Routledge handbook of ecological and environmental restoration

www.allitebooks.com ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION Ecological restoration is a rapidly evolving discipline that is engaged with developing both methodologies and strategies for repairing damaged and polluted ecosystems and environments During the last decade the rapid pace of climate change coupled with continuing habitat destruction and the spread of non-native species to new habitats has forced restoration ecologists to re-evaluate their goals and the methods they use This comprehensive handbook brings together an internationally respected group of established and rising experts in the field The book begins with a description of current practices and the state of knowledge in particular areas of restoration, and then identifies new directions that will help the field achieve increasing levels of future success Part I provides basic background about ecological and environmental restoration Part II systematically reviews restoration in key ecosystem types located throughout the world In Part III, management and policy issues are examined in detail, offering the first comprehensive treatment of policy relevance in the field, while Part IV looks to the future Ultimately, good ecological restoration depends upon a combination of good science, policy, planning and outreach – all issues that are addressed in this unrivalled volume Stuart K Allison is the Watson Bartlett Professor of Biology and Conservation, and Director of the Green Oaks Field Study Center at Knox College, Galesburg, Illinois, USA He is the author of Ecological Restoration and Environmental Change (Routledge, 2012) Stephen D Murphy is Professor and Director of the School of Environment, Resources and Sustainability at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada He is the editor-in-chief of Restoration Ecology www.allitebooks.com www.allitebooks.com ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION Edited by Stuart K Allison and Stephen D Murphy www.allitebooks.com First published 2017 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Stuart K Allison and Stephen D Murphy, selection and editorial material; individual chapters, the contributors The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: Allison, Stuart K., editor | Murphy, Stephen D., editor Title: Routledge handbook of ecological and environmental restoration / edited by Stuart K Allison and Stephen D Murphy Other titles: Handbook of ecological and environmental restoration Description: London ; New York : Routledge, 2017 | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2016047488| ISBN 978-1-138-92212-9 (hbk) | ISBN 978-1-315-68597-7 (ebk) Subjects: LCSH: Restoration ecology Classification: LCC QH541.15.R45 R68 2017 | DDC 333.73/153—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016047488 ISBN: 978-1-138-92212-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-68597-7 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by FiSH Books Ltd, Enfield www.allitebooks.com CONTENTS List of contributors Acknowledgements ix xv Introduction: what next for restoration ecology? Stephen D Murphy and Stuart K Allison PART I The basis for ecological restoration in the twenty-first century Considering the future: anticipating the need for ecological restoration Young D Choi The principles of restoration ecology at population scales Stephen D Murphy, Michael J McTavish and Heather A Cray 16 Landscape-scale restoration ecology Michael P Perring 33 Understanding social processes in planning ecological restorations Stephen R Edwards, Brock Blevins, Darwin Horning and Andrew Spaeth 49 The role of history in restoration ecology Eric S Higgs and Stephen T Jackson 66 Social engagement in ecological restoration Susan Baker 76 v Contents PART II Restoring key ecosystems 91 Restoration and ecosystem management in the boreal forest: from ecological principles to tactical solutions Timo Kuuluvainen 93 Restoration of temperate broadleaf forests John A Stanturf 113 10 Temperate grasslands Karel Prach, Péter Török and Jonathan D Bakker 126 11 Restoration of temperate savannas and woodlands Brice B Hanberry, John M Kabrick, Peter W Dunwiddie, Tibor Hartel, Theresa B Jain and Benjamin O Knapp 142 12 Restoring desert ecosystems Scott R Abella 158 13 Ecological restoration in Mediterranean-type shrublands and woodlands Ladislav Mucina, Marcela A Bustamante-Sánchez, Beatriz Duguy Pedra, Patricia Holmes, Todd Keeler-Wolf, Juan J Armesto, Mark Dobrowolski, Mirijam Gaertner, Cecilia Smith-Ramírez and Alberto Vilagrosa 173 14 Alpine habitat conservation and restoration in tropical and sub-tropical high mountains Alton C Byers 197 15 Restoration of rivers and streams Benjamin Smith and Michael A Chadwick 213 16 Lake restoration Erik Jeppesen, Martin Søndergaard and Zhengwen Liu 226 17 Restoration of freshwater wetlands Paul A Keddy 243 18 Salt marshes David M Burdick and Susan C Adamowicz 261 19 Oyster-generated marine habitats: their services, enhancement, restoration, and monitoring Loren D Coen and Austin T Humphries vi 274 Contents 20 Ecological rehabilitation in mangrove systems: the evolution of the practice and the need for strategic reform of policy and planning Ben Brown 295 21 Tropical savanna restoration Jillianne Segura, Sean M Bellairs and Lindsey B Hutley 312 22 Restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands Gerhard Ernst Overbeck and Sandra Cristina Müller 327 23 Tropical forest restoration David Lamb 341 24 The restoration of coral reefs Boze Hancock, Kemit-Amon Lewis and Eric Conklin 355 25 Ecological restoration in an urban context Jessica Hardesty Norris, Keith Bowers and Stephen D Murphy 371 PART III Management and policy issues 385 26 International law and policy on restoration An Cliquet 387 27 Governance and restoration Stephanie Mansourian 401 28 Restoration, volunteers and the human community Stephen Packard 414 29 Building social capacity for restoration success Elizabeth Covelli Metcalf, Alexander L Metcalf and Jakki J Mohr 426 30 Ecological restoration: a growing part of the green economy Keith Bowers and Jessica Hardesty Norris 440 31 Restoration and market-based instruments Alex Baumber 454 32 Profit motivations and ecological restoration: opportunities in bioenergy and conservation biomass Carol L Williams vii 468 Contents PART IV Ecological restoration for the future 483 33 Ecological restoration and environmental change Stuart K Allison 485 34 Invasive species and ecological restoration Joan C Dudney, Lauren M Hallett, Erica N Spotswood and Katharine Suding 496 35 Restoration and resilience Elizabeth Trevenen, Rachel Standish, Charles Price and Richard Hobbs 509 36 Ecological restoration and ecosystem services Robin L Chazdon and José M Rey Benayas 522 37 The economics of restoration and the restoration of economics James Blignaut 537 38 Better together: the importance of collaboration between researchers and practitioners Robert Cabin 551 39 Fewer than 140 characters: restorationists’ use of social media Liam Heneghan and Oisín Heneghan 565 Index 582 viii CONTRIBUTORS Scott R Abella, Assistant Professor, School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA Susan C Adamowicz, Land Management Research and Demonstration Biologist, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge, Wells, Maine, USA Stuart K Allison, Professor, Department of Biology, Knox College, Galesburg, Illinois, USA Juan J Armesto, Professor, Department of Ecology, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Santiago, Chile Susan Baker, Professor, Cardiff School of the Social Sciences and Sustainable Places Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK Jonathan D Bakker, Associate Professor, School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, College of the Environment, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA Alex Baumber, Scholarly Teaching Fellow, Faculty of Transdisciplinary Innovation, University of Technology Sydney, Australia Sean M Bellairs, Senior Lecturer, Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia Brock Blevins, GIS Analyst, NASA Applied Remote Sensing