The Routledge Handbook of Language and Professional Communication The Routledge Handbook of Language and Professional Communication provides a broad coverage of the key areas where language and professional communication intersect and gives a comprehensive account of the field The four main sections of the Handbook cover: Approaches to Professional Communication Practice Acquisition of Professional Competence Views from the Professions This invaluable reference book incorporates not only an historical view of the field, but also looks to possible future developments Contributions from international scholars and practitioners, focusing on specific issues, explore the major approaches to professional communication and bring into focus recent research This is the first handbook of language and professional communication to account for both pedagogic and practitioner perspectives and as such is an essential reference for postgraduate students and those researching and working in the areas of applied linguistics and professional communication Contributors: Natasha Artemeva, Vijay Bhatia, Stephen Bremner, Patrice M Buzzanell, Saul Carliner, Winnie Cheng, Marta Chromá, Isabel Corona, Stephani Currie, George Anthony David Dass, Bertha Du-Babcock, Matt Falconer, Gail Forey, Janna Fox, Finn Frandsen, Jeremy P Fyke, Michael B Goodman, David Grant, Elizabeth de Groot, Christoph A Hafner, Michael Handford, Peter B Hirsch, Janet Holmes, Winni Johansen, Alan Jones, Sujata Kathpalia, Koo Swit Ling, Becky S C Kwan, William Littlewood, Jane Lockwood, Jane Lung, Carmen Daniela Maier, Meredith Marra, Lindsay Miller, Catherine Nickerson, Daniel Nyberg, Anne Peirson-Smith, Robyn V Remke, Priscilla S Rogers, Graham Smart, Alina Wan, Yunxia Zhu Vijay Bhatia is an Adjunct Professor at Macquarie University and University of Malaya He is the author of Analysing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings (1993) and Worlds of Written Discourse: A Genre-based View (2004) Stephen Bremner is an Associate Professor in the Department of English at City University of Hong Kong His main research interests are workplace writing and the ways in which students make the transition from the academy to the workplace This page intentionally left blank The Routledge Handbook of Language and Professional Communication Edited by Vijay Bhatia and Stephen Bremner First published 2014 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2014 selection and editorial matter, Vijay Bhatia and Stephen Bremner; individual chapters, the contributors The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial matter, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data The Routledge handbook of language and professional communication / edited by Vijay Bhatia and Stephen Bremner pages cm – (Routledge handbooks in applied linguistics) Communication–Study and teaching Language and language–Study and teaching I Bhatia, V K (Vijay Kumar), 1942– P91.3.R685 2014 302.2’071–dc23 2013025674 ISBN: 978-0-415-67619-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-85168-6 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Taylor & Francis Books Contents List of figures List of tables Notes on contributors Introduction Section 1: Approaches to professional communication A General theoretical frameworks Analysing discourse variation in professional contexts Vijay Bhatia Corpus analyses of professional discourse Winnie Cheng ix x xi xvi 13 A situated genre approach for business communication education in cross-cultural contexts Yunxia Zhu 26 Stretching the multimodal boundaries of professional communication in multi-resources kits Carmen Daniela Maier 40 B Broad disciplinary frameworks Business communication Catherine Nickerson Business communication: A revisiting of theory, research and teaching Bertha Du-Babcock 50 68 v Contents Research on knowledge-making in professional discourses: The use of theoretical resources Graham Smart, Stephani Currie and Matt Falconer Technical communication Saul Carliner The complexities of communication in professional workplaces Janet Holmes and Meredith Marra 85 99 112 10 Electronic media in professional communication Michael B Goodman and Peter B Hirsch 129 11 The role of translation in professional communication Marta Chromá 147 C Specific disciplinary frameworks 12 Management communication: Getting work done through people Priscilla S Rogers 165 13 Business and the communication of climate change: An organisational discourse perspective David Grant and Daniel Nyberg 193 14 Professionalising organisational communication discourses, materialities and trends Patrice M Buzzanell, Jeremy P Fyke and Robyn V Remke 207 15 Corporate communication Finn Frandsen and Winni Johansen 16 Corporate communication and the role of annual reporting: Identifying areas for further research Elizabeth de Groot Section 2: Practice A Pedagogic perspectives 17 A blended needs analysis: Critical genre analysis and needs analysis of language and communication for professional purposes Jane Lung vi 220 237 255 257 Contents 18 The changing landscape of business communication Sujata S Kathpalia and Koo Swit Ling 274 19 Methodology for teaching ESP William Littlewood 287 B Disciplinary perspectives 20 English for Science and Technology Lindsay Miller 304 21 Communicative dimensions of professional accounting work Alan Jones 321 22 Professional communication in the legal domain Christoph A Hafner 349 23 Communication in the construction industry Michael Handford 363 24 Offshore outsourcing: The need for appliable linguistics Gail Forey 382 25 Media communication: Current trends and future challenges Isabel Corona 400 26 The public relations industry and its place in professional communication theory and practice: Past, present and future perspectives Anne Peirson-Smith 419 Section 3: Acquisition of professional competence 441 27 Communities in studies of discursive practices and discursive practices in communities Becky S C Kwan 443 28 The formation of a professional communicator: A socio-rhetorical approach Natasha Artemeva and Janna Fox 461 29 Collaborative writing: Challenges for research and teaching Stephen Bremner 486 vii Contents 30 Training the call centre communications trainers in the Asian BPO industry Jane Lockwood 501 31 Credentialing of communication professionals Saul Carliner 521 Section 4: View from the professions 533 32 Banking 535 33 Law 547 34 Accounting 555 35 PR 562 Appendix: View from the professions – questions Index viii 570 571 List of figures 0.1 1.1 1.2 2.1 4.1 10.1 11.1 11.2 12.1 12.2 12.3 15.1 17.1 17.2 17.3 19.1 20.1 20.2 21.1 21.2 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 27.1 27.2 30.1 30.2 ESP and professional communication Discourse and genre analysis in professional communication Interdiscursivity in genre-based analysis of professional communication A sample concordance for ‘thank you’ in HKCSE The multi-resources kits Tweets with Kony or #StopKony Verbal communication chart The process of bilingual translation Competing values communication framework illustrates the relationships between four basic types of communication and valued characteristics Profile of a relatively newly hired employee with a liberal arts background whose communication is ‘now’ too transformational whereas it ‘should be’ more informational for his responsibilities as an analyst Profile of a memo that needs to be a bit more persuasive Degree of strategic coordination The micro and macro aspects of social reality in workplace communication BNA (Blended Needs Analysis) framework of language and professional communication at the workplace Key aspects of needs analysis Two dimensions of learning A classification of English courses Architecture of the technological learning environment Professional capability framework Professional practice as the recruitment of disciplinary knowledge and communicative competence for the realisation and promotion of interests, values and agendas Relationships among speakers Organisational chart Language and practice relationship Engineer drawing A hierarchical relationship of texts at JRC Discourse flow of land surveying project management Workplace ESP syllabus development Call centre ESP syllabus development xviii 14 47 131 152 153 179 180 181 227 267 268 270 295 305 317 328 332 369 370 371 374 451 452 512 513 ix Appendix View from the professions – questions The questions were for our guidance and not necessarily systematically used in a particular order The idea was not to look for brief and precise answers to the question we had in mind, but to seek their extended ‘narratives of experience’ At the end of the interviews, the recorded interviews were transcribed and then edited closely for focus on relevant topics, and also to make them more readable The edited