Professional Discourse Continuum Discourse Series Series Editor: Professor Ken Hyland, Institute of Education, University of London Discourse is one of the most significant concepts of contemporary thinking in the humanities and social sciences as it concerns the ways language mediates and shapes our interactions with each other and with the social, political and cultural formations of our society The Continuum Discourse Series aims to capture the fast-developing interest in discourse to provide students, new and experienced teachers and researchers in applied linguistics, ELT and English language with an essential bookshelf Each book deals with a core topic in discourse studies to give an in-depth, structured and readable introduction to an aspect of the way language in used in real life Other titles in the series (forthcoming): Academic Discourse Ken Hyland Metadiscourse: Exploring Interaction in Writing Ken Hyland Using Corpora in Discourse Analysis Paul Baker Discourse Analysis: An Introduction Brian Paltridge Spoken Discourse: An Introduction Helen de Silva Joyce and Diana Slade Media Discourse Joanna Thornborrow School Discourse Learning to Write across the Years of Schooling Frances Christie and Beverly Derewianka Professional Discourse Britt-Louise Gunnarsson Professional Discourse Britt-Louise Gunnarsson Continuum International Publishing Group The Tower Building 80 Maiden Lane, 11 York Road Suite 704 London SE1 7NX New York NY 10038 © Britt-Louise Gunnarsson 2009 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers Britt-Louise Gunnarsson has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the Author of this work British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-8264-9213-5 (hardback) 978-0-8264-9251-7 (paperback) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The Publisher has applied for CIP data Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems Pvt Ltd, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Cornwall Contents Acknowledgements viii SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION Introducing the topic and the book 1.1 Why is it important to analyse professional discourse? 1.2 What is professional discourse? 1.3 What distinguishes professional discourse from other types of discourse? 1.4 What is the purpose of the book? 1.5 How is the book organized? 3 5 11 12 A theoretical model for contextual analysis of professional discourse 16 2.1 The construction of professional discourse 2.2 The contextual dependence of professional discourse 2.3 Model for the contextual reconstruction of professional discourse 2.4 Conclusions 26 27 Methodology to explore the dynamic relationship between text and context 29 3.1 Cognitive analysis 3.2 Pragmatic analysis 3.3 Macrothematic analysis 3.4 Conclusions 16 20 30 38 43 49 SECTION 2: SCIENTIFIC DISCOURSE The socio-historical construction of medical discourse 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 A constructivist approach to medical discourse Excerpts from medical articles from different periods Stages in the development of medical science Scientificality in medical articles from 1730 to 1985 The relationship between text and context for scientific medical writing 4.6 Conclusions Non-verbal representation in articles within technology, medicine and economics 5.1 Theoretical background 5.2 Non-verbal representation in scientific articles 5.3 Discussion 5.4 Conclusions 55 55 57 61 62 69 70 72 72 74 79 80 Contents From a national to an international writing community: The case of economics in Sweden 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 The Swedish economics community over three centuries The change from a journal in Swedish to a journal in English Homogenization of article patterns Discussion Conclusions 81 82 84 88 91 94 SECTION 3: LEGISLATIVE DISCOURSE The functional comprehensibility of legislative texts 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 Comprehension and comprehensibility Pilot studies Pragmatic analysis of legislative texts Law-texts for different functions Schema for function-centred analysis of laws The alternative law-text Test on functional comprehensibility Discussion Conclusions The legislative writing process 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Introduction