Training Program (ARSET), Joint Center for Earth Systems Technology (JCET), University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland, USA James Blignaut, Professor, Department of Economics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa ix Index polycentric 408; processes 407; as regulation 405–6; scaling up 410; shift from centralized government 402; stakeholders in 402, 407–8; structures 407; tenure and rights 410; as transformation 406 Grain for Green (GFG) programme 526–8 grain production, global grants 455; applications 456; Conservation Reserve Programme (CRP) 457; costeffectiveness 456; easing restrictions 457; environmental 457; information asymmetry 456; payments for ecosystem services (PES) 458 grass crops 471 grassland feedstock for biogas project, Missouri 472–3, 477, 478 grasslands restoration: adjustment of former/traditional management 130; control of invasive non-native species 130; creating artificial gaps 131; degraded grasslands 130–2; establishment of new grasslands 132–3; Eurasian steppes 133; European secondary grasslands 135–9; manipulation of alterations 130–1; manipulation of nutrient levels 131; North American prairies 133–5; planting desirable plants 131; plant material transfer 132; removal of undesirable woody species 130; seeding 132; site preparation 132; sowing seeds of desirable plants 131; spontaneous succession 132; topsoil removal 131, 132–3; transfer of desirable animals 131–2; transfer of topsoil or turf 131; see also tropical and subtropical grasslands grazed woodlands, restoration of 117 grazing: alpine soils 201; bush encroachment 316–17; subsistence 314; in the tropical savanna 313–14, 316 grazing pressure 154 Great Basin Desert 159, 160 Great Fen 253; Great Fen Project 253 Great Lakes: Basin 37; ecosystem functioning 499 Great Lakes Restoration Initiative funds 442, 445, 446 greenbelt, mangrove 303 green crabs 266 green roofs 382–3 Green Roofs for Healthy Cities 373 green walls 373–4 Grenville Bay, Granada 357 groundwater recharge 376–7 growing season burns 151 Gurbantunggut Desert 160 250; hierarchy of causal factors 250–2; impact of humans on 249; infertile 249–50; kinds of 244–6; large-scale restoration 255–9; nutrients 249–50; rebuilding landscape contours 254–5; restoration needs 246–7; roads 250–2; salinity 250; services for humans 243; terminology of 243, 244, 245; vital roles 243; water level fluctuations 248–9 Friedman, Milton 548 fuelwood harvesting 199–200 functional redundancy 513, 514 funding, volunteer programme 424-5 s 424–5 fynbos shrublands 185–8, 189–90 gamba grass (Andropogon gayanus Kunth.) 315, 318 gap dynamics 100 Garry oaks (Quercus garryana) 145 gastropods 286 gazelles (Gazella) 167 GDP (gross domestic product) 539 genetic diversity 19–20 genetic drift 16, 17, 19, 30 genetics 17 genetic tools 505 geoengineering 231 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 59, 62 germination 336 giant ibis 246 giant reed (Arundo donax) 499 glaciation 97 Global Accountability Framework 402 Global Biodiversity Outlook (GBO) Report 390, 391 global climate change: increasing temperatures 8; temperate broadleaf forests 122–3 Global Environmental Facility (GEF) 455 globalization, environmental governance 404 Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration 34, 396 Gobi Desert 165 Gondwana Link 37, 38, 43 good governance 78, 402 Gorilla Agreement 395 Gouritz Cluster Biosphere Reserve (GCBR) 545 Gove bauxite mine 322 governance 76; beneficial, participation as 77–9; collaborative 408; commingling 84–6; competing land use 409; definitions of 401–3; environmental 401; generating new values 409; good governance 78, 402; hierarchies 77; impacts on resources 402; importance for restoration 405–7; markets 77, 85–6; multiple levels of 408–9; natural resource management 402; in natural resource management, evolution of 403–5; networks governance 77; habitat restoration 8; Iberian lynx 31 habitats: evolution of 95; as interacting dynamic populations 95; location of 102–3; peripheral 590 Index trajectories 71; historical range of variability (HRV) 71, 487–8; nostalgia 69–70; possibilities for restoration 492; taxonomy 72–3; temporal conditions 69–70; varieties of 72–3 historical range of variability (HRV) 71, 487–8 historical sites 497–8 history as enriching cultural connections 72 history as information and reference 72 history as revealing the future 72 history in restoration ecology 66–7; challenges to historical knowledge 70–2; changing role of 73; definition of restoration 66; directional change 71; drivers of ecosystem change 71; historical fidelity 67–70; historically contingent goals 71; varieties of historical knowledge 72–3 hog production 472, 473 Holme Fen National Nature Reserve 253 holm oak (Quercus ilex) 524–5 homozygosity 19 Hortobágy National Park 138–9 hotelling rule 539 H T Harvey and Associates 444 Huascaran National Park 201 Huizhou West Lake 237–8 Hurricane Katrina 258 Hurricane Sandy 267 hybrid approach 108 hybridization 20 Hyderabad Call for a Concerted Effort on Ecosystem Restoration (CoP) 392 hydrology 166–7, 245; models 264, 265; oysters 287; restoration 268; see also tidal hydrology hydromorphological restoration 222 hydroperiod 122, 247–9 hyper-arid dryland climates 158, 159 hyperspectral imagery 61 hypolimnetic oxygenation 228, 230, 239 hypolimnetic withdrawal 228, 229–30 hypoxia 285 hysteresis 36 255; preservation at multiple scales 101; protection of 95; transformation of 103; unexpected destruction of 103 habitat suitability index (HSI) models 278, 280 Hall, Marcus 66 halophytes: invasive 269; native 269 hard trades 336 Hargreaves et al 80 Harris Creek Oyster Restoration Tributary Plan 290 Hassalo on 8th 376–7 Hatches Harbor 264 Hawai‘i: algae 364; Department of Land and Natural Resource’s Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR) 364, 366; Kahekili Herbivore Fishery Management Area 364; Moku o Lo’e Marine Laboratory Refuge 365–6; removing algae and enhancing herbivores 367–8; Super Sucker 366; using herbivory to facilitate restoration of coral reefs 364–8 haying 473, 474 hay meadows 127, 136 heather (Calluna vulgaris) 118 heathlands, burning of 118 heavy seeded species 120 hedgerows 533 herbicides 130; on longleaf pines 152; Western pines 153 herbivores 153–4; coral reefs 355; in freshwater wetlands 245, 250; herbivory 161, 165; protection in Hawai‘i 364–5, 366 herbivorous fish, stocking with 228 herbivory 161, 165; coral reefs 364; enhancing in Hawai‘i 367–8 heterogeneity 519 heterogeneous microtopography 116 Hicks, Sir John 539 hierarchical governance 77 hierarchical planning 101–2; cross-scale implementation 108; landscape-level attributes 102; microhabitats 102; protected area network 108; regional scales 102; standlevel characteristics 102 high-elevation ecosystems 198–9; commonalities of 199 high marsh 262 Hillsborough Bay, Tampa 298–300 Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus) 145 historical fidelity: as arbiter of appropriate goals 67; epistemic domain 67; incomplete historical data 68; practical element 67; reference conditions 68–9 historical knowledge: attachment to place 70, 78; challenges to 70–2; directional environmental and ecological drivers of ecosystem change 71; historically contingent Iberian lynx 31 IKONOS 61 iluka approach 191–2 impedance surfaces 40–1 impoundments 301 Improved Exterior Air Quality 373 inbreeding 19 inclusivity 431–2 income, definition of 539–40 incremental approach to forest restoration 123 Indian River Lagoon 301 Indonesia: ecological mangrove rehabilitation (EMR) 302, 306; feasibility studies 307; Indragiri Hilir, Riau, Sumatra 306; mangrove 591 Index removal projects 496; site classifications 497, 498 inverse auctions 456–8 investment 544 Ireland: fisheries restoration 216; reclamation of severely degraded sites 116 iron 231 island biogeography, theory of 105 planting 305; mangrove restoration project 307–8; National Mangrove Strategy 306; staggered approach to mangrove rehabilitation 306, 307; strategic reform 306–7; Sumberjaya pilot programme 455, 457 Indo-Pacific lionfish 358 Indragiri Hilir, Riau, Sumatra 306 industrial plantation growers 351 infertile wetlands 249, 250 