transcripts were then sent back to the specialists for their approval General question: How we specify, acquire, teach and measure professional expertise? What constitutes expert behaviour in a specific professional field? In other words, how we characterise an expert banker, accountant, lawyer or any other professional? What role does discursive competence (ability to write professional documents, or participate in spoken communication in professional contexts) play in professional practice? Is it possible to specify professional expertise in terms of key competencies? How does one acquire and use these professional competencies? Are these competencies teachable/learnable? If so, what is the role of the setting i.e the academy or the workplace? Do they perceive any significant gap in this respect between the academy and the workplace? How does one appraise/measure expertise in a specialist workplace/professional context? More specific questions to be used selectively 10 11 12 13 14 Who they work with? Do they work individually, or in groups? Do they write their documents individually or collaboratively? How does this collaboration work? Can they give details and examples? How they join the profession? What qualifications and experience are required? More generally, what they look for in potential employees? What they see as the role of their profession in society? How other members of society, especially from outside the profession, view them? 570 Index Note: Italics indicate figures; boldface type indicates tables academic-professional relationships 46, 523–24, 529–30 academic programmes: academic settings 41, 46–47; accreditation 524, 527–28, 530; for banking 537–38, 541; for business communication 50–52; continuing education 522–23, 524, 530; for law 547–51; for management communication 166–68; for the MBA 166–68; for professional communication 523–24; for technical communication 107 accountants: auditors 329–30, 334, 335; competencies acquisition among 322–23, 332–33, 336–39; employer expectations of 325–29; high dependence of on face-to-face communication 325–26, 329, 335; high dependence of on interpersonal skills 321, 325–26, 329–30, 332–33, 335, 340n14; need of for rhetorical talents 329, 334–35; need of for verbal explanatory talents 330, 331 accounting: codified discourse in 330–31; communications research in 331, 334, 336–39; contextualised nature of 323–24, 327; decisionmaking and outcomes as focal points of 329, 331; as discourse 329, 330–36; goals of curricula for 324–27, 336–39, 341–42; Professional Capability Framework 327–28; types and functions of 321, 322, 323–24 annual report: as a strategic management tool 238, 239–47; evolution of the 239–40; influence of on analyst reporting 246; link of to corporate image, identity, and reputation 240–45, 249; multimodal messaging in the 238, 240, 243–45; presentational conventions of the 240–42; relationship of to other corporate communication tools 239, 240–41 applied linguistics: as a tool for solving BPO language dilemma 384, 513, 515, 518; influence of on BC 57, 58, 59–60; influence of on technical communication 105; use of in ESP 3; use of to analyse textual patterns 73 Aristotelian philosophy 29, 87, 89 audiences: collaborative writing for 453–54, 492, 493, 562–63, 566; as conceived in communication as constitutive of organising CCO studies 213; corporate communications with global 136–43, 238–48, 247–48; dichotomy of original and foreign for translators 149, 150, 157; empowerment of by web technologies 403, 407, 412, 413, 428–29; fragmentation of by new media technologies 404; influence of on presentation of arguments 87–89; in legal discourse 352, 353, 354; management of using genre systems 176–77; perception of translated text by recipients 150; PR communication flows with 422–23, 426–29, 428–29, 562–63; PR concept of as an information-processing spectrum 427–28; PR concept of as cultural entities 426–28, 430–32; PR concept of passive, active, and latent 428; relationships of to reporting professionals 406–7; significance of responses 170–73, 427–28; workplace intermingling of different types of 170; writing for targeted 536, 562–63, 566, 567 auditors: communicative challenges of 329–30, 334, 335; essential competencies for 556–57 571 Index Bargiela-Chiappini, Francesca 56–57, 73 Bhatia, Vijay: on the annual report 242, 243; contributions of to the genre studies approach 72; on discourse communities 453–54; influence of in BC 60, 61; legal discourse project 80, 352; on professional communication 208; on the use of CGA with needs analysis 261–62, 267–69 blogs: addressed to corporate stakeholders 141–43; I’d Rather Be Writing (technical communication) 107; micro-blogging 142–43; use of by journalists 403, 406; webzine (technical communication) 107; see also websites branding: organisational 227–28, 232, 238, 243, 530; personal 406; and PR 425, 562, 565; protection of corporate brands using social media 131–32, 138–39; risk management of corporate brands on the internet 138, 238; use of Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds for corporate 137 business communication (BC): academic programmes for 50–52; advantages of face-to-face 278–81; basic situational types 68; Chinese expo sales study 31–36; corporate websites 130, 133, 139–40, 275–77, 406; effect of on business operations 50, 71; forms of communication studied in 58, 59–61, 72; future directions for 61, 78–80; geographic influences on 54, 58, 59, 61; globalisation of 68–69; influence of communication theory on 3; internal corporate networks 70; jungle versus orchard dichotomy 72, 76–77, 81; LESCANT model 78; media preferences spectrum for 277–84; multimodal communication types 54, 61; overlap of with related disciplines 50, 57, 58, 59, 69, 71; pedagogy in 51–53, 55, 61, 71, 80–81, 282–85; primary concerns of 50–51, 59; research in 51–54, 54, 59–60, 61, 78–80; Singapore case study 275–82; social influence theory 278; socio-cultural symbolism of media used 278; with strangers 280, 281, 283; theoretical approaches to 54, 72, 78–79; time as a criterion for media selection 277–82; traditional versus technological modes 54, 277, 277–82; video- and teleconferencing tools for 276–81; Zones model 77 business discourse versus workplace communication 112–13 Business English as a Lingua Franca (BELF): as a concern of BC 53, 54, 56, 58, 59, 61; compared to English language perspective 174, 175; integration of with Zones model 78, 79; in MC 173, 174–75; in special vocabulary environments 73; see also English Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) industry: business models of 502; case study of Philippine call centre 386–92; concepts of language versus communication in 384–85, 504; emphasis of on 572 English language use 382–83, 502, 505, 514; gaps in language preparation for 383–84, 503; problem of cultural differences between callers and CSRs 390, 394, 503, 505–6; recruitment and training materials in use 392–95, 504–5; research on 383–84, 386, 509–11, 516–18; researchers’ obligations to organisations studied 395–96; training of CSRs for 383, 387, 389–96, 503–4, 507, 509–10; typical speech patterns in 394–95; see also outsourcing and offshoring call centres: concept of conversational cooperation 387, 389, 390–91, 394, 396, 508–9; CSR-customer interactions 385–92, 507, 508–9; function of empathy in interactions 390–91, 393–94, 396, 508, 513; incoming versus outgoing calls 386, 502, 503; plight of CSR trainers in 504–7, 510–16; reliance of on spoken English 383, 502, 505, 514; research on language use in 384, 386–93; research on training challenges for O&O 509–11, 516–18; role play training for 393–94, 507; use of ESP to train trainers in 501, 509–14, 517–18; variation of among industries 386, 503; see also outsourcing and offshoring Candlin, Christopher N., on discourse analysis 366–67, 369 case studies: research projects on the creation of scientific knowledge 90–91; versus ethnography 86–87 co-occurrence 13, 14, 20, 23 cognition: cognitive reasoning 325, 328, 338; cognitive skills 337, 340n6, 341–42, 549, 550, 566; distributed 463, 470–71; role of in interlingual translation 149, 154; role of in learning 465, 468, 474; in the school-to-work transition 462, 467, 474, 537–38, 540–41; situated 28–29, 35–36, 466, 494 collaboration: in accounting 557–58, 559–60; in banking 539; facilitation of through wikis 130, 136; inspiration as a product of 45; in law 551–53; in PR 562–64; role of diversity in creative 214; in writing projects 486–91, 540 collaborative writing 552; as a subject of research 491, 492, 494–96; attempts to define 487–90; impact of technology on 494–96; impacts of power and hierarchy on 488–93; intertextual features of 489, 492; pedagogical concerns in teaching 491–94; spectrum of team relationships in 489–91 collocation