Societal constraints on lawmaking The case of Swedish lawmaking The legal writing process The process and its product Conclusions 99 99 103 104 108 109 111 114 121 122 123 124 126 130 132 137 141 SECTION 4: WORKPLACE DISCOURSE Communication at work: A sociolinguistic perspective on workplace discourse 9.1 A sociolinguistic framework 9.2 Communication in a local government office 9.3 Conclusions 10 The multilingual workplace: Discourse in a hospital and a large company 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 vi Theoretical approaches Presentation of the research project The organizational structure of text and talk at work Workplace languages Foreign language users at work Workplace interaction from a diversity perspective Conclusions 145 145 151 170 173 174 177 179 181 183 188 191 Contents SECTION 5: DISCOURSE IN LARGE BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS 11 The multilayered structure of enterprise discourse: The case of banks and structural engineering firms 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 The sociolinguistic order of communication in a close-knit working group A model of communication in large enterprises Presentation of the research project Discourse in European banks and structural engineering companies The construction of an ‘organizational self’: The case of European banks Conclusions 12 Business discourse in the globalized economy: A diversity perspective on company websites 12.1 The construction of an ‘organizational self’ on the internet 12.2 The balance between local and global concerns 12.3 The balance between economic concerns and social/societal values 12.4 Discussion 12.5 Conclusions 195 196 197 199 200 208 217 220 221 222 224 233 235 SECTION 6: CONCLUSIONS 13 Professional discourse in the twenty-first century 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 Professional discourse in different domains Large organizations in the twenty-first century The multilingual workplace Workplace discourse in the ‘new work order’ Topics for future research Conclusions References Index 239 239 241 244 249 251 252 255 267 vii Acknowledgements This book results from a long-lasting and great research interest of mine in professional discourse Over the years I have explored text and talk in various professional contexts and carried out several studies, both at Stockholm University and Uppsala University Students and colleagues have been involved in many of the research projects which I have directed at these universities I have not space to enumerate all persons in these project teams nor to list all those scholars in different parts of the world with whom I have had inspiring conversation and correspondence Throughout the book, however, their names will appear in the text and in references A few names, however, should be acknowledged on this page First I would like to express my appreciation to Ken Hyland for inviting me to write this book in Continuum Discourse Series I am also grateful to David Jones for correcting my English and to Marco Bianchi for helping me with the figures and tables Finally, my thanks go to Elving Gunnarsson for his constructive comments on the book in draft form and for his constant support and encouragement viii Section Introduction This introductory section comprises three chapters In Chapter 1, I set out to answer a number of questions related to the topic of ‘professional discourse’ and to this book in particular: Why is it important to analyse professional discourse? What is professional discourse? What distinguishes professional discourse from other types of discourse? What is the purpose of this book? How is the book organized? I distinguish six set of features which are more characteristic of professional than non-professional discourse, e.g that professional discourse is formed in a socially ordered group, dependent on various societal framework systems and dynamically changing These more general ideas about the topic are developed in Chapter with a description of my theory of the contextual construction and reconstruction of professional discourse The construction of professional language is explored in relation to cognitive, social and societal dimensions and its continuous reconstruction in relation to