infodemiology 570 information: sharing and storage 59; see also data information asymmetry 456 inform, level of social capacity involvement 436 infoveillance 570 innovation: private sector 450–2; resilience attribute 57 instrumental learning 79 instrumental values 547–8 insurance hypothesis 513–14 intact sites 498 integer programming 40 Integrated Forest Management Units (KPH) 306 Integrated Marsh Management (IMM) 268 intermediary organizations 80; in Costa Rica’s PES programme 86; key roles 80; marginalized groups and 81; meso-level 80, 81 International Foundation for Ecosystem Restoration (FIRE) 526 International Institute of Sustainable Development (IISD) 476, 478, 479; mission 479 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 8–9, 53–4, 58, 63; Mangrove Specialist Group 295 Internet 565 intertidal habitat 83 intertidal oyster (C virginica) 278; reefs 274–5, 282 intervention ecology 73, 123, 491 invasive non-native species 130 invasive species 71; in salt marshes 266; tweets about 574, 576 invasive species management: altered site 499; assessment 496–9; chemical control 500; citizen science 504–5; collaborations 505–6; containment 503; control 501–4; eradication 503; feasible management goals 499; genetic tools 505; historical site 497–8; inhibiting native species 500–1; intact site 498; mobile apps 504; modified site 499; mosaic site 499; non-target ecosystem impacts 500; observation 503–4; prevention 502–3; prioritization 500–1; problematic species 499; recovery constraints 500–1; re-invasion risk 501; remote sensing technology 502, 504; Jamaica Bay 269 Japan, enhancing shellfish populations 280 jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forests 116; rehabilitation 191, 192 Jasper National Park 68 Jensen, Jens 440 Jilantai Salt Lake 170 Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 566 Joint Implementation (JI) 459 Jordan, W.R III And Lubick, G.M 11–12 Jornada Experimental Range 510–11 Judarra/Gregory National Park 315–16 juniper shrub 200, 208 justice 548 Kahekili Herbivore Fishery Management Area (KHFMA) 364 Kakadu National Park 315, 319, 320 Kant, Immanuel 548 Kappaphycus alvarezii 367 Kazakhstan, restoration of Steppes 133 kerosene 206 key informant (KI) interviews 432 keystone species 97, 515 Khao Yai National Park 352 Khumbu Alpine Conservation Council (KACC) 207–8 Kilimanjaro 209 Kāneʻohe Bay 367–8 know-why knowledge 555 Kruger National Park 315, 316 kwongan shrublands 188–90 Kyoto Protocol 459 Lake Engelsholm 234–5 Lake Kollelev 240 Lake Rauwbraken 233 lake restoration: aluminium 231, 232; artificial deep water mixing 230; calcium 231; combined methods of restoration 237–9; dilution/flushing 228; eutrophication 226; fish manipulation 232–6; geoengineering 231; herbivorous fish, stocking with 228; hypolimnetic oxygenation 228, 230; hypolimnetic withdrawal 228, 229–30; invertebrate filtrators 236; iron 231; withinlake problem 227; macrophyte harvest 228; 592 Index Convention; Bonn Challenge 396; compensation 387, 388–9; Convention on Migratory Species 388, 394–5; Desertification Convention 395; Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) 396; Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration 396; Gorilla Agreement 395; international 387–8; liability regimes 388–9; New York Decoration on Forests 396; Paris Agreement (2015) 396; Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance 388, 392–3; restoration obligations, categories of 387; restoration of forests 395–6; Wadden Sea Seals Agreement 394; World Heritage Convention 388, 393–4 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) programme 443 Leaf Area Index (LAI) 61 Leafsnap 504 leaf traits 336 least terns 374–6 levees 254 Leftkovich matrix model 21, 22 Leona Quarry restoration 180–2 Leopold, Aldo 7, 11, 440, 561 Leopold Wetland Management District 473–4 Lepidium latifolium (perennial pepperweed) 266 Leslie population model 21, 22; Leslie matrix model 21, 22 Leucaena leucocephala 352 LiDAR data (Light Detection and Ranging) 61 Limahuli Botanical Garden 561 List of World Heritage in Danger 394 Little Ice Age 486, 487 Littorina irrorata 266 LiveRoof Hybrid Green Roof 382 ‘living shorelines’ (LS) 277 Lizard Hill Mine restoration 447 logistic equation 23–4 longleaf pines 145; herbicides 152; prescribed fire 152–3; Southeastern 152–3; Western 153 Louisiana 267 Louv, Richard 566 Lower Kinabatangan floodplain 80 Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley (LMAV) 117–18 low-input diverse grasslands 471 low marsh 262 lynx, Iberian 31 macrophyte transplantation and protection 228; mussels 229; nitrate addition 228; nitrogen (N) 226; Phoslock treatment 232; phosphorus inactivation 228; phosphorus (P) 226, 227; physical-chemical restoration efforts 227–32; predatory fish, stocking of 228; protection of submerged macrophytes and transplantation 236; reduction of external nutrient input 226–7; reinforcing recovery 227; sediment dredging 228; sediment removal 227–9; temperate lakes 239; total nitrogen (TN) 227; total phosphorus (TP) 227; water-level manipulation 228, 230–1; zooplankton-eating fish, removal of 228 Lake Winnipeg 474–6, 478, 479 land cover 35 land degradation 461–2 land ethics 441 land grabs 409 landowners: building relationships with 435; Clark Fork River restoration project 430; restoration and 426 land ownership in restoration of tropical forests 351–2 land rights 402 landscape corridors 35 landscape-level forest age structure 100 landscape-scale afforestation 117 landscape-scale restoration 33; agricultural technology 43; benefits of 43–4; cost-effective on-the-ground implementation 41–3; design and prioritization of restoration 40–1; disturbance regimes 37; ecological imperative for 33–9; environmental change 34, 37–8; flexibility 43; heterogeneous landscapes 36; in Hortobágy National Park 138–9; implementing restoration 38–44; interdisciplinarity 43; landscape context 34–5; multiple stakeholder perspectives 43–4; patterns 34, 36; planning of 487; processes 34, 37; temporal dimension 35; thresholds 34, 35–6 landscapes, grasslands and 129 land sparing 469 land tenure 43, 305 land use: history 35; management regime 546 large-scale wetlands restoration projects: constructed wetlands 254–5; Danube River Delta 254; Everglades 249, 250, 255–7; financial abuse 258; plant ecology 257–8 Larix laempferi 116 larval supply 287, 288 La Salle Redboine Conservation District 476 law and policy: African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement 394–5; Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels 395; Biodiversity Convention see Biodiversity macrophyte harvest 228 macrophyte transplantation and protection 228, 236, 237, 238 macroscopic scaling relationships 515–16, 517 Madagascar, forest restoration 406 Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area 168 maintenance step of restoration 150, 152 593 Index externalities 454; government grants 455; payments for ecosystem services (PES) 458–9; penalties 456; sustainability certification schemes 462; tax breaks 455, 464; tradable permits and offset schemes 458–62 meadows 378–9 mean low water (MLW) 285 mean trait values 336 mechanical thinning 151 Medawar, Peter Medeiros, Arthur 552–3 media, volunteer programmes 422–3 medical sciences, social media 569–71 medical training, social media 570 medicinal plants 198; harvesting of 203 Mediterranean agricultural landscapes, case study 524–6 Mediterranean-type ecosystems (MTEs) see MTEs (Mediterranean-type ecosystems) Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands: approaches to restoration 175–7; challenges facing ecological restoration 174; desertification 174; drought 176; theoretical underpinning 175; wildfires 174 Mekong giant catfish 246 Melinis minutiflora Beauv (molasses grass) 315 memoranda of understanding (MOU) 204–5 mesh bags 285 metagenomics approaches 505 metapopulation theory 105 micro-habitats 102 migraine 570 migrant waterfowl (snow geese) 266 migration: assisted 488; limited migration ability of species 488; poleward, of species 8; rates 18; sessile plants migratory species 388, 394–5 migratory waterbirds 394–5 Millennium Assessment report Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) 