analysis 14–15, 17–18, 20, 21, 22 communication: body language as 265, 357; casual conversation 391; challenges for auditors 329–30, 334, 335; change management 212; clause-based versus sentence-based 394–95; communicative competencies 293, 535–36; communicative purposes 5, 27, 30–31, 33, Index 261–62, 266; as compared to transmission 77; competencies for accountants 322–23, 325–29, 331–36, 338; Competing Values Framework (CVF) tool to assess 178–80; complementarity of verbal and non-verbal 46–47, 77–78, 151, 193; complicating factors in 472–73; conceptualisation of ideas as an influence on structure of 4–5; constitutive approach to 207; corporate visual identity (CVI) 243; face-to-face in accounting 325, 329–30, 335, 338; functional 463; impact as a key goal in 4; importance of listening proficiency in ESP 257, 260, 264–65, 309–12; integrated marketing communication (IMC) 227–29; interaction of speech with non-verbal modes 41, 43; internal versus external 450; interrelationships of genres 449–52, 453; key elements of 207; language acquisition 292–93; media discourse 409–10; message overload in the workplace 173, 221–22; meta-communicative purposes 44, 47–48; multimodal nature of 473–75; multimodal studies of 410; multimodal techniques for 40–48; nature of in BPO industry 384; news reporting 400, 405–7, 410–11; non-verbal 41, 122, 475; Nonverbal Immediacy Scale 177; nuance 13, 40, 214, 279, 508–9, 549; pauses and silence as 20, 283–84; research into verbal 243–44, 246, 248; research into visual 243–44, 249; SocioCommunicative Style Scale 177; the specialist-layman interface in 536, 568; targeted 562–63, 566, 567; uncontrollable nature of 170–71; verbal 43–44, 114, 147, 152; visual representation as 45–46, 90, 105, 224–25, 244 communities: as the basic unit of knowledge production 443–47; colonisation phenomenon between 454; communal networks 445, 447; community of practice 445, 446, 448, 455, 467–70, 494; concepts of participation and reification 468–69; conflict within professional 454, 455, 469–70; defining characteristics of 444–47, 454; discourse 443, 444, 446–48, 455; empowerment of weak members in 455–56; impact of educational initiatives on knowledge 456–57; interdependence of novices and veterans in 456, 469–70; legal 350, 547–51; overlap among knowledge 453–54; scientific 443, 445, 447, 448, 455; three notions of knowledge-based 443–47, 448, 455; as transmitters of norms and assumptions 444–45, 452–53 competence: as a target of study by BC scholars 59–60; academic degrees and 548; acquisition of by novices 448, 461, 466, 510, 515; body of knowledge concept 331–32, 522, 527–28; certification of for business communication 526; certification of for public relations 526; certification of for technical communicators 103, 106, 107–8, 521, 525–26; certification versus certificate 523, 527; and collaborative writing 492–93; communicative 60, 71, 80, 535–36, 567; credentialing 522–24, 527–30; cultural 79, 404, 566, 567; demonstration of 522–26, 528, 530; demonstration of in accounting 322–29, 331–36, 341–42, 555–60; demonstration of in banking 535, 538, 541; demonstration of in law 548–51; EST approaches to establishing language 310–17; experience versus academics 540–41, 565, 566; and job satisfaction 546; licensure 523; linguistic matching 77, 78, 79; model to establish generic 27, 30–36; research on acquisition of by novices 462–75; third party assessments of 524, 527; in web technologies 282–85, 401–2 concgrams, defined 20 concordances: Camiciotolli study in finance 16–17; Chinese language study using people com.cn 18; defined 13; Nelson study in business 15; online legal concordancer for students 17; study of American television 18; study of British National Party (BNP) language changes 22; study using European Union speeches 21–22; ‘thank you study’ in the Hong Kong Corpus of Spoken English (HKCSE) 14 conferences and symposia: for business communications 51, 53; for corporate communication 233; for management communication 166; for technical communication 107 conflict see collaboration Confucian social philosophy 26, 29 construction communication (CC): adversarial versus business meeting models of 363, 371, 372–73; basic communicative relationships 364; case study of Japanese engineers in Hong Kong 368–75; the contract as a point of conflict 373–74; corpus comparisons of 371, 372, 373; deictics and gestures as necessary to 373; discourse analysis of 366–67, 369, 371, 373–74, 376; elements of complexity in 363, 365; emancipatory potential of research in 367, 374, 378; ethical tensions between managers and researchers studying 366, 367; face-saving and problem-solving discourse 372, 373–74; influence of culture on 373, 375–76, 378, 379n6; influence of on working conditions 367, 374, 378; at internationally-run sites 368–75; lexicogrammatical analyses of 369, 371, 372–73; pedagogical materials for international 375–77; research in 363, 366–67, 369, 378 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) 337 context: crucial role of in BPO industry training 384; discourse markers as elements of 388–90; 573 Index importance of in translation 149, 151, 154, 157–58; influence of institutional protocols on 386; influence of on collaborative writing 486, 490–92; influence of on grammar 385; influence of on meaning-making 75, 384, 385– 86; re-contextualisation for target audiences 87–88; recovery and management of by the media 410–11; register as 385, 386; role of in genre analysis 6–7; significance of in workplace communication 112–14, 120, 121–22, 123 conventions: as a defining product of community 9, 27, 444, 446, 454; as basic elements of acculturation 470–71; role of in communications among specialists 5, 27–28, 34; Western versus Chinese business 33, 34–35 coordination: common starting points (CSP) model 228; levels of corporate 227–28; Stakeholder Management Capability (SMC) 229; strategic continuum 227–28; sustainable corporate story (SCS) 228 corpora: American National Corpus (ANCS) 18; Bank of English (BoE) 17; British National Commercial Corpus (BNC) 15, 16, 17; business 15–20; Business English Corpus (BEC) 15; business periodical and journal articles (BPJA) 18; Cambridge and Nottingham Business Corpus (CANBEC) 19, 20, 370–71, 372, 373; Cambridge and Nottingham Corpus of Discourse in English (CANCODE) 19, 370–71, 373; concordance analysis of 13–15, 17; Corpus of American Soap Operas (SOAP) 14; Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 14–15; Corpus of EU English (CEUE) 17; Enron 16; financial 16, 17; G-Corpus 17; GeM for multimodal page-based annotations 42; general language 14; Hong Kong Corpus of Spoken English (HKCSE) 13; legal 17; media 20–21; multimodal 23; Narrative Corpus (NC) 20; NHS Direct 19; political 20–21, 22; small specialised 14–15; Socialising and Intimate subcorpora (SOCINT) 19, 20; UK Operating and Financial Review (OFR) 17; Wolverhampton Corpus of Business English (WBE Corpus) 16 corporate brands see branding corporate communication: as a strategic management function 220, 222, 223, 227–30, 240, 242; common starting points (CSP) model 228; as compared to public relations 221, 223; as compared to related disciplines 50, 220, 232, 238; concepts of image versus reputation 225–26; corporate versus organisational identity 225; definition of 220, 222–24, 237; equivocal character of 238–39; ethical responsibilities in 237, 239; financial reporting 238, 239, 240, 241, 246; Global RepTrak Pulse (Reputation Quotient) model 226; image-defining activities 574 of 238, 239; image versus reputation 226; integration 226–29, 231–32; investor relations 238–45; local versus globalised messaging 247–48; management ideal of 231–32, 237, 238; management of consumer resistance 229; research in 224–33, 237–39, 241–49; role of annual report in 238–45; role of in change and crisis management 221, 226, 237; role of in Competing Values Framework (CVF) 223, 228; role of in generating a consistent corporate story 237, 239, 244; role of in organisational positioning 222; roles of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in 238, 240, 242, 244, 246, 248; significance of to corporate identity 224–25; stakeholder relations studies 229–31; sustainable corporate story model (SCS) 228; use of gender ideologies in 242–43; use of web technologies 237, 241, 245–46, 248; versus corporate branding 232, 243; visual rhetoric in 239–41, 243–45 corporate communicators: designated employee systems 138, 142; relationships of to various stakeholders 130–31, 138–43; strategies regarding web technologies used by 132, 133–34; and third parties 141–42, 144; use of automatic alert systems among 138–39; use of blogs and micro-blogs by 143–44; use of Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds by 137; use of eXtensible Business Reporting Language (XBRL) by 139–41 