different contextual layers: the situated frame, the environmental framework and four societal frameworks This theoretical model offers deeper understanding of how – and why – professional discourse in different domains and for different purposes varies and changes It is the basis of the contextual analysis of the empirical studies discussed in this book In Chapter 3, I present a multidimensional, textlinguistic methodology which explores the dynamic relationship between text and discourse A central tenet developed throughout the book concerns the dual relationship between professional discourse and its contextual frameworks This relationship entails a two-sided complexity, which means that discourse, i.e professional text and talk, should also be analysed at different levels and in relation to different types of linguistic patterns The multidimensional methodology, which examines texts at cognitive, pragmatic and macro-thematic levels, enables in-depth analysis of diachronic and synchronic variation and change It has been applied to large corpora and in several studies, some of which will be discussed in this book References Källgren, G (1979), Innehåll i text Stockholm: Studentlitteratur Kankaanranta, A (2005a), ‘English as a corporate language: Company-internal e-mail messages written by Finns and Swedes’, in B.-L Gunnarsson (ed.), Communication in the workplace (TeFa nr 42.) 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social organization of labor Berkeley, California: University of California Press Wiberg, M ed (2005), The interaction society Practice, theories and supportive technologies Hershey, London etc: Information Science Publishing Wodak, R and Meyer, M eds (2001), Methods of critical discourse analysis London: Sage 265 This page intentionally left blank Index 18th century, writing 69, 75 19th century, writing 70, 83 20th century, writing 69, 70, 75 21st century professional discourse 239–53 abstraction in scientific thinking 73 abstractness of legal texts 125, 126, 138–9 abstracts in journals 89, 90 academic world 16, 33 action-descriptive texts 34 action-directing function of law 108–10 action rules 110–12 advertisements banks 203–7 structural engineering firms 206 alternative law-text 112–17 American culture, dominance 247 ‘Americanized’ style of English 246–7 Ammon, U 71, 81, 240 Anglicization of academic writing community, Sweden 70 anthropology 38 articles, mainly verbal 78–9 article structure Ekonomisk Tidskrift 88 The Scandinavian Journal of Economics 88 The Swedish Journal of Economics 88 artificial intelligence 44 aspect 34, 63 asymmetries 7, 14, 22 asymmetric discourse 22, 111, 188–9 Auer, P 191 authorial identity phase-out 68 authors Ekonomisk Tidskrift 84–5 international circle 88 The Scandinavian Journal of Economics 87 The Swedish Journal of Economics 85–7 automatic rules 111 autonomy in banks 216 auxiliary information 40, 42–3 Babel, tower of 17 bank image, analysis 213–17 banks 15, 74 advertising 202 communicative structure 202 decentralization 203, 204 European, discourse in 200–7 hierarchical 203 image, success image 214–15 internal structure 202 interview 210, 211, 212 non-success image 214–15 not hierarchical 204 organizational culture 202–4 success image 214 Barthes, Roland 44 Bartlett, F.C 34 Bazerman, C 28, 71, 171 Berkenkotter, C and Huckin, T 171 Bhatia, V.K 45 bibliographies in articles 90 bilinguality, Swedish and English 230 body language 184 Bransford, J.D 101 Britain 199 Brown, P 68 business discourse 3, 13, 220–36 and contextual framework model 198 business organizations, large 193–4 Cambridge, England, local community 199 CARS model (Create a Research Space) 44–5 case studies 11–12 office staff member internal 160–2 networking 161–2 catalogue style 65, 66 caution, increase in 68 certainty and caution in articles 67 Index changes 16, 17, 239, 240, 249, 250, 251, 253 dynamic, in discourse 10–11 in journals and article patterns 89–90, 92, 95 of language 81, 84–8, 91–2 in medical discourse 55, 61–2, 64, 65–6, 67–8 multidimentional methodology 29–51 of perspective 99, 103–5, 114, 115, 118 in representational conventions 73, 74–5, 80 Charrow, R.P and Charrow, V.R 103–4 citizen perspective of law 108 law-conventional 121 civil laws in Sweden 139 cleaners, immigrant