51, 52–3; categories of economic services 523; classification of dryland climates 158; deterioration of ecosystem services 522; influence on the economics of restoration 538 Miller, Dr Margaret 363 Milltown dam 430 minimum interference management 117 minimum viable population (MVP) size 30 mining: in arid lands of Australia 168; coral 356; in deserts 162; mine rehabilitation 320–1; open-cut 320; rehabilitation 191–2; in tropical savanna 315 Mississippi Madawaska Land Trust 253 Mississippi River watershed 9–10 mitigation banks/banking 85, 444 mixed broadleaf forests 113 mallee eucalypts 463 mammals, small 319 managed forests: dead wood 101; disturbance parameters 100 managed realignment 83, 264, 268; in the Netherlands 84; problems implementing strategy 83–4; in the UK 83–4 managed relocation 488 management disturbances 96 management of grasslands: altered frequency and intensity of 128; cessation of 128; reintroduction of former regimes 130 Manchac Swamp 258 mangrove ecosystems 61 mangrove hydrology 297 mangrove rehabilitation: background 295; Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta (CGSM) Delta-lagoon complex 301–2; control of mosquito populations 301; Cross Bayou, Pinellas Country 300; early case studies 297–300; ecological and hydrological principles 296–7, 300; greenbelt 303; Hillsborough Bay, Tampa 298–300; land tenure issues 305; loss by area 295; opportunities 306; planting projects 305; poor understanding of ecological requirements 303–5; problem with current normative planting practices 303–5; shrimp pond development 302; strategic reform 306–7; succession 297; technical methods 298; West Lake, Fort Lauderdale 298; see also Indonesia Mangrove Specialist Group 295 Manitoba Hydro 475 manure 472 maples (Acer) 113 marine fishery stock marine managed areas (MMAs) 359, 363 market-based instruments (MBIs) see MBIs (market-based instruments) market governance 85–6 markets 77 marsh 245 marsh carbon storage 264 mating systems 18 matrix algebra 21 matrix areas 105 maximum diversity plantings 344, 345 maximum entropy theory of ecology (MaxEnt) 517 Mayes Brook restoration project 221 MBIs (market-based instruments): alternative to command and control measures 454–5; auction approaches 456; in Australia 459, 460; broad range of policy instruments 454; combining restoration and commercial production 462–5; enhancing costeffectiveness 456–8; environmental 594 Index Native Americans 127 native flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) 279 native grasslands 472 native green algae (Cladophora sericea) 364 native perennial tussock grasses 331 native S maritima 266 natural capital: depletion 8; restocking 8–9; restoration of 537; restoration of natural capital (RNC) 541; see also economics of restoration Natural Channel Design (Rosgen) 216 natural disturbance emulation (NDE) 103–4 natural forest 94–5; as benchmark 95; disturbance parameters 100; main features of, defining 104; natural range of variability 104; natural regeneration 343 naturalized green spaces 372 naturalness, notion of 464 natural oyster (C virginica): intertidal reefs below mangroves 275; patch reefs 275; recruitment onto red mangrove prop roots 275 natural range of variability (NRV) concept 41 natural regeneration 116–17, 343 natural regrowth 341, 342, 343–5 natural resource management 402, 403–5 natural resources 441 natural selection 17 nature: reconnecting humanity with 11–12; returning gifts concept 12 nature conservation laws 387 nature deficit disorder 566 NDVI (Normalized Differential Vegetation Index) 61 Negev Desert 166 neoclassical economics 548 Neponset River Watershed Association 268 Netherlands, managed realignment 84 Netley–Libau Marsh (NLM) 475–6, 478 net present values (NPV) for ecosystems 542, 543 net primary production (NPP) 61, 527 networks governance 77 New Jersey Pine Barrens 249 New York Declaration on Forests 396 New Zealand: minimum interference management 117; native species of flora 486; non-native species of flora 486 NGOs (non-governmental organizations): in forest restoration initiatives 80–1; grant programmes 455 Niger, natural regeneration 352 nitrate edition 228 nitrogen 226, 227, 249, 475, 478; enrichment 499; removal 528 NodeXL 573 no net loss policy 441, 461 NORM (Natural Organic Recycling Machine) 376 mobile apps 504 modified sites 499 Modiolus modiolus subtidal mussels assemblages 275 MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) 61 modularity 515, 519; resilience attribute 56 Mojave Desert 162, 162–3, 168–9, 170 Moku o Lo’e Marine Laboratory Refuge 365–6 molasses grass 380 molluscan aquaculture 279 monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) 572 Morocco 410 mosaic sites 499 mosquitoes: control of breeding populations 301; control of production 263; replacement of 265; vector for malaria 267 mountaineering 202 Mountain Legacy Project 68 mountain pine (Pinus mugo) 118 MTEs (Mediterranean-type ecosystems) 173; biodiversity 173; California 173, 177–85; Cape Region of South Africa 173, 185–8, 189–90; Central Chile 173, 182–5; characteristics of 173; Mediterranean Basin 173, 174–7; Southwest Australia 173, 188–92; see also scrublands and woodlands mudsnails (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) 498 mulches 164 multi-cohort model 106–8; distinction from ASIO model 107 multi-species plantings 344, 347, 348 multispectral imagery 61 Murphy Brown Missouri (MBM) 472, 478 muskrats 250, 266 mussels 229 mutation: deleterious 20; rates 19 Nabarlek mine 321 Nachusa Grasslands 425 Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 389 NASA EO-1 61 NASA Landsat mission library 62 National Aquarium of Baltimore 379 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 427 National Invasive Species Information Center 505 National Landcare Programme (Australia) 455 National Mangrove Strategy (Indonesia) 306 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 268, 363 National Research Council (NRC) review (2017) 288 National Trust 83 National Wildlife Federation (NWF) 373 595 Index oyster reefs 276; assimilation of nutrients 276–7 oyster(s): aquaculture 279, 279–80, 290; biology of 278–9; enhancement and restoration of oyster reef habitats 277–80; foraging and sheltering habitat 276; habitats in the US 276; hard substrate for settlement of oyster spat 289; harvesting for human consumption 274; higher relief reefs 289; ingestion 276; intertidal 278; life-cycle 278; loss of habitat 276; non-native foundation species 277; reefs 276; restoration, need for 279–80; shallow reef-forming 278; shell budgets 289; site selection see site selection, oyster restoration; subtidal 278; value of reef services 276; water quality 278; see also bivalve(s) Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) 61 Northern Quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus) 319 North Sea coast 83 North Shore Restoration Group 568 Norway spruce (Picea abies) 119 nostalgia 69–70 Nothofagus forests 120 novel ecosystems 60, 117; adaptive management 487, 491; climate change and 487; concept 11; controversies of 489; emergence of 486–9; flora of New Zealand 486; historic range of variability (HRV) 487–8; non-native species 486; recognition of 489; San Francisco Bay 486; tweets about 572–3, 575; unintended consequences of restoration 488–9 nucleation 120; in Central Chile 183–4; theory 40 nurse effects 183 nurseries, coral 357–8, 359–61 nurse trees 344, 347 nutrient assimilation 379–80 nutrient levels 131; in the Everglades 256 nutrients, in freshwater wetlands 249–50 Nuttall oak (Quercus texana) 118 Pacific/Japanese oyster (Crassostrea gigas) 277 pack animals 201–2 paddock trees 117 palaeoecological evidence 68 Paraguay, forest restoration 406 Paris Agreement (2015) 396 parrotfish 364, 365 participation: as beneficial governance 77–9; building social capital 79; collective policy making 79; commingling governance 84–6; in early stage policy-making 81; goal objectives 77–8; governance of public affairs 76; institutional context 81–4; instrumental learning 79; in later-stage policy-making 81; overcoming barriers to 79–81; participatory practices 76, 78; partnerships 78–9; political science perspective 77; political