corpus analysis: ConcGram software 20–21; corpus downsizing methodologies 22; methods 15; study of lexical compounds for ‘climate change’ 21; study of the lemma RISK 15; use of to expose linguistic subtleties 17–18; wMatrix software 16, 20 corpus linguistics (CL): chronological analysis in 21–22; defined 13–14; future research for 22–23; genres studied 15; integration of with critical discourse analysis 20, 21–22; methodologies of various studies 18, 22; pronoun studies 19; studies performed in China 18, 20–21; study of Enron email 16; use of for sound and intonation analysis 13; use of semantic prosody 14; use of word frequency analysis 16 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): for analysis of unequal social relationships 8–9; compared to interactional sociolinguistic analysis 121, 125n1; EU narrative study 21; integration of with corpus linguistics 20; study of BNP language changes 22; study of ‘human rights’ as a lexical item 20; use of in analysing workplace dynamics 115, 121–23 Critical Genre Analysis (CGA): as a complement to needs analysis 257, 261–62, 266–67, 269–70; defined 8; demystifying role of 8–9, 262, 268; goals of 8–9 Index cross-cultural communication: coherence of translated text in 148, 150, 157; genre approach to 26, 27, 32; individualism versus collectivism in 26; knowledge and learning 28, 29, 30, 35–36; overlap of with BC 50; persuasion in 29–30; role of etiquette in 30, 32–33, 74 culture: as a consideration in language learning 311–12, 509–10; behaviour as an element of professional 74–75; as context for translation 151, 154–57, 160–61; Cultural Intelligence (CQ) quotient 74; establishing fluency in a foreign 34; influence of on international corporate communications 247–48; influence of on legal systems 351, 356–58, 549–50, 553; as an influence on communication 74; legal documents as specific products of 154, 155–59, 161; and miscommunication 74, 79; organisational 74, 543–44, 567; professional 74–75, 547, 553–54, 560; stereotyping and generalizations 26; translation as a means of exposing differences in 148; translation in context of organisational 157–60; unilingual versus multilingual 156–57 customer service representatives (CSR): in BPO industry 386–92, 503–10; contributions of to annual reports 240, 242, 244, 246; role of in protecting corporate images and reputations 226, 228, 238, 245, 248 data meta-tagging using XBRL 140–41 disagreement see collaboration discipline-specific knowledge see knowledge disclosure: corporate 134, 136–40, 240, 243, 246, 248; financial genres 15, 16, 536; financial risk 536; Regulation Fair Disclosure (Reg FD) 140, 141 discourse: call centre 501, 508, 516; colonisation phenomenon between communities 454; discourse and genre analysis 3–4, 4; discourse community 4–5, 6, 27–28, 31, 36, 72; discourse interactions of managers 180–82; discursive strategies to establish relationships 45–47, 566; establishing cross-cultural competency in 26; institutional 113; legal 349–51, 354–59; organisational discourse studies (ODS) 193; research on communal 449–56; role of in knowledge-making 85, 87, 91–94; role of in organisational politics 195–96; studies of use of among scientists 87–89, 91, 92–93; themerheme dichotomy 150; variation 3, 9; within knowledge-producing communities 447; workplace 385 discourse analysis: business meetings 19–20, 73; of call centre communication 501, 513, 516; Candlin on 366–67, 369–70; in CC 366, 376; defined 73; of face-to-face communication 333–34; influence of on EST 308; lexicogrammatical approach to 4, 17, 209, 386, 396, 455; media discourse analysis 401, 409–12; multimodal 124, 473; problem-solving patterns in 373–74; use of in BC 50; of written communication 261 discourse markers: analysis of 386–92; function of 387–92, 396; ignored in language texts 387; polysemic nature of 387, 390, 396 editing: in collaborative writing 452, 557; in media analysis 410; in PR 423, 432; in technical communication 102–5, 106, 108 emotionality: in language 18–19; pathos and qing 29–30, 32, 33 empirical research: in BC 52–53, 56, 58–61, 75, 77; of BELF in communication networks 73; case studies versus ethnographies 86; in CL 13; in cultural studies 74; Language in the Workplace Project (LWP) (New Zealand) 60; qualitative 85–86, 92–93, 94–95; in technical communication 99, 100, 102 English: as a global lingua franca 19, 57, 158, 404, 413, 542, 559; as a globalising tool 403–4, 408, 413, 415n7; Certificate of English Language Teaching to Adults (CELTA) 505, 517–18; compared to BELF 174; English as a Foreign Language (EFL) 288, 289, 291, 299; English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 288, 289–90; English for Professional Communication Purposes (EPCP) 257, 270; English for Specific Business Purposes (ESBP) 58–59; ESP versus General English (GE) 304; and globalisation of English common law 358, 549, 551, 553; Mother Tongue Interference (MTI) problem 504–5, 507, 516; in native-to-nonnative interactions 70, 386–92, 507–9; in nonnative-to-nonnative interactions 70, 547–53; spoken versus written in BPO industry 382–83; Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) 504–7, 514, 517–18; typology of courses 305; use of as a linking language 70, 158; use of as a working language 70, 542, 547–50; see also Business English as a Lingua Franca (BELF) English for Science and Technology (EST): case study of Argentine brewers 312–13; case study of Hong Kong engineering students 310–11; case study of Hong Kong science students 315–17; case study of immigrant nurses in Australia 311–12; context as a major pedagogical determinant in 305–6, 309–10, 314; course materials selection in 310–16; development of 307–10; genre-based approach to 314; Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion (IMRD) protocol 315; influence of student needs on 311–312, 313, 315; listening activities for 309–11, 315; relation of to ESP 304–5, 317; teaching contexts of 306; textbook development in 308–10; training non-scientists 575 Index who teach 310, 311, 312; use of multiple media and modes by 309–10, 316–17 English for Specific Purposes (ESP): development of 304–5, 307; influence of applied linguistics on 3; influence of on BC 53, 57, 59; integration of into other areas of professional communication 10; and learners’ cognitive processes 289, 297, 299; needs analysis for 306–7; overlap of with EFL pedagogy 289, 299–300; pedagogical principles for 287–300; primary journals for 288; research in call centres 509–10; syllabus development for call centre CSRs 509, 511–13, 516–18; textbook development in 307–10; use of in training call centre personnel 509–14, 517–18 ethics: as a concern among lawyers 549–50, 553–54; as a concern in corporate communication 237, 241, 246; as a concern in professional communication 75, 133, 210, 522, 538, 549; as a concern in public relations 430; in financial reporting 55, 325, 332, 559 ethnography: as a tool for creating EST curricula 315; research projects on the creation of scientific knowledge 91–94; versus case study 86–87 etiquette: case study of British-Chinese sociality 115; Chinese concepts of 30, 32–33; in hierarchical work environments 172; hotelier 265–66; importance of in cross-cultural communications 74; on the internet 130–31, 275; politeness theory 114 expertise see competence Face Threatening Acts (FTAs) 173–74 Facebook: influence of on globalisation 72; use of as a social networking tool 130; use of by activists 130, 132, 135; use of by corporations 130, 131–32, 139, 143–44; use of for investor relations 141; use of Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds by 137 facts: audience influence on presentation of 89; as creations 87, 92–94, 303 Fahnestock, Jeanne 88–89 film versus 3D study 40–48 financial reporting 55, 139, 176, 239, 246; balance sheet 140, 240; of cash flow 323, 330, 541; financial analysis 139–41; for global audiences 248 gaming, CL studies of 16 genre: chains 450–52, 455; concepts of 27, 28; intertextuality of 450–52, 456; RGS approach 463–65; text and audience examples 451 genre analysis: Critical Genre Analysis (CGA) 8–9, 262, 267–69; frameworks for the study of 72–73; goals of 4–7, 9; multi-perspective approach in 261; situated genre approach 27–30, 36; use of in BC 50, 53, 61; use of in EST pedagogy 309, 314; use of in Zones model 77 576 globalisation: impact of on communications 26, 69–71, 232, 244, 358, 408; and the media 401, 403, 413; symbiosis of English with 61, 123, 257, 404, 469; symbiosis of technology with 274–75 IBM social computing guidelines 133–34 identity: as a focus of corporate communication 224; as a personal construct in the workplace 116–17, 120, 212, 544, 545, 559; as a product of organisational discourse 193, 194, 201; as a product of relationships to others 214; as a research topic in organisational