communicative situation for 182 in hospital 181 cluster, internal groupings 151, 155 code mixing 175 code switching 174 cognitive analysis 30–8 of articles, economics 93–4 of articles, medicine 36–7, 63 method for 33–8 cognitive constructions 18–19 cognitive dimension 18–19, 69, 93 cognitive layer of medical knowledge 56 cognitive psychology 34, 100, 121 cognitive-rhetorical tradition 132–4 cognitive worlds 29, 33–5, 37–8, 63 external world 29, 33–5, 38, 63, 64 object world 29, 33–6, 37, 63 practical world 29, 33–6, 37, 63 private world 29, 33–5, 38, 63 scientific world 29, 33–5, 37, 63, 64 collaboration in middle and high positions 164 collaborative activities 21, 22 collective belief systems 31 communication in the company 182 at work 3, 4, 14, 143, 145 communication model in large enterprise 197–8 communicative chain 152, 163, 165 communicative communities 133–4, 148–50 communicative event 21, 22 268 communicative strategies 175 of immigrants 183–8 community distant-private 149–50 distant-public 149–50 local-private 149–50 local-public 149–50 company images 209, 210 on the internet 221 company presentations on the internet 225–7 company size, banks and engineering firms 202 company texts 200, 201 company websites 220–36 comparison of texts 199 competitiveness 25 of bank 214–15 comprehensibility issues 139–41 of law-texts 97–122 conclusions in articles 89, 90 conflict and conflict-free cases 112 constructivist view to medical discourse 55–7 consumer laws 130 Consumer Sales Act 135 Consumer Services Act 137–9 content base of law 106, 108, 110 context 29–50 in professional discourse, model 27 contextual analysis of professional discourse 16–28 contextual dependence 20–6 contextual frames, model 32 contextualization cues 176 contract between participants 40 control-directing function of law 108, 109 convention 39 firm genre 65–6 for law-texts 121 representational 73 conventionalized discourse 7–8 corporate culture 209–11 corporate English 245–6 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 220 corpus construction 199 country links, languages and websites 223 Index court perspective of law 108, 109 credit system 74 cultural differences 9, 208, 220, 222, 247 cultures local 25–6 national 25–6 openness supranational 25–6 customer relationships, banks 206 Dale, W 132 Daneš, F 43 Danet, B 17 decentralization of banks 216 Germany 203 definition rules 110 democratic nature of lawmaking in Sweden 132 diglossia 175, 191 dimension 34, 63 (time) dimension cause 35–6, 63–4 change/result 35–6, 63–4 phenomenon 35–6, 63–4 process 35–6, 63–4 disciplinary framework 31 see also environmental framework discipline 32–3, 74–80 discourse community 147–8 importance of, in firms 208 in large company 173–91 in professions 11 discussion cycles 49 disease world 36 distance communication 148, 251 diversity 222 of company websites 221 in language and culture 235 doctor-patient interaction documents post-event 159 pre-event 159 signing 155, 156 domain, professional context 21 drafting commissions, consistency of 135 drafting of legal language 126–7 drafting process model 136 economic articles 49 economic concerns and social values 224–33 economic crisis in banks 215–16 economics 13, 32, 72 academic discipline 83 article comparison 74 non-verbal representations 72–80 in Sweden 81–95 economic sciences 82–3 educational sector 33 educational system and lawmaking 128 education and legislation 25 Ekonomisk Debatt 92, 93 Ekonomisk Tidskrift 84–5, 86, 88–9, 90–3 electricity articles on 74 employees attitudes to writing 172 communicative processes 160–1 company websites 230–1 skilled and unskilled 180 test results 114–17 engineering see structural engineering England see Britain English education in ‘non-western countries’ 248 English education in Sweden 247–8 English language as corporate language 11 for global market in science 81 as lingua franca 17, 81, 173, 182, 183 proficiency in 189 and Swedish, use of 70, 71 threat to national language 81 English speaking elite 234–5 English textual base 243–4 enterprise and discourse 14–15, 217, 218 environmental framework 22–4 Erickson, F and Schultz, J 191 ethics 26 in business life 220 ethnographic study 199 ethnomethodology 38 European Union, superstate 240 evaluation of authors 67 of facts from