stability 77–8; reduced democratic legitimacy 82; solving collective problems 79; see also community participation; managed realignment Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity 51 passive restoration 183, 331, 391, 491 pasture land, restoration of 117 patch-corridor-matrix model 105 path-dependent approach to restoration 60 pathway and vector management 502–3 payments for ecosystem services (PES) 85–6, 409, 455; beneficiary pays scheme 459; criteria for 458; grants for ecological restoration 458; obstacles to 547; polluter pays scheme 459 peatlands 116 Pelly’s Lake 476 penalties 456 pen shell aggregations 275 Pepco WaterShed Sustainability Centre 382 perch (Perca fluviatilis) 239, 343, 344–5 perennial grasslands 471 perennial meadows 378–9 oaks (Quercus) 113, 143–5; ecosystem services and foundation species 275–7; reefs, loss of 275; seedlings 145 Oasis de la Campana 185 observation 503–4 OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) 456–7 Ohio River 446 oil drilling 258 oil spills: Deepwater Horizon 258; Tampa Bay 300 old climatically buffered infertile landscapes’ (OCBILs) 329 old-growth grasslands 328 Olympia oyster 279 open-cut mining 320 open forest ecosystems 155 Openlands Project 424 openness of government 82 oral histories 68 Orbicella sp 363 orchids 250 Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds 442 Orland Grassland 424 Ostrea 288 outbreeding depression 20 overfishing 355 overlap, resilience attribute 57 overstorey manipulations 119 over-yielding 514 oxidation of hypolimnion 228, 230, 239 oxybenzone 356 oxygen, dissolved 285–6 596 Index evolution and genetics 17; influences on 26; Leftkovich model of 22; measuring tools and techniques 18–19; migration rates 18, 27; Verhulst equation 23–5 population ecology 18 population growth, human 7, 489 population models: ballpark estimates 30; controlled introductions of populations 25; elasticity analysis 28–9; exponential model 29, 30; expressing population changes 22–3; Fowler’s model 29, 30; Leftkovich matrix model 21, 22; Leslie matrix model 21, 22; Leslie population model 21, 22; logistic equation 23–5; matrix algebra 21; MVP calculations 30; population viability analysis (PVA) 30–1; sensitivity analysis 28–9; simple 22; spatially explicit population models 26–7; Verhulst equation 23–5, 29 population scales 16; census 20–1; definition of population 17–18; restoration of populations, measuring democratic variables 18–21 population surveys 437 population viability analysis (PVA) 30–1 post-fire restoration 175 post-mining rehabilitation 191, 192 pot fish 358 poverty 547 power law scaling relationships 516, 517 practitioners 555–7, 559; social media, use of 579 Prairie Agricultural Machinery Institute 476 prairie fringed-orchid 246 prairies 127; case study 133–5; fire regime 134; listed species 133; restoration 133–4 precipitation 158 predation 358 predators: ambush 358; effect on oysters 286; stenohaline 286 predatory fish, stocking of 228 prescribed fire: Eastern and Western oaks 151–2; Western pines 153 primary production 249 primary temperate grasslands 126–7; prairies 127, 133–5; Southern Cone of South America 127; Steppes 126 private property rights 548 problem-solving, collective 79 procedural fairness, idea of 431 procedural trust 429 process-based conflict 436 procurement 447–9 productivity, in grasslands 129 profit motivations: bioeconomies 471; cattail harvesting project in Lake Winnipeg 474–6, 477, 478, 479; collaboration and need for private partners 479–80; conservationeconomy nexus 468–71, 480; ecological perennial plants 165–6 peripheral habitats 255 permanence 546, 547 PES (payments for ecosystem services) see payments for ecosystem (PES) phase shift 364 phenotypic diversity 19 Phoslock 232 phosphate 231 phosphorus 226, 227, 249, 475, 478; concentrations in the Everglades 256 phosphorus inactivation 228 photosynthesis, rate of 61 Phragmites australis (Eurasian variety) 266 phytoplankton 226, 227; biomass 234 Picea-dominated stands 100 pine (Pinus) 118; ecological impacts in Argentina 434; invasions 433–4; Ponderosa 145; social impacts in Argentina 434; Southeastern pines 152–3; Western pines 153; see also longleaf pines Pinus-dominated sites 100 Pinus koraiensis 116 Pinus radiata 120 piscicide treatments 232 Pizzo and Associates 443–4 place attachment 70, 78 plantain (Plantago ovata) 170 Plantations on Ancient Woodland Sites (PAWS) 120 plant available moisture (PAM) 321 plant material transfer 132 plant migration 488 planula 363 ploughing 128 podcasts 569 polar bear (Ursus maritimus) 572; tweets about 573–4, 576 poles 348 poleward migration of species policy analysis 78 policy-making: negotiation between different interest groups 81–2; opportunity structures 82; public participation in 81 political opportunity structures 82 pollarding 146, 154 pollination 378–9 polluter pays scheme 459 pollution, chemical 355–6 polycentric governance 408 Polylepis forests 198–9 ponderosa pine savannas and woodlands 145 pooling of carbon 545, 546 poplar 463 Poplar Creek Prairie 418, 419 Popper, Karl population dynamics: birth 18, 27; death 18, 27; 597 Index Redstreak restoration project 68–9 redwood forests 498 reed (Phragmites australis) beds 245 reef-associated organisms 276 reference conditions: desert restoration 162–3; historical information 68–9 reforestation: in South Korea 116; tropical forests 341–2 regulating services 52, 523, 524 regulation, governance as 405–6 rehabilitating existing forests: processes 121–2; species composition 119–20; structure 120–1 rehabilitation, rivers and streams re-invasion of invasive species 501 relationship-based conflict 436 relatively fast feedbacks, resilience attribute 56 remotely sensed data 59, 61, 62 remote sensing 502, 504 renewable electricity 464 renosterveld sclerophyllous shrublands 185 research and innovation, private sector 450; developing new techniques 451; dissemination and reporting 451–2; evaluating restoration 450–1; research collaborations 452 researchers 555–7, 559 resilience: alternative stable states 510, 511, 512; assessment 54, 55; biodiversity and 513; concepts 509–10; connectivity and 513, 514–15; coral reefs, maximizing 356, 363–4; definition of 509; diagnostic measures of 515; diversity and 513–14; ecological resilience 509, 510, 512, 513; energetic equivalence rule (EER) 516–17; engineering resilience 509–10, 513; forest health 96; macroscopic scaling relationships 515–16, 517; modularity 515, 519; quantifying 515; scaling approaches 512; in theory and practice 510–13; thresholds 510–12 resilience assessment: attributes 55–7; definition 55; restoration projects 58 resilience management: diversity and 513–14; understanding of attributes 513 response diversity 513–14 response traits 336 resprouting species 175 restoration: definition of 66; evaluation of 450–1; passive 183, 331, 391, 491; rivers and streams 214 restoration bonds 456 restoration businesses: business development and competition 447; career planning and management 449–50; combination of approaches 452; contractual frameworks 447–9; design-build method 448; diversity of 446; interdisciplinary work 449; research and innovation in the private sector 450–2; restoration goals and objectives 476–8; economic gain and large-scale ecological restoration 480; grassland feedstock for biogas project, Missouri 472–3, 477, 478; multiple benefits, public benefit and adaptiveness 479; scope, focus and stimulus of ecological restoration 476–8; waterfowl habitat harvest for habitat management project, Wisconsin 473–4, 477, 478 propane 206 protected areas: in combination with managed areas 102–3; constructed wetlands 255; effectively managed 389; governance and 404; legal framework 410; networks 108, 390; restoration 389–90; in southern Finland 104 provisioning services 52, 523, 524 public benefits 471, 479, 480 public engagement 427–8 public funds 545–6 public health, communication via social media 570 public meetings 435 public participation see participation public policy 76 Quercus species 118 Quincy 268 Rainforest Alliance 462, 463 ramram (Heliotropium kotschyi) 167 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance 388, 392–3 rangeland for grazing