulation 130 social rejections 123 social signal transduction 127 social status 122, 123, 126 social stress 121–123 social support 260, 353, 354–355 social systems theory social work notes 30, 31–32 social/emotional pressures at cellular level 121 societal emotional processes 169–171, 301–320 societal regression 314, 317, 375–377, 379–381, 382–383, 392–393 socioecological approaches 340, 341 socioeconomic status (SES): academic achievement 347, 348–349, 353; and academic achievement 354, 356; Adoptive Family Study 189; anthropology 313; human stress genomics 123, 126, 127, 132; multigenerational transmission process 281; public health 334, 336; and social status 122; substance abuse in teenagers 176 sociograms 30, 31 sociology 8, 189 sociometry 25, 31 soil and water 377–378 solid self 145, 146–147, 148, 337 solidarity 64 Southwick, S M 140 Spark, G 55 Spencer, M B 350, 351, 352, 353, 356 spindle cells 109 Spitz, E 141 spousal relationships: anxiety 114–115, 257; conflict 54, 55, 88, 209–210; differentiation of self 144–145, 265, 266; distance 229–230; emotional cutoff 165; estrangement 171; family diagrams 65; intensity of relationship 80; Primary Triangle Relationships Assessment (PTRA) 221–222; stress 438 responses 101; systems model for family research 53, 54; triangles 217, 226, 227, 232; and unresolved emotional attachment 210 stability: and academic achievement 356; allostatic load 97; anthropology 303; differentiation of self 53; multigenerational transmission process 293, 294; nuclear family emotional process 208; physiology 107, 111, 116; stress response systems 95 Stack, C B 355 staff relationships 26 staff-family group recordings 32 Stake, R E 56 Stalin’s purge 153–154, 162–163 state-trait anxiety inventory 328 statistical testing 33 Stephens, K E 280 Stephens, P M 112 step-parents 232 Sternberg, E 107 Steward, Julian 304, 305, 310, 317, 319 Stovers, R G 65 strengths, inheriting parents’ xiv, 246 stress: and academic achievement 347, 351, 353–355; African American families study 245–246; allostatic load 94; and autonomy 259; and chronic anxiety 93, 98, 99–100, 108, 337; data analysis 81; and differentiation of self 93, 99, 271, 294; and distancing 209; emotional triangles 83; epigenetics 260–261; eustress versus distress 336; family ability to handle 75; family life cycle theory 335–336; family projection processes 211; family systems perspective 93–104; and functioning 38, 39, 42, 267–275, 279; human stress genomics 120–137; individual variability in stress reactivity 97–98; interpersonal stress 44; literature review 107–108; measures of stress reactions 108–109; measuring dimensions of family functioning 52; and multigenerational functioning 265–277; multigenerational transmission process 290–291; nuclear family emotional process 208, 245–246; and ovulation 160; of parenting 336; physiological response 93, 95–97; public health 334–343; and substance abuse 175, 176; transfer of 44, 121, 130–131, 132, 205, 207, 211; and triangles 231, 233 stress response systems 93, 95–97, 107, 130, 335, 336–337 stressors: and academic achievement 354; and anxiety 52; dominant stressors in primates 121–122; and family functioning 79, 82; family projection processes 256; Impact of Multigenerational Stressors Questionnaire 270–271; nuclear family emotional process 211; public health 335, 336; systems model for family research 76; and triangles 217; variety of responses to 93 structure-functionalism 1, 7, 8, 303 stuck togetherness 205, 207 Index subordinate positioning 122, 123 substance abuse 174–187, 270, 274, 281, 328, 330 Suffield, Connecticut 302, 310–314, 318 suicide 65, 161 superorganisms 131 Swanson, D P 352 sweat response tests 108, 109, 111, 113 symbiosis xiii 25 symbolic culture 305, 306, 307, 315, 316 sympathetic nervous system (SNS) 96, 108, 109, 111, 113, 124, 292 systemic dysfunction 36, 37 systems medicine xvi, xvii systems theory: and data analysis 75–77; hypothesis formulation and testing 18–19; observation methods 17; overview 1, 2, 3, 8; reliability and validity 22; systems model for family assessment 36–45; systems model for family research 49–61 systems thinking: and Bowen theory 365; children as non-victims xiv; and family functioning 38–39; framework for assessing family unit functioning 42–43; as innovative departure from psychoanalytic theory xii; theory development xvi Szyf, M 261 taking sides 124–125 Taylor, R D 354, 355, 357 technology 375, 376, 377–378, 379–380, 386 temporal interpersonal emotional systems (TIES) 44 tension: and emotional cutoff 166, 177; and family functioning 38, 39; family projection processes 168; framework for assessing family unit functioning 42; nursing practice 326; tension management 42; transfer of 205, 208, 233; and triangles 217, 228, 232; see also anxiety; stress Tgisos, C 337 theory: lack of theoretical consensus 49; lack of unifying theory 138–139; as living thing 44; reliability and validity 22; role in family research 15–23; theory development 368–370, 386, 387 theory of mind 109 therapeutic relationship 27, 30, 325 therapeutic strategies 326 Thernstrom, A 354 thick description 223 Thomas, E M 308, 309 Thompson, E T 237 threat perception 95–97, 99, 100, 107, 124, 125, 127, 131, 374 three-generation assessment method 62–73 thyroid 108 timelines 77 Titelman, P 66, 112 togetherness forces: academic achievement 352; differentiation of self 147–148; and family functioning 78, 87; multigenerational transmission process 259; nuclear family emotional process 166, 205, 207; societal emotional processes 301; triangles 217, 231, 232 Toman, W 55, 169, 338, 374 Tomlinson, P S 323 traits 139 transactional analysis 1, transcriptional plasticity 130, 131–132 transference 30, 32 Transquaking River 378 trauma xiv, 36, 189, 250–251, 258, 279, 280 triangles 216–235; activation of 39; and anxiety 82–83, 107; and emotional cutoff 167–168; and family functioning 82–83; Family Study Project 164; future research directions 390–391, 394; global/universal explanations of 19; human societies composed of 372, 384; and instinct 373; intensity of relationship 80; interlocking triangles 5, 75–76, 80, 82, 83, 87, 124–125, 367, 372, 381; multigenerational transmission process 255; with nonhuman animals 381; nuclear family emotional process 211; nursing 324, 326, 327; nursing research 329; physiology of 106, 112–116, 124–125; and predictability 390–391; primary triangles 80, 81, 216–235, 250, 255, 373; public health 338; repeated across generations 83; shifts change 76; and substance abuse 328; as theoretical construct xiv, 4, 370–372 triangling 229, 234 Troll, L 8, 278, 282 Tung, Jenny 123 Turney, K 171 Tyler, Edward 304 Umberson, Debra 110 under-functioning: behavioral markers 87; and emotional cutoff 167; family diagrams 77–78; and family functioning xv; mechanism to manage anxiety 76, 81; multigenerational transmission process 256; nuclear family emotional process 208, 210; and stress response 100–101; systems model for family research 54, 55 undifferentiation xiv, 208, 222, 259, 265, 273, 375 unidisease concept 153 University of Minnesota 62, 63 unmanaged anxiety 42, 83 unresolved anxiety 78 unresolved emotional attachment: differentiation of self 152; distancing 221; emotional cutoff 157, 164, 165, 166, 196; family projection processes 168; Family Study Project xiv, xv; intensity 224; and marriage 210; multigenerational transmission process 259; nuclear family emotional process 213 unresolved symbiosis xiii, xiv U.S Census 189 vagal system 96, 107, 108, 113 Valcourt, James xvii 439 Index validity and reliability 67–71, 85, 88, 152, 159, 180, 220, 225, 269, 271 Van Maanen, J 57 vasoconstriction 108 Vaux, A 354, 355 victims, children as xiv video recordings 88 von Bertalanffy, Ludwig 3, 365, 366 Walker, L O 322 war 125–126, 157, 256, 280, 290, 291 water and soil 377–378 Watts, C 65 Weiner, E L 180, 186 Weinstein, D 24, 25, 28 “weness,” acting as a 54, 55, 283 Wenke, R J 306, 314, 315 Werner-Lin, A 65 White, C 158 White, Leslie 304 Wiener, Norbert 3, 365, 366 Wilcoxon, S A 57 440 Wilk, R B 304 Wills, T A 176 Wilson, E O 5, 131 Wilson, W J 355 Wiseman, J 58 within-family variability 188–200 workplace stress 329 World Health Organization (WHO) 332 world peace 394–395 Wright, L 323, 324 Yale Yang, C M 316, 317 Yehuda, Rachel 280 Yin, R 55–56, 57–58, 59, 70, 71 Young, S Y 281 young adult years 169, 170 Zhang, J 140 Zimmer, Carl 109, 280 Zimmer-Gembeck, M J 141 ... Director of the Office of Children, Youth, and Family Services He is a licensed psychologist in private practice Handbook of Bowen Family Systems Theory and Research Methods The Handbook of Bowen Family. .. testing Chapter 4: Bowen Theory: A Systems Model for Family Research A systems model for family research based on Bowen family systems theory is proposed The purpose of family systems theory is to... regarding family predictions Thus, research methods and theory are mutually dependent For example, research methods support the development of family theory, and family theory requires research methods