others 67 experimental articles 71 269 Index experiments in medicine 79 in technology 79 expert discourse 5–6 expert-lay 7, 14 experts, various 131–2 exploration of future 135 exploration of related laws 135 external communication and marketing 242–4 external networks 166 of professional group 165–6 external spheres, model 166–7 external world 29, 33–5, 38, 63, 64 graphism and economics 75, 76 and medicine 75, 76 and technology 75, 76 Grice, P 39 Grimes, J.E and Glock, N 44 Greimas, Algirdas 44 groups identity 165, 169–70, 196 internal relations 147 meetings 22 uniformity 169–70 norms 169–70 Gumperz, J.J 146, 176, 177, 191 fact-listing style in article 65, 66 facts versus author’s voice 67–8 Fishman, J A 191 Flower, L.S and Hayes, J R 133, 134 foreign language, use of 184 foreign language users 174, 175 at work 183–8 forms of address 243 formulas 74–7 frame 34, 44 framework situation 112 function perspective of law-texts 108–9 Habermas, J 142, 171 hierarchical asymmetries 153–6 hierarchical structure 156 in banks 202 internal groupings 151 of joking in workplace 186–8 high-level documents, importance of 164 Hofstede, G., Dutch sociologist 207, 208 Holmes, J 186, 188, 191, 253 homogeneity in texts 65, 66 in thematic article structure 65, 66 homogenization of science 71 hospitals discourse 173–92 dominant language in, Swedish 182 as workplace 180 House Sales Act 135, 139 Huckin, T.N 45, 171 Hudson, R.A 171, 191 humour and joking 190 function of 186–8 use in communication 183 in workplace 251 Hymes, D 175 gender differences 188 general knowledge 34 genre developments 31 genre patterns of writing, talking 43 genre repertoire 200, 201 Germanic languages 184 Germany 199 global accessibility 234 of documents 221–2 of texts 244 global economy 250 globalization of working life 4, 10–11, 241 globalized economy 220–36 global structuring 34 goal-directed actions 38, 41–2 goal information 40, 42–3 goal-oriented discourse 6–7 Goffman, E 192 governmental contact 166 graphic representations 74–5, 79 on paper 73 270 IBM employees, analysis 207 ideologies 26 IKEA, Swedish image of 243 illocutions 39–41, 63 expressive 205, 206 illustration printing 79 image construction 200 in banks, model 210–13 Index external to company 209–10 in company 208–9 immigrant informants, types of 179–80 immigrants education in English 248 integration into working life 224 languages 224, 230 mother tongues 184 unskilled workers 184 in working life 221 working in Sweden 177 implicitness of legal texts 125, 126, 132 in Scandinavian countries 245 individual roles 145 influence on internal writing rules 156 information development 210 interaction of spoken and written discourse 160 of thinking and communication 74 of verbal and non-verbal 74 workplace, from diversity perspective 188–90 interactional sociolinguistics 174, 176–7 interdependence of spoken and written discourse 164–5 internal management and marketing 241–2 internal structure and influence 156–8, 165 model 157–8 international company 173–92, 221 international competition in banks 216 international exchange of publications 240 internationalism in writing 94 internationalization 10, 84 internet discourse 4, 220–36 interpretation 240 intertextuality 137 interviews with bank managers 209–11 with immigrants 178 with poorly educated people 44 recorded 199 job advertisements 225 on company websites 227 on the internet, table of languages, Swedish and English 228–30 job identity 187–8 job market 11, 25, 208, 233, 241 Joint Regulation Act analysis of syntax 103 reading of 106, 107, 109 jury instructions experiment 103 Kintsch, W 34, 44 knowledge 5, construction 74 details 44 domains 19 situational 34 structure 31, 34 of wholes 44 Kotler, P 206, 217 labour market, see job market Labov, W 146 Labov, W and Waletsky, J 44 Läkartidningen (Swedish medical journal) 59, 60, 70–1, 95 language 4, 221 change and choice 26, 82, 220 dominance 17, 26, 143, 175 experts 140 as job qualification 227–30 office and factory 183 practices on websites 223 reform of 126 regional variation 224 of science 70 and social group identity 196 in Swedish job market 233 traditions in law 129–30 used in the internet advertising 223–4 Latour, B., on scientific thinking 73, 80 Latour, B and Woolgar, S 27–8, 71 law drafting methods 132 