livestock 162 rational trust 429 rattlebox (Crotalaria aegyptiaca) 167 Rawls, J 548 reach-scale restoration 217 recolonization: conditions for 117; native 115; natural 116; using natural regeneration 116–17 recovery of ecosystem services: differing values of stakeholders 534; financial and opportunity costs 533; land ownership and land use 533; multiple native species, selection of 532; reluctance of farmers 533; restoration interventions 532, 533 recovery step of restoration 150, 152 REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) 395 REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) 391, 395–6, 402; tenure and rights 410 Red List of Ecosystems project 54–5, 58, 63; resilience assessment 54–5; risk assessment 54–5 Red List of Threatened Species 246 Red River 475 598 Index restoration 215–16; process-based restoration 216; rise of restoration 214–15; River Wharfe case study 218–19; stressors 217; variation in restoration priorities between countries 216; Water Framework Directive 216, 219, 220–1 River Styles framework 217 River Wharfe, case study 218–19 Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust) 528 Roche/454 pyrosequencing 505 Roeslein Alternative Energy (RAE) 472–3, 478, 479 rooftop nesting 374–6 Rose et al 16 Rotational Impoundment Management (RIM) 301 rotenone 232 Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB) 462, 463 Roundtable on the Crown of the Continent 407 row crop agriculture 469 RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) 83 runnel 267 Rutherford, Ernest 10 science and data 451; team dynamics 447; team members 450; traditional procurement method 447–9; types of clients 446 restoration ecology: cross-scalar 16; emergence of 7; ethics and 2; introduction of desirable organisms 23; population models in 21–9; at population scales see population scales; social media, use of 579–80; see also ecological restoration; history in restoration ecology; landscape-scale restoration restoration obligations in legal instruments: command and control approach 387; compensatory measures 387; liability regime 387 restoration of economics 547–8; see also economics of restoration restoration of natural capital (RNC) 541 restoration projects: adaptive and wide-ranging approaches 69; climate models 59; cultural acceptance 78; ecological processes 60–1; Ecosystem Approach 51, 58, 63; ecosystem services 58; Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 59, 62; goals and objectives 60; partial solutions 57; path-dependent approach 60; planning 53, 60; principles 58; remotely sensed data 59, 61, 62; resilience assessment 58; risk of collapse 58; risks 57; scale 53–4; societal engagement with 77; technology, application of 58–62; traditional ecosystem restoration approach 59; uncertainty and unpredictability 57; wicked problems 57–8, 63 restorations silviculture 108 restoration step 150; longleaf pines 152 restorative economics 537 returning gifts, concept of 12 reverse auctions 456–8 Rhinella marina (cane toads) 316, 319 Rhizophora apiculata 303 Rio+20 Conference 395, 403 riparian restoration 222 riparian wetlands risk, assessing 54, 55 River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) 220 riverine broadleaf forests 117–18 rivers and streams: blending social and ecological approaches 221; catchment-scale processes 217; challenges for river restoration 219–20; climate change 221–2; degradation of water quality 213; exploitation for human needs 213; failure of restoration projects 223; German restoration projects 220–1; impacts of urbanization 213–14; limited evidence for success of restoration projects 220; monitoring and appraisal of restoration 219; no-net-loss policy 441; participation and multiple stakeholders 217–18; principles for Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park 207–9 sage scrub 179; restoration plans 180 salinity 245, 250; oyster restoration 286 salt hay (Spartina patens) 267 salt marshes: definition and distribution 261–2; development and response to sea level rise 262–3; dissolved oxygen and temperature 285–6; ditches 266–7, 268–9; fill removal 265; human impacts and restoration approaches 263–7; hydrologic restoration 268; increased/decreased sediment supply 267; increasing elevation 269; invasive halophytes, removing 269; invasive species 266; loss of 261; native halophytes, restoring 269; removing fill 268; restoration 262, 263; restoration approaches 267–9; restoring tidal exchange 264–5; sea level rise and erosion 267; trophic cascades 266 Sanders, Bernie 575 sand minds 447 San Francisco Bay Delta 445; non-native species 486 satellite mapping 41 savannas see temperate savannas and woodlands savannization 323 scale mismatches 53, 54 scaling relationships 515–16, 517 Scandinavian boreal forests 95 Scandinavian model of forest management 94 science, definition of 451 science-practice gap 556 599 Index site selection, oyster restoration 280; aerial exposure 285; attributes 282–8; biological parameters 281; disease 288; hydrology and food 287; larval supply 287, 288; physical parameters 281; predators and competitors 286; project goals and objectives 281, 288–9; proximity to natural oyster reefs 288; salinity 286; sediment dynamics 284–5; subtidal/intertidal reef type, height, and depth 282; underlying substrate type and deployment 285 skips and gaps thinning 121 Sloping Land Conversion programme 526–8 slow-growing timber 348 slow variables, resilience attribute 56 small mammals 319 snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus) 572 social capacity, building of 426–8; adaptive engagement 435–6; Clark Fork River restoration project 430; collaborative communication 431; conflict, acknowledging and navigating 436; continued engagement 437–8; definition of social capacity 427; fair and inclusive process stakeholder engagement 427; initial stakeholder engagement 432–4; levels of involvement 436; meaningful involvement using diverse tools 435–6; open access references/guides 435; phases of engagement 428; pine invasions 433–4; public engagement processes 427–8; showcase successes 437; socio-economic monitoring and evaluation 437; transparency and inclusivity 431–2; trust 429, 430; written communication 435; see also stakeholder engagement social capital 79; resilience attribute 56 social-ecological systems (SES) approach 426 social justice 548 social media 423; blogs 568; conservation disciplines 571–2; content communities 568–9; definition 567–9; democratized mass communication 567; environmental action 566; extending use of in restoration 576–9; impact on personal lives 566; literature for institutions 566; in medical disciplines 569–71; medical training 570; podcasts 569; public health communication 570; relationship between production and consumption 567; social networks 565, 566, 568; text messaging 567; value for ecological restoration 565; wikis 569; see also Facebook; Twitter; YouTube social monitoring 437 social network analysis (SNA) 433; case studies 569–72; medical disciplines 569–71 social networking sites (SNS) 572 social networks/networking 565, 568; communities of interest 566; definition 568 sclerophyllous forests, Central Chile 182–5 Sclerophyllous shrublands 185–8 Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) 145 Scottish Forest strategy (2006) 406 sea level rise (SLR) 262–3; and erosion 267; resilience to 265 sea urchin (Diadema antillarum) 358, 367, 368 secondary temperate grasslands 127; European 127, 135–9; North American 127 sediment dynamics 284–5 sediment recharge 267 sediment removal 227–9 sediment supply 267 seed bank depletion 129 seeding for new grasslands 132 seedlings 42, 115, 150; longleaf pine 145, 152, 153; oak 145, 152; perennial plants 165, 166; tropical forests 341–2, 344, 345–7 seed(s): agricultural technology 43; of desirable species 131; directly sown seed 343, 344, 347–9; enhancement technologies 42; for prairies 134; sourcing 40, 41–2; sowing from ground or aircraft 344, 347–8; X-rays 42 semi-arid dryland climates 158, 159, 160 sensitivity analysis 28–9 SER Primer on Ecological Restoration (2004) 485, 491, 509, 572 sessile plants seston 278, 287 settlers 252 sewage 226–7 sexually produced recruits 363–4 