communication 210–11; corporate 224–25; employees’ many with organisations 221; formation of professional 472–73, 537–38, 545; gender 116; group in collaborative writing 489–91; identity studies 224; personal habitus concept 337–38; stigmatised work and 212, 214 image: corporate 225–26, 238–41; role of investor relations in shaping corporate 238–41, 243–48; Similarity-Attraction paradigm of 247; symbolic versus behavioural 231; use of annual report to shape corporate 241–45; versus reputation 225–26, 238–39 individualism versus collectivism dichotomy 26, 74 informality 18–19; as an advantage of instant messaging 279; in language 18–19; role of in establishing professional identities 46–47; in written communication 34–35 information: flow of in PR-audience communications 426–28; flow of on the internet 130, 137, 143–44; globalisation of 403, 413; managing overload of in the workplace 173, 221–22; manipulation of through the media 405–8, 410, 413; presentation of through annual reports 238–46; the press release as spam 406–7; problems of collecting 176–77; processing of as a PR concern 421–23, 427–28, 431; profitability of for the media 405; repurposing of among journalists 405, 406; Search Engine Optimised (SEO) releases 406–7; Social Media Release (SMR) 406–7; use of BELF for presenting 175 Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) see web technologies Insight Out series (2006–8) 43–44, 46, 47 intention: as a concern for translators 153; and cognition 328, 330, 335, 336; corporate 17, 247; private 5, 7, 9, 262 interdiscursivity: annual reports as products of 242, 249; of communication 6–7, 8, 9, 267, 268, 326; in legal discourse 17 internet: as a medium for corporate outsourcing 135–36; advantages and disadvantages of for corporations 129, 135, 144; alert systems 137–38, 138–39; amplification properties of the Index 134–35, 137–38; as an application of intertextuality 34; blogs and micro-blogs 129, 133, 141–43, 406; chronological speed of the 130, 131, 144; NIRI standards for corporations using the 140, 141–42; pranks 135; RSS feeds and Google alerts 130, 137; Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Interpretive Guidance for Websites 140; usage statistics 130; use of by activists 135; use of mobile devices to access the 143–44; wikis 130, 136; YouTube 135, 143–44, 316–17; see also web technologies interpretation: in accounting 322, 323, 324, 331; as an act of exclusion 196, 200, 228; concept of the terministic screen 88; divergence of between presenter and recipient 90, 154, 156, 161, 247–48; ethnographic context of 114; versus translation 152–53 intertextuality: annual reports as products of 242, 249; of collaborative writing 489, 492; to facilitate learning 30, 36; features of 6, 28, 75; in genre chains 450–52, 456; internet websites as sources of 34; in legal discourse 17; types of 451–52; versus interdiscursivity interviews: as a source of data for further exploration 117; for Chinese–New Zealander case study 34–35, 37n2; in multimodality case study 42–47; use of in case studies 86, 90, 92; use of in ethnographic research 93, 120; use of in workplace communication research 117; used in the Journal of Business Communication 54; in workplace communication 114, 124 investor relations: communication genres of 238–45; functions of 239; and stakeholder perceptions 238–39 journalism: as a process 407, 410–11; as a subject of research 408–14; as an academic discipline 402–4, 409; financial threats to 405; importance of English competency in 403; internationalisation of institutions 403, 408; as the presentation of opinions 408–9 journalists: evolution of practices among 404, 405–8, 412; management of information overload by 405, 406; relationships of to audiences 406–7, 413; as research subjects 406, 411, 414; social responsibilities of 404, 408 journals: primary for business communication 51–56; primary for corporate communication 221, 226, 233; primary for EST 307; primary for management communication 166, 168, 185–87; primary for technical communication 107 jungle versus orchard dichotomy see business communication (BC) keyword analysis 19, 21, 138, 143, 371 Knorr-Cetina, Karin 93–94 knowledge: as a product of communal interactions 44, 443–45, 447; assumptions of distributed cognition concerning 470; assumptions of LPP concerning 469–70; body of 331–32, 522, 527–28; collective wisdom concept 562, 564; commodification of in PR 563; communicating specialised in accounting 329–30, 332–33; concept of stabilised 471; cultural attitudes toward acquisition of 357; demystification of specialised as a goal 8–9, 10, 262, 268; disciplinary and genre 28; importance of achieving local 26, 27; Knowledge Processing Outsourcing (KPO) industry 382, 502; Language in Content Instruction (LICI) 337; portability of between academia and the workplace 461; transmission of within disciplines 5, 8, 9–10, 44; updating of as a professional requirement 522; use of online concordancers to facilitate 17; use of subject to facilitate language learning 514–15 knowledge-making: role of collaboration in 88, 92–93; role of discourse in 85, 89, 91, 92–94; role of qualitative research in 85, 86, 88–89, 90; role of quantitative research in 85; role of rhetoric in 87, 92–94 language: as a product of communal norms 444, 446, 447, 453, 454, 455; as a social phenomenon 385, 396; appropriations of 5–7; importance of discourse markers in spoken 386–92; influence of proficiency on business communication 70, 78; influences of metafunctions on 385; language approach to BC 72–74; Language in Content Instruction (LICI) 337; Language in the Workplace Project (LWP) 60, 114, 118–19; media language 408, 409, 411–12; positive, as a goal 16, 33; proficiency in multilingual settings 157–60, 547–50, 552; SFL concept of as a system of choices 385, 396 Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) 257, 270, 288, 290 Language in the Workplace Project (LWP) 333 language learning: analytic versus experiential approaches to 295; bilingualism as a necessity 542, 548–49, 550; for BPO industry 382–86; the communicative approach to 292–93, 305; communicative competencies 293, 294, 297, 299; communicative continuum 298; and the concept of methodology 291–92; connection of form and meaning in 293, 298; context as a major pedagogical determinant 305–6, 309–10, 314; curriculum development for 258–62, 269, 270; documentary-creation as a tool in 316–17; environment for 261; EST 307–17; experiential approach to 294; extracurricular elements of 311–12; gaps among learners’ needs, wants and 577 Index goals 258–61, 264–65, 269; genre-based approach to 314; impact of web technologies on 314–15; the importance of context in 292–93; integration of with knowledge content 337–38, 549–51; lexico-grammatical approach to 307, 308, 309; listening as a basic goal of 260, 309–12, 315; milestones in the pedagogical literature 289–90; Mother Tongue Interference (MTI) problem 504–5, 507, 516; the nature of language acquisition 292–93; oral-written recontextualisation in 316–17; pedagogical principles for 296–99; Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) approach to 291, 294; research in BPO industry 509–11, 516–18; for science and technology 304–10; segmentation approach to 293–94; significance of discourse markers in 387; situation-specific 257, 306; students’ roles in 313, 314; subject knowledge as a complement to 310, 311, 312, 514–15; target needs versus learning needs in 288; task-based approach to 289–90, 309–10, 313–14, 316, 327; traditional methodologies for 291, 293–94, 308–9 learning: as a by-product of participation 444–48, 453, 465, 469–70; Activity Theory of 465–66; apprenticeship as a vehicle for 446, 467–69, 474, 475; classroom versus workplace 470; collaborative writing 491–94; context as a determinant of 462, 465, 466, 467; continuing education 522–23, 524, 530, 538; guided participation approach 467–68, 469; Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP) approach 469–70; situated genre approach to 27, 31–32, 35–36; Situated Learning (SL) approach 466–67, 468–70; through workplace training 394, 396, 455, 516, 541, 551–53; zone of proximal development concept 466–67 legal discourse 17; arbitration practices study 80; arguments over the cognitive accessibility of 358–59; assumptions underlying 350, 357–58; audiences for 352, 353, 354; clashes of cultural values in 356–58; courtroom interactions 354–55; distinguishing features of 351–52, 358; influence of local community of practice on 349, 350; influence of web technologies on 359; intermediary role of lawyers in 356; international 357–59; interpretation and judgments in 352, 353–54, 358; interpreters as a complicating factor in 357; intertextual qualities of 353; by lay litigants 350–51; legal reasoning 350, 351; legislation 352, 353, 357, 359; logic