law students’ test results 114–17 lawmaking and society 104 laws, functions of 105 laws, oral and written 17 law-texts 103 absence of legal training on 139–40 comprehensibility 108, 121, 141 for different functions 108–9 knowledge of 105 reading 13–14 and comprehension 97 difficulties 119–21 writing, collective process 134 271 Index law-writing process, ideal model 137, 141 lay people 4, 7, 22, 180, 182 legal and bureaucratic domain 240 legal constraints on law-making 126–7 legal language reform 125 legal-political framework 24, 25 legal-societal framework legal systems, worldwide, differences 127 legal traditions, adaptation to 137 legal writing process 132–7, 141 legislative discourse 13–14, 97 legislative texts, functional comprehensibility 99–122 legislative writing process 123–42 Levinson, S.C 38, 68 lifelong learning 241 linear structure 48 lingua franca 175, 244–5 linguistic constraints on lawmaking 128–9 linguistic framework 9–11, 24, 26 literacy and communication skills 241 local and global concerns 194, 222–4 local government office communication in 151–70 external contacts 167, 168 law applications 140 locutionary act 39 lung diseases 74 Lurija, A.R 44 macro analysis 41–3 macrosocial layer of medical knowledge 56 macro structure of text 44 macrothematic analysis 30, 43, 46–9, 63 macrotheme 30, 46–7 majority language speakers 234–5 management levels in organizations 250–1 theory 241 marginalization 193, 221 of reader groups 236 marketing 241–3 market surveys 206 masculine and feminine cultures 207, 217 mass advertising 206 Mauranen, A 95 272 McDonald, symbol of American culture 243 media, relations with 210 medical articles 49 medical discipline 36, 37 medical discourse community, stronger 66 medical knowledge, construction 56 medical research world, competition 68 medical science cognitive layer 62 developments in 64 history of 55 macrosocial/societal layer 62 social layer 62 stages in history of 61–2 medical scientific discourse 55–6 medical staff, language of 182 medicine 32, 72–80 article comparison 74 and medical discourse 13 verbal discipline 78–9 medium and activity 158–60 micro analysis 40–1 micro structure of text 44 monolingual workplace 143 Morris, C., Foundations of the theory of signs 38 mother tongue 10, 175 multiculturalism 9, 220, 225 multidimensional methodology 1, 29, 30 multidisciplinary analysis multilingualism 220, 225 workplace 11, 14, 143, 191, 244–9 hospital 173–91 multimodality 73–4, 80, 250 Münster, Germany, local community 199 Myers, G 68, 72, 171 national and international writing 81–95 national language threat to science in 81, 94 national writing communities 199 Britain 199 Germany 199 Sweden 70, 199 nation states 24 natural sciences 94 negative information 119 network, sociological concept 146–7, 151 new work order 249–52 Index Nobel Prize in Economics 84, 86 non-governmental contact 166 non-verbal representation 13, 72–80 Nordic mergers and English 245–6 norms of behaviour, preservation 105 object world 29, 33–6, 37, 63 official documents, comprehension of 99 open workplaces 180 oral communication 17 banks 206 ‘organizational self’ banks 208–12, 242 construction on the internet 221–2 and readership 235 organizations, modern 250–1 Pan, Y., Scollon, S.W and Scollon, R 253 paper documents versus internet 234 ‘parallel writing’ 243 participant asymmetries 22 personal pronoun use 65, 66 Peters, T.J and Waterman, R.H 210 physical distance between workplaces 252 political constraints on lawmaking 127–8 popular narratives 44 positivism 61 practical world 29, 33–6, 37, 63 pragmatic analysis 40, 42 of legislative texts 104–8 pragmatic competence 190 pragmatic rule-categorization 111 pragmatism 38 predomination of 240 press and legal-political framework 25 prestige between languages 175 primary party cases 112 print technique 79 private world 29, 33–5, 38, 63 privilege of technical skills 240–1 proclamation of laws, system for 127 product texts 200, 201 professional discourse 20 21st century 239 analysis and definition 3, 5, 11 professional group 133, 145, 150–1 professional language 17, 56–7 and discourse, model 20 professional life 33 professional-non professional 5, 131 professional-semi professional 22, 106, 131 professionalization 64 pronoun ‘I’, decline in use of 67, 68 