sexual reproduction 17 shadscale saltbush (Atriplex confertifolia) 169 shallow coral reefs 358 shallow reef-forming oysters 278 shallow water 246 sheet flow 166 shellfish populations 279 shell mounds (middens) 276 shifting baseline syndrome 70 Shinyanga project (Kenya) 53 shoreline protection of coral reefs 357 short-rotation cropping 463 shrimp pond development 302–3 shrublands and woodlands: California 177–85; Cape Region of South Africa 185–8, 189–90; Central Chile 182–5; fire 173; Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands 173, 174–7; Southwest Australia 173, 188–92 Sierra Club 444 silver birch (Betula pendula) 119 silvicultural approaches 107 simulation modelling 289 Sindh Coastal Community Development project 305 Sistine Chapel 66 600 Index stand density 151 stand management systems 120–1 stand-replacing fires 99 State of the Climate Report (2014) 490 state shifts: droughts 27; high-altitude forests 97 stenohaline predators 286 Steppes 126, 133 stepping-stones 105 Stockholm Resilience Centre 426 stocking levels, North American savannas and woodlands 143, 144, 151, 152 storm treatment areas (STAs) 256 stormwater 382 streams, urban and suburban 528 stress paradox 19 stress tolerators 250, 256 structural cohorts 106–7 sturgeonfish 364, 365 Stylophora pistillata 363 sub-humid dryland climates 158 subsidence 267 Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBBTA) 391–2 sub tidal oysters 278 subtidal reefs 282 subtropical mountains 198 succession models 10, 11 successions, in forest ecosystems 97 success, showcasing 437 Suding et al 58 Sumatra 302; damar agroforests 463 Sumberjaya pilot programme 455, 457 Superfund complexes 430 Super Sucker 366 supporting services 52, 523 surveys, detection of invasive species 502 survivorship 28 suspended oyster culture 275 sustainability certification schemes 462 Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN) 462–3 sustainable development 540–1; pathways to 541 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 462 sustainable forest management 95 swamp 245 Sweden, protected areas 102 system reserves, resilience attribute 57 Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) 1, 80, 552, 568 socio-ecological systems 49 soil: compacted and eroded 164; erosion 129, 526–8; formation in deserts 164; scalping 40 Solar Decathlon design competition 382 solid waste 202–3 Solow, R 540 Sonoran Desert 160 Southeastern pines 152–3 Southern Cone of South America 127 southern corroboree frog 246 South Korea: Forest Ecosystem Restoration Initiative 392; reclamation of severely degraded sites 116; reforestation 116 Spanish Action Programme to Combat Desertification 178 Spartina alterniflora 266, 300 Spartina anglica 488 Spartina densiflora 266 spatially explicit population models 26–7 spawning 363 species: extinction of 8; forest, extinction of 93; heavy seeded 120; invasive 266; keystone 97; location of 102–3; management disturbances 96; replacement through biodiversity 96; responding to new habitat 36; sexual reproduction of 17–18 species selection 40 Spekboom (Portulacaria afra) 545 spontaneous succession: forest 128, 129; grasslands 132; in the Steppes 133; and subsequent management 132 springs 166–7 spruce (Picea) 118 staghorn (A cervicornis) corals 358 stakeholder engagement: baseline data, collecting 433; in building social capacity 427–8; collaborative communication 431, 437; conflict, acknowledging and navigating 436; foundations of 428–32; identify stakeholders and establish goals 432; key informant (KI) interviews 432; levels of involvement 436; meaningful communication 435; one-on-one approaches 435; phases of engagement 428; representation of diverse interests 428; social network analysis (SNA) 433; transparency and inclusivity 431–2; trust 429, 430 stakeholders: alpine organizations 203–4; buy-in 427; Clark Fork River restoration project 430; conflict among 57; contribution to project design, 217 217; governance among 402, 407– 8; input of 426; land ownership 410; perspectives of 43–4; planning restoration projects 53; researchers and practitioners 555; supporting restoration projects 58; Wharfe River restoration project 218 tactical models 104–8 tall-grass prairies 127 Tampa Bay oil spill 300 Tanakeke Island 302–3 task-based conflict 436 Tasmanian Forest Conservation Fund 457 Tataru Island 254 tax breaks 455, 464 team members 450 technical afforestation 128 601 Index tidal hydrology 264–5; partial tidal restoration 265; restoration 268 tidal marshes see salt marshes tides 262; reducing/eliminating 263 Tigress-Euphrates 249 timber: fast-growing 348; planting commercial species 116; slow-growing 348 timber harvesting 93, 94 time series analysis 234 tipping points in ecosystems 489–90 topsoil: removal 131, 132–3, 500; savanna restoration 321; storage of 164; transfer of 131 total nitrogen (TN) 227 total phosphorus (TP) 227 tourism: Kilimanjaro 209; Mt Everest region 207 tradable offset schemes 459–61 trademarks 463 Tradescantia flumiesis 500 traditional ecosystem restoration approach 59 traits 336 translocation 30, 31 transparency 431–2 treatment wetlands 256 tree mortality 99 tree-oriented approach 175 trekking 202, 206 trophic cascades 266 tropical and subtropical grasslands: active restoration 332–4; adaptive management 336–7; distribution of 328; disturbances 329; ecological characteristics of 328–9; functional perspective to ecological restoration 336; invasive species 334–5; minimal restoration, reasons for 327; objectives of restoration 329; passive restoration 331; spontaneous recovery 331; strategies and techniques for restoration 330–4; traits 336 tropical forest restoration 340 tropical grassy biomes 328 tropical mountains 198 tropical rainforests: canopy gaps 349; case studies 352–3; deforestation 340; direct seeding 342, 343, 347–9; ecological issues 350; enrichment with seedlings or seed 343–4; forest restoration at landscape scale 350; forest restoration in practice 343–8; framework species method 344, 346; functional effectiveness of restoration 350; high temperatures 340; initiating forest restoration 341–3; land ownership 351–2; management of new forests 348–9; maximum diversity plantings 344, 345; multi-species planting 344, 347, 348; natural regeneration 343, 352; natural regrowth 341, 342, 343–5; planted seedlings 341–2, 344, 345–7; planting perch technology adoption 451–2 technology(ies): advantages in restoration projects 60; climate models 59; communication 59; Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 59, 62; remotely sensed data 59, 61, 62 temperate broadleaf forests 113; afforestation 117–19; broad leaves 113; clearing for agriculture and pasture 116–19; exploitation of 114; global climate change 122; lacking desired species 120; reclamation after severe abiotic disturbance 115–16; recolonization using natural regeneration 116–17; restoration needs 115; restoration of 114–15 temperate deciduous forests 113 temperate forest: cold 113; warm 113 temperate grasslands: altered frequency and intensity of management 128; altered water regime 128; cessation of management 128; degradation 128; eutrophication 128; fragmentation 128; loss of 127–8; natural obstacles to restoration 129; ploughing 128; primary grasslands 126–7; restoration of 128–30; secondary grasslands 127; societal obstacles to restoration 130; spontaneous forest succession 128; technical afforestation 128; see also grasslands restoration temperate lakes 239 temperate savannas and woodlands 142–3; challenges of restoration 155; characteristics of 142; eastern and western oaks 151–3; European 145–6; general restoration guidelines 146–51; longleaf pine 145; lowseverity disturbances 142; maintenance step of restoration 150, 152; North American 143–5; oaks 143–4; overstorey restoration 147, 150; ponderosa pine 145; recruitment step of restoration 150, 152; restoration in Europe 153–5; restoration in North America 151–3; restoration step 150; stocking levels 143, 144; understorey restoration 147, 150 Tengboche Rimpoche 208 tenure and rights 410; enhanced security of 455 terrestrial restoration 445 text messaging 567 Thailand, tropical forest restoration 352 The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity project (TEEB) The Mountain Institute (TMI) 203, 207; pasture improvement programme 209 The Nature Conservancy 358, 366, 418, 425 thinning: chemical 151; mechanical 151; North American savannas and woodlands 151, 152 thresholds: challenges in locating 512; to disturbance 511; identification of alternative stable states 510; implied 511; landscape 35–6; measurement and prediction of 510; in terrestrial systems 510–11 602 Index Order 59; federal government’s no-net-loss policy 441; oyster fisheries 27; oyster habitats University of Wisconsin (UW) 474 UN-REDD programme 396 UN Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment (1972) 403 Upper Mississippi River 445 Upper Wharfedale Best Practice Project (UWBPP) 218 urban and suburban streams 528 urban centres 371 urban ecological restoration: Baltimore Harbor floating wetlands 379–80; biohuts 380–1; built environment 372; defining 371–3; fragmentation 372; green faỗade at National Wildlife Federation 3734; green roof of the WaterShed House 382; level of alteration 372; natural organic recycling machine in Hassalo on 8th 376–7; roof-nesting tern initiative by Audubon Florida 375–6; Urban Pollinator Project 378–9 Urban Heat Island Effect 373 Urban Pollinator Project 378–9 Urban Stream Syndrome 213–14 urban waterfronts 379–80 US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) 268, 443 US Corn Belt 468–9 US Environmental Protection Agency 427 US Forest Service 490 US National Wildlife Refuges 267 Uvas Creek, California 216 trees 344; reduced coverage 8–9; scaling up of forest restoration 349–51; seed sown from ground or aircraft 344, 347–8; socioeconomic factors for restoration 340; socio-economic issues 350–1; success of restoration 349; under-planting beneath nurse trees 344, 347 tropical savanna restoration: bush encroachment 316–17; cattle grazing 313–14, 316; climate change impacts 322–3; conservation management 315; coverage 312; crops growing, difficulties of 315; definition of tropical savanna 312; elephant over-browsing 317; feral animal control 319; fire, role of 322, 324; harvesting of native trees and shrubs 315; land uses and degradation 314–16; mine rehabilitation 320–1; mining 315; pastoral and conservation land management 316–19; rehabilitation/management 312–14; small mammals 319; soil type 312; South American policy on 313; subsistence grazing 314; weed control 318–19, 321, 324 trust: collaborative communication 431; definition of 429; stakeholder engagement 429, 430 tundra 199 turf cutting 201 turf (sod) 333; transfer of 131 Twitter 565; climate change tweets 575; content analysis of restoration tweets 572–6; ecological restoration tweets 574–5; H1N1related tweets 570; invasive species tweets 574, 576; novel ecosystems tweets 572–3, 575; Pablo Escobar tweets 574; polar bear tweets 573–4, 576; surveillance tweets 572 valuable habitat patches 105 value creation 409 Vanwyksdorp, case study 545–7 variable density thinning (VDT) 121 vegetation indices 62 vegetation types, Everglades 256–7 Venus flytrap 246 Verhulst equation 23–5, 29 Vietnam, privatization of ‘bare hills’ for plantations 406 Voluntary Conservation Easements (USA) 455 voluntary market schemes 404 volunteer programmes/projects: bad ideas, approving 420; bureaucratic waiting and reversals 421; coaching tips 423–4; collaborative 414, 416, 425; elements of success 419–20; empowering people 420; facilitative language 421–2; facilitator 418, 420; good relations between staff and volunteers 421; harvesting seeds 419–20; identifying capable leadership 419; image, media and motivation 422–3; kick-off events 417–18; lack of clear chain of authority 421; lone hero 421; ongoing education 422; UK Environment Agency 83 Ukraine, restoration of Steppes 133 UK Renewables Obligation 464 Ulex europaeus 335 under-planting 344, 347 UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) 403 UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 402; Framework for Assessing and Monitoring Forest Governance 402 ungulate browsers 53 United Kingdom, managed realignment 83–4 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 395, 461–2 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 401 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 395 United States of America (USA): Clean Water Act 216; coastal residents 274; Executive 603 Index West Lake, Fort Lauderdale 298 wet forests 121–2 wet grasslands 128, 130–1, 135; degraded, restoration in Western Europe 135 wetland mitigation 85 wetlands: floating 379–80; no-net-loss policy 441; Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance 393; restoration 393, 443; see also freshwater wetlands wet meadow 245 Whisenant, S.G 11 white bursage (Ambrosia dumosa) 163 White, P and Walker, J 68 wicked problems 49, 57–8, 63, 553; characteristics of 50 Wikipedia 567 wikis 569 wildfires, Mediterranean Basin 174 wildlife conservancies 407 wildlife species, restoration of 349 Willamette Watershed 85 willow (Salix) 118, 463 Wilson, E.O 49 Wongalara Wildlife Sanctuary 319 woodland ground flora 146 woodland islets 524–6 woodlands see shrublands and woodlands; temperate savannas and woodlands wood-pastures 145–6, 153–5 Woodwalton Fen 253 woody species 130, 135; in Central Chile 183 Working for Lands 545 Working for Water 441 World Bank, Analytical Framework for Forest Governance Reforms (FFGR) 402 World Heritage Committee 393–4 World Heritage Convention 388, 393–4 World Heritage Fund 394 World Heritage List 394 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) 455 www.ReefResilience.org 356 planning 418–19; Poplar Creek Prairie Stewards 419; relations with funding and partner agencies 424–5; seasonal work 417–18; small agencies, private land and not for-profits 425; spirit of generosity and optimism 422; staffing and funding 424; staff resentment, avoiding 421; undue deference to counterproductive experts 421; wasting early time 420–1 volunteers: celebrating successful leaders 420; communication skills 423; early planning 415–16; leadership qualities 416–17; motivation of 421–2; pilot projects 415; professional volunteer coordinators 416–17; questions for organization decision-makers 415, 416; spirit 415; value of 414 Wadden Sea 277; Wadden Sea Seals Agreement 394 warm temperate forests 113 Washington Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 403 Washington ground squirrels 41 waste disposal 202–3 waste rock 321 wastewater 376 water: quality and quantity in the grasslands 129; quality, impact on oysters 278; see also rivers and streams waterfowl 263 waterfowl habitat harvest for habit management project, Wisconsin 474–6, 477, 478 waterfowl production areas (WPAs) 473–4, 475, 477, 478 Water Framework Directive 216, 219, 220–1 waterfronts 379–80 water-level manipulation 228, 230–1 water retention 382–3 WaterShed House 382 watersheds 254 wave energy 357 weed control, tropical savanna 318–19, 321, 324 welfare economics 548 Welikia project 68 Wells, H.W 276 Wertheim National Wildlife Refuge 268 WESSA 545 Western Australian Mediterranean shrublands and woodlands: alcoa approach 191; ecological and evolutionary background 188–90; Iluka approach 191–2; new perspectives 192; regional rehabilitation challenges 190; theoretical underpinning 191 Western pines 153 Yangtze River estuary 280 yarsugumba (Ophiocordyceps sinensis; caterpillar fungus) 203 Yellow River 213 Yellowstone to Yukon conservation initiative 37, 39, 43 YouTube 567 zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) 236 Zero Net Land Degradation 395 zonation 247, 248, 249 zooplankton-eating fish, removal of 228 604 ... state of the art of ecological restoration and the state of the science of restoration ecology The most commonly used definition of ecological restoration comes from the Society for Ecological Restoration s... author of Ecological Restoration and Environmental Change (Routledge, 2012) Stephen D Murphy is Professor and Director of the School of Environment, Resources and Sustainability at the University of. .. the editor-in-chief of Restoration Ecology www.allitebooks.com www.allitebooks.com ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION Edited by Stuart K Allison and Stephen D Murphy