of using precedents in 352, 353; multilingual interactions inside a system 356–57; normative texts 352–53, 357–58; police interviews 355–56; purpose of formal language in 352, 358; questioning protocols in 354–57; rational versus relational approaches to 350–51; research 578 in 349–59; ritualised elements of 352, 354–55; rule-oriented perspective in 350–51; socialization of law students 351, 353; sociocultural contexts of 349, 350, 356–58; sociolinguistics of 354, 357–58; special concerns for translators of legal texts 149, 150, 151, 154, 155–59, 161; between specialists and nonspecialists 349, 350, 355–56, 358–59; spoken genres of 354–56; typology of 349, 354; written genres of 351–54, 357–58 Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP) see peripheral participation LESCANT model 78, 79 lexicology: in CL 13–14, 17–18, 20, 21; discourse markers 387, 388; lexical choices 120, 155, 293–94, 309, 336; lexico-grammar 3–6 linking language (link-pin channels) 70 listening: as a basic goal of language learning 260, 264–65, 309–12; inclusion of as a needs analysis goal 260, 263–64, 269; as part of language learning curriculum 309–11, 312 localisation of terminology in technical communication 104 Louhiala-Salminen, Leena, research of in BC 50, 52, 57, 61, 117 management communication (MC): compared to other communication fields 168–69, 183–84; Competing Values Framework (CVF) tool 178–80, 181; genre sets and systems 176–77; goals of 165, 168–69; interdisciplinary nature of 168; measurement tools for hiring and placement 177–78; memorandum versus letter 176; multiparty interactions 176; narrative as a useful tool in 173–74; organisational genres in 175–76, 177; overlap of with BC 50; predictive analysis of audience responses 171–73; research areas in 165–66, 170, 173, 174, 176, 181–83; significance of BELF protocols in 173, 174–75; significance of clarity in 183; significance of media type 171; significance of message relevance, timing, and type 171; significance of rhetorical options in 173; significance of sentence-level constructions in 174, 175; theories 183 managers: as a teaching resource 34–35; assessing the effectiveness of 178–81; change management studies 212, 221; core communication activities of 170; diversity management 213–14; handling of facethreatening acts (FTAs) by 173–74; influence of on information flow 165, 169, 182, 183; interaction of with novices 182–83; need of for cooperative relationships 172; performance appraisal and measurements 178; persuasion as a tool of 183; responsibilities of 165, 169–70, 183; use of discourse interaction by 180–83; use Index of indirect versus direct language by 173–74; use of online risk alert systems by 138–39 marketing: attention, interest, desire and action (AIDA) model 32, 34; meta-communications in 44, 47; multi-resource kits study 40–48 meaning-making: in BPO communications 384; contribution of semiotic modes to 41–42; importance of underlying meaning to 75; influence of context on 384–86, 396; in the news media 410–11; polysemic words and phrases 387, 390, 396; in PR 431, 568; role of discourse markers in 387, 390; through participation and reification 468–69 media: as a tool for creating a sense of community 408; analytical tools for investigating a medium 402; definitions of 400, 401; disconnect between educators and professionals in the 402, 407, 412, 414; discourse analysis of the 409–12; educational 401; English as the lingua franca for the 403–4, 408, 413; globalisation of the 403, 408, 412–14; historical responses to the 402; as an inherently subjective entity 408–9; institutional elements of the 400, 405, 409; journalism 402–14; mass messaging power of the 400, 404, 405, 408; media literacy 401; media studies 401, 402, 403, 415n1; press releases 406–7; problems of information management 405–7; research on the 401, 406, 408–12; sociolinguistics studies of the 411–12 medium, defined 41 meta-communications 44, 47 metaphors and metaphorical expressions: appearance of in knowledge-building discourses 89–90; in CDA of workplace communications 115; in ethnic humour 120–21; Gareth Morgan on 232; as the objects of CL studies 18; in translation 159 miscommunication: as a planning consideration in PR 427; intercultural 74, 79; in the workplace 113–14, 115 mode defined 41–42 multi-resource kits for professional communication 40–48 multimodal analysis 41–42; loss of generic integrity among modes 43–44; use of transcription in 42 organisational communication: actor network theory (ANT) 213; communication as constitutive of organising (CCO) studies 213–14; as compared to professional communication 207–8; concept-based studies in 211–12; cybervetting studies in 211; definition of 207; discursive approach to difference studies in 213, 214; the employee work–life balance phenomenon 211–12; interdisciplinary character of 209; management of change studies 212; meaning and meaningfulness of work 211; non-human elements as an organisational influence 213; the organisation as communication 207, 212–15; research in 207–8, 209–15 organisational discourse: as a tool of organisations 196–204; climate change example 194, 195, 197, 198–203; conflict of facts and alternate realities 195, 196, 198–200, 203; definition of 193; focus of on the role of power 194, 200; framing of problems by their solutions in 197, 198–202, 203; function of everyday talk 195–96; interplay of actors in 195–96, 199–202; interplay of concepts, objects, and subjects in 194, 195–96, 198, 203–4; marketing strategies as 201; operation of at different levels 194; social reality as a construct of 193, 195, 196, 200, 201, 203; space of action 196, 197; tame versus wicked versus crisis problems 197–203; there-is-no-alternative (TINA) principle 197; use of as a crisis avoidance tool 198–202 outsourcing and offshoring: facilitated by the internet 135–36; use of in technical communications 103–4; see also Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) industry; call centres National Investor Relations Institute (NIRI) 137, 140, 141–42 needs analysis: approaches to 260, 261; blended (BNA) 263–64, 267–69; employment of for EST curricula 310, 315; for language curricula 257–62, 307; Macao hospitality study 262–67, 269; methodological concerns of 258–59, 270; methods used for conduct of 259–60; use of CGA for language pedagogy 257; use of experienced informants in 259, 265 participant-observers as researchers 86, 91–95, 118–23 patterns: collocational 15, 18, 20; communication as an object of study in genre analysis 72–73; detection of in multimodal transcription 42; importance of in empirical research 75; lexico-grammatical 17; prepatterned conventions 27; textual as an object of study in applied linguistics 73; use of CL to detect 13; within genre conventions 28 netiquette 130, 131, 275, 284 networks: actor network theory (ANT) 230–31; communication 68, 70, 73 new media: definition of 400; research on the 401, 402, 411–12, 413 news aggregation and automation 137–38 nuance: advantages of telephone use in capturing 279; detection of as an insight into cultures 26; enhancement of using semiotic modes 40 579 Index pedagogy: in ESP, 291–92, 299; genre-based, 287; of journalistic enquiry, 402; in MC, 166; textbooks in BC 58, 61, 71, 76, 77, 283; use of technology-driven, 317 peer review in journals 86, 91, 102 peripheral participation as a means of enhancing generic competence 27, 28–29, 30, 33–34, 35–36 perspective: influence of on discursive interactions 90–91; of managers versus novices when collaborating 182–83 persuasion: in a cross-cultural context 27, 29–30, 32; alternatives as noise 93; basic principles of 183; Boyle’s use of mental images for 90; in the context of accounting 329, 331, 333–35; organisational discourse example 198–99; purpose of in knowledge-building 87, 89–90, 92–94; role of emotionality in 29–30; use of in technical communication 102; see also rhetoric plain language approach 74, 101 political discourse: example of BNP manipulation of language 22; use of social media tools in 130–31 pragmatics: influence of on translation 148, 150, 152, 161; use of with CL analysis 13, 15, 23 productivity enhancement through the use of wikis 130, 136 professional-academic relationships 46, 523–24, 529–30 Professional Capability Framework 327–28 professional communication: Activity Theory (AT) approach to 463, 465–66; among accountants and auditors 556; among insiders sharing knowledge 44; among lawyers 547–53; among scientists 90–95; applied linguistics approach to 322, 334, 336, 338, 339; case study of engineering students 465, 467, 470–71, 472; case study of mathematicians 474, 476; certifications available for 525, 526; CL research studies 15–22; collaborative writing 486–91; combination of theoretical approaches to study 464–65, 466–68, 471–72; employment of multimodality in 41–48; genre-based approach to 26; guided participation learning 467–68; between insiders and outsiders 44; as an integrative product of ESP and BC 3, 10; interdisciplinary studies in 403; by journalists 400, 407, 412–13, 414; Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP) approach 469–70; multimodal nature of 473–75; multimodal research approaches to 473–76; overlap of with BC 59; overlapping of genres in multimodal presentations 43; from participants to user-observers 47; portability of knowledge for novices in 461; Rhetorical Genre Studies (RGS) approach 463–65; Situated Learning (SL) approach to 465, 466–67, 468–70; studies 580 of the school-to-work transition 462–65, 470–76; use of genre theory to analyse professional identities: case study of the film industry 40–48; dynamic character of 41, 44–47, 537–38, 544–46; multimodal capture of the dynamic nature of 40, 44–47; shifting of using non-verbal modes 44–47; and use of discursive strategies 45–47 professional organisations: assessment and credentialing by 522, 524–29; for business communication 51, 52, 53; continuing education through 541; for corporate communication 221; for management communication 165, 166; responsibility of for ethical practices 522; for technical communication 99, 100, 106–7, 521, 525–26; use of continuing education 522–23, 524, 530 pronoun: studies of usage in CL 19–20; use of to establish communal relationships 45 public relations (PR): as a function of organisational management 421–22, 425; as a subject of research 422, 425, 430, 431–33; advocacy functions of 420, 425–31; commodification of knowledge in 563; consensus-building functions of 420, 423, 424–26, 430–31; cultural values as a source of conflict for 430–33; definitions of 420–22; establishing competence in 565–67; focus of on achieving planned outcomes 425, 426, 427, 430, 562–63; globalisation of 420, 428, 431–33; influence of technology on 426–29, 432, 434; information management functions of 421–23, 427–28, 431, 568; interdisciplinary nature of 419–22, 424, 562; intermediating functions of 421, 422, 425, 427–29, 433; negative portrayals of 420, 421, 429–31, 433; one-way and two-way communications in 426; and the problem of dominant versus minority viewpoints 429–30; reconciliation of global with local needs in 431–32; relationships of with stakeholders 562–63, 564, 566; role of defending organisational reputation 422–24, 429; role of in crisis management 421, 423, 424, 427; small versus large firms 563, 564–65; social and ethical concerns of 423, 430–31, 433, 568–69; spectrum of functions 419–24, 430, 562; strategic planning function of 421, 422–23, 425–27, 433–34, 564; theoretical bases for practice of 420, 424–26, 430, 432, 433; versus advertising 420, 421, 422; versus marketing 420, 422, 423, 425; writing functions in 421–24, 431–32, 567, 568 qualitative analysis: of conversations 19; forms of 13; for researching school-to-work transition 475–76; use of concordance format for 13 Index quantitative analysis: as an element of corpus linguistics (CL) 13; for researching school-to-work transition 476 questionnaires for workplace communication analysis 117 Rapport Theory (workplace communication) 114–15 reader: divergence in understanding between author and 90–91; as the focal point in translation 148–49; placement of in SL context 149 real world: as a teaching tool 27, 29, 31, 35, 469, 471; consulting projects in the for MBA candidates 167–68; post-internship reflections on the 338; student transitions into the 461, 474 Really Simple Syndication (RSS) 130, 137 recontextualisation of discourse and genre 6, 7, 40 register: definition of 385; register analysis 3–4, relationships, Confucian concept of 29–30 reputation: and financial performance 238; public perception of accountants 561; public perceptions of banking 545–46; public perceptions of PR 568–69; The Reputation Institute (New York City) 226; versus image 226, 238–39 research documentation preparation by technical communicators 101–2 research methodologies: match between questions and framework 123; used in business communication 54 rhetoric: as a PR function 420, 425–31; CEO styles of 240, 242; Classical concepts of 87, 89; importance of to a manager’s effectiveness 173, 183; influence of on BC 51, 54, 56, 57–58; influence of on technical communication 105; in language learning 314; modern definition of 87; New Rhetoric theory 461, 463, 474; studies of use of among scientists 87–88, 91–94; visual 243, 244; see also persuasion scientific research: case studies of 90–92; ethnographic studies of 92–94 semantics: CL studies of positive and negative 15; Pollyanna effect 16–17; in translation 149 semiotic modes: as a complement to language 40–43, 48; contribution of to meaning-making 41–42; influence of on translation 148, 149, 151, 152, 161; resemiotisation 42; as tools to communicate knowledge 44 situated learning as a complement to peripheral participation 27, 33, 35 skills see knowledge; language learning social constructionist theory of scientific knowledge 90, 91, 93–94 social media: as a powerful political tool 129, 130–31; as a threat to corporate brands 131–32; corporate policies regarding 132–33, 136–37; NIRI guidelines 136–37; types of 129–30; use of by activists 135; use of by small firms 143; use of to discredit corporations 130, 133 social relationships, as defined by language 8–9 socio-pragmatic influences on communications 5–8 sociolinguistics: as a complement to ethnographic research 120; interactional for workplace discourse analysis 113–14, 120, 121, 125n1; language use among specialists 3–4; significance of shared values to 9; studies in new media 411–12, 414; studies of workplace communication 112 software: coding 119; ConcGram 20–21; Speech Interpretation and Recognition Interface (SIRI) 144; use of for text analysis 13; wMatrix 16, 20; XBRL 130, 139–41 source language (SL): borrowing from for translation 148; translating concepts from the 149, 152, 154, 155, 156; translation methods focusing on the 149 source text (ST): importance of context to 149–50, 154–56; as social discourse 151; specialised 153, 160–61; theory of translation 148, 151; as translation at the author’s level 149, 150, 153, 156 speaking: discourse markers 386–92; intonation 389–90; telephone interactions in BPO industry 384, 385, 507, 508–9; verbal signage 387, 508–9; versus writing 386–87 stakeholders: as a basis for strategic management 229–30; actor network theory (ANT) 230–31; concept of social integration 228; corporate relations with capital providers 238–41, 246–48; corporate relations with foreign 247–48; corporate returns to 245; definition of 229; as a focus of corporate communication studies 220, 229–31; interdependence of with corporation 228; intermediating function of PR with 419, 421–22, 424, 425–29, 432–33, 562–63; interrelationships among various 223, 230–31; Legitimacy Theory 246; perceptions of an organisation among 225–26, 238, 239, 243–47; power of to damage corporate images 238, 245; research on 229–31; SimilarityAttraction paradigm 247; Stakeholder Management Capability (SMC) 229; theory 229–30; versus PR concept of publics 428 stereotyping in the workplace 116 strategic management: the annual report as a tool of 239; corporate communication as a function of 220, 222, 223; investor relations as a function of 239; Stakeholder Management Capability (SMC) 229; and voluntarism 229 581 Index students: as a teaching resource 35–36; internship experiences of 30–32, 35; the learning and unlearning processes of 35–36 survey research: European Communication Monitor (ECM) 221; use of in workplace communication analysis 117 sustainability: and corporate environmental strategies 194, 195, 198–201, 202; CSR reports of 54, 56, 249; discourses concerning corporate 61 symposia see conferences and symposia Systematic Functional Linguistics (SFL): FieldTenor-Mode framework 385; perception of language as a system of choices 385, 396; use of to analyse spoken versus written English 383 taboos see etiquette target language (TL): interpretation into a 152, 156; as part of the receiving environment 154, 155, 158, 159, 161; the role of adaptation in translating to a 148, 151; translation methods focusing on the 149 target text (TT): function of the 149, 150, 152, 154–55; in the functional approach to translation 149, 152, 160–61; theory of translation 148 task genres in Zones model 77 teaching: instructors as facilitators 36; mismatch of with reality found in workplace communication studies 123–24; peripheral participation as a tool for 28–29; and research in business communication 60–61, 69; and research in technical communication 107–8; and training in business communication 71, 80–81 teamwork see collaboration technical communication: competence certifications in 521, 525–26; definition of 99, 463; evaluation of technical content 106; influence of internet on 104; instructional role of 99–100; localisation of documentation in 104, 105; for non-specialists 101, 102; outsourcing and offshoring of 103–4; preparation of research documentation 101–2, 105, 106; procedural element of presenting information 101, 106; production options 105–6; proposals, grants, and feasibility studies 102; roles of in content development 103; by scientists and technicians 104; service documentation 101; for specialists 101, 102; theoretical orientations of 105; translation of documentation 103–4, 105; typology of materials 100; use of audio-visual media in 105; use of plain language for 101; use of references to present facts 101; use of serial questioning to solve problems 101; user assistance 100–1, 107 582 technology: channels of communication based on 72; influence of on business communication 76; influence of on technical communications 104, 105; see also web technologies television as a subject of CL studies 18 text: as a research focus for MC 168–69; authentic as a teaching tool 31, 34, 36; text-based analysis 88–90, 95n1; text-external factors 3, 7; text-internal factors 3, text typologies in translation 149 theme-rheme dichotomy 150 theory: in analysing workplace discourse 113–16, 124; building 85, 86, 91–94; defined 86; function of as a framework for argumentation 88, 90; function of as an analytical lens 88; influence of audience on presentation of 87–89; linking of to practice through real-world experiences 33–34; purpose and uses of 85, 86; versus concept 86 translation: adaptation procedure 148; benefits of pragmatic approach for recipients 149, 152, 157; borrowing procedure 148; calque word borrowing 148; charts depicting process 152, 153; communicative strategy 149; computer-aided 104; defined 147–48; description and explanation in 156; dichotomy of options for 149, 152; direct strategy 148; effect of assumptions on 151, 155; equivalence procedure 148–49, 150, 154–56, 157; free 148, 149; functional approach to 149–52, 155–56; gloss 149; instrumental 150; interpretive theory of 149, 151; interrelationships of source text (ST), source language (SL), target text (TT) and target language (TL) 154–55, 161; intralingual 151; of legal texts 149, 150, 151, 154, 155–59, 161; at lexis level 155; literal (or direct) strategy 148; as mediated communication 151–52; misunderstanding, mistranslation, and incompleteness in 151, 159, 161, 162; modulation procedure 148; oblique strategy 148; pragmatic approach to 148, 150, 152–54, 156, 157, 160; preservation of concepts in 155; processing phase of 152; recipients versus original audience 148–52, 155, 157, 161; semiotic approach to 148, 149, 151, 152, 161; skopos theory of 150, 155; as social discourse 152; of specialised text 153, 160–61; syntactic versus communicative functions in 150; temporality of interpretation 152–53; theories of 148–50, 152, 155, 162; transposition procedure 148; typologies 151; in unilingual versus multilingual environments 156–57; verbal 147, 151, 152; word-for-word procedure 148 translator: as a bilingual mediator 152; agency of in selecting translation procedure 148, 157; cognitive background of the 149, 151, 154; Index electronic 160, 162; factors affecting a 153–57, 159; the non-professional 159–61, 162 transparency: enhancement of by web technologies 129, 133, 139; impact of Enron frauds on 15, 16, 221, 239; informational facilitated by web technologies 129, 132, 133, 139; need for corporate 132, 237, 239, 241, 246, 433; Reg FD guidelines 140–43 Twitter: enhancement of news reporting through 406, 415n9; influence of on globalisation 72; original uses of 129, 142; powerful real-time reporting capabilities of 143; use of as a political tool 134, 142; use of as an emergency tool 142; use of by activists 135; use of by corporations and small local businesses 143; use of for investor relations 141, 142; use statistics for 142 user assistance concept 101, 102, 107 values: as the basis for distinguishing image from reputation 226; common starting points (CSP) 228; Competing Values Framework (CVF) 178–81, 223, 228; Competing Values Framework for Corporate Communication (CVFCC) 228; influence of on corporate communication 246–48; organisational 225 Vygotsky, L S., theories of learning 465, 466–67, 470 web technologies: in a banking environment 542–43; access to 412, 413; advantages of email 278–83; challenges of to content-makers 405, 406; Channel Expansion Theory 279–80; criteria for uses of 277–83; cybervetting 211; democratising effects of on publishing options 403, 407, 412; electronic media types 129–30, 278–82; empowerment of audiences by 428–29, 432; enhancement of press release media through 406–7, 415n9; expanded further by mobile devices 143–44; exploitation of to promote negative agendas 134–35; high versus low bandwidth types 274, 278–79; influence of on collaborative writing 494–96; influence of on shaping of texts 406, 410; influence of on the news media 400, 404, 406; influence of on workplace communications 274–75; instant messaging as a tool for BC 279, 281, 284; intranets 136, 276–78, 280; and language learning 314–15, 316–17; networking capabilities of 129; penetration of in Singapore 275; role of in corporate communications 237, 239, 243–46, 248; SEC regulations affecting 140–41; social media 72, 129–37; speed of 130, 137, 144; teleconferencing as a tool for BC 276, 277–78, 280–81; use and abuse of by employees 131–32, 136–39; use of as part of BC pedagogy 282–85; videoconferencing as a tool for BC 277–78, 279–81; the website as a confrontational space 130, 135; the website as a corporate tool 239–42, 284, 421, 428, 434, 567; see also internet; technology websites: aacsb.edu 187; KeyContent.org (technical communication) 107; www1.english cityu.edu.hk/acadlit/index.php?q=node/21 316; www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/lwp/ (Language in the Workplace) 60; see also blogs wikis 130, 136, 495 work, definitions of 212, 214 workplace, informal and formal networks 170; politics of the 172, 209–10, 504–5 workplace communication: in banking 536, 539–41; collaborative writing 486–91; community of practice concept 114, 445–46; data collection methodologies 117–19; defined 112–13; distributed cognition theory of 470; ethnographic analysis of 118; gender identities in 115–16; importance of assumptions in 114, 118, 122; influence of on personal identity 113, 116, 117; interviews 114, 124; LPP approach to 469–70; managerial tactics to achieve desired goals 114–16, 120–23; micro and macro aspects of 267, 268; overt versus covert 121–23; power and politeness in 113–14, 116, 122–23; Rapport Theory for analysis of 114–15; Singapore case study 275–82; social constructionist framework for analysing 116–17; theoretical frameworks for analysing 113–17; use of CDA to analyse dynamics of 115; use of digressions and evasiveness to exert control in the 122; use of ethnic communications in 116, 120; use of foreign languages in 118; use of humour in 116, 120–21, 122; use of non-verbal behaviour in 122, 124; use of post-structural theory to analyse dynamics of 115–16; versus business discourse 112–13; workplace meetings 116, 118–23 workplace environment: as a research topic in organisational communication 210; stereotyping in the 116 writing: as a basic function of PR 421–24, 431–32; annual report narratives 240–41, 244; business writing 26, 30, 33, 36; collaborative 452–53, 455, 486–96, 552; communal practices of 447, 449, 454–55; Competing Values Framework (CVF) tool to assess 178–80; fluency in a cross-cultural context 27, 31, 34; genre chains 450–52; genres 451; GMAT tools to assess 178; informality in 34–35; interaction 583 Index of with non-verbal modes 41; intertextuality in 451, 452, 552; Lunsford and Ede (1990) survey 182–83; memorandum versus letter 176; overemphasis on by BPO industry 384, 392–93; pedagogies 444, 455; portability of from academia to workplace 462, 492; in technical communication 103–5; versus 584 speaking 386–87, 392–93; writing studies research 88–89; Writing Studies theory 462–63, 470–72 YouTube 143–44, 316–17 Zones model 77 ... the current understanding of professional communication, the Handbook also takes them a step further in making them aware of the most recent thinking on the issues confronting the field The Handbook. .. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data The Routledge handbook of language and professional communication / edited by Vijay Bhatia and Stephen Bremner pages cm – (Routledge handbooks in applied. .. Bhatia and Stephen Bremner The Handbook of Language and Professional Communication is an attempt to introduce current research and practice in the field of language teaching and learning in professional