Propp, Vladimir 44 psycholinguistics 100, 121 perspective 97 public and private sphere 133, 134 public interest in banks 211–12 public sector 16, 33 pulmonary diseases articles on 62, 67, 74 readers groups, varied 140 non-expert 140 reading situation 100, 101 text 105–6 readership, multiples 222 reading process and purpose 101–2, 106 reality exploration 135 professional views of 18 reconstruction of professional discourse 20, 22, 23, 26–7 recording of conversations 178 references in articles 90 increase in 65, 66 relations within group 70 research project The communicative situation of immigrants at Swedish workplaces 177 The emergence of languages for specific purposes 50 LSP texts in the 20th century 50, 95 Texts in European writing communities 199–200 response time in communication 160 role relationships 165 renegotiation of 252 rule-component analysis 110–11 Sarangi, S and Roberts, C 253 Scandinavian Journal of Economics 82, 87, 88–90 schema concept 33, 34, 44 Schiffrin, D 191 scientificality in medical texts 62–8 scientific and academic domain 239–41 273 Index scientific articles 30, 46, 47, 50 non-verbal representation 74–9 scientific domain English in 81 loss of, by national language 94 scientific knowledge construction 73 scientific medical writing, text and context 69–70 scientific thinking and graphic representation 80 scientific world 29, 33–6, 37, 63 scientists’ role in society 63, 64, 70 script 34, 44 Searle, J.R 39, 40 second language speakers, see foreign language users section headings in articles 65, 66 seller-buyer market 25 sender markings in bank texts 204–6 service functions, low-position staff 155 short-term memory of words, experiment 100 situated discourse 6–7 situated frame, dynamic character 20–1 skills, expert skin diseases article on 62, 74 social context of business discourse 197–8 social dimension 18, 19 of writing at work 165 social discrimination 221 social inequality and modern technology 241 social integration 175, 190 social layer of medical knowledge 56 social workplace patterns and language 173, 178 societal constraints on lawmaking 126–30 societal dimension 19 societal framework models 24 societal sectors, model 33 sociocultural climate at workplace 190 socio-cultural framework 9, 15, 24–6, 128 sociolinguistic framework 38, 97, 125, 145–71 sociolinguistics traditions 132–3 and workplace discourse 143 274 sociological group 147 speakers and authors, contract 39 specialization and professionalization 64 specialization of the professions 66 speech act theory 39–41 speech community 146–7 spoken and written discourse 158–9, 160–2 differences 147 spoken discourse 39 in hospital 180–1 recording of 178 staff in high positions public contact 154 writing 154 standardization in writings, banks 203 state-descriptive texts 34, 35 stipulation rules 110, 111 Stockholm School of Economics 83 story structure 44 structural engineering 15 and drawing 202 structural engineering companies, discourse 193–208 subheadings 89 superthematic structure 46–9 supertheme 30, 46, 47, 49, 63 supranational levels 24 Swales, J., CARS model 44–5 Sweden 199 medical articles, change in content structuring 64 Swedish law drafting process 132 local language in companies 223 local language in hospitals 189 Swedish Academy of Sciences, Annals 1782 57–8 Swedish economics, writings of 81–95 Swedish Journal of Economics 84, 85–7, 88–90 Swedish medical/scientific articles 59, 60, 62, 67 tables 74–5, 77, 79 Tannen, D 191 targeted readers, analysis 125 Tarone, E 175 technical articles 49 technical-economical framework 9, 24, 25 Index technical skills, privilege of 240–1 technological advances 10, 25, 249–50 technology 13, 32, 79–80 article comparison 74 and graphism 75, 76 new, in communication 18 non-verbal representation 72–80 terminology 62 test alternative version of Joint Regulation Act 103 on functional comprehensibility 114–21 original version of Joint Regulation Act 103 text 100, 101 cognitive analysis 29–38 collection 199 construction 134 and context 29–50, 69–70 editing 134 level 102 linguistics 121 macrothematic analysis 43–9 pragmatic analysis 38–43 textlinguistic levels 62 text patterns 44, 92 text production 196, 201, 203 texts and organizations 195–7 on websites 221, 243–4 theme cycles 49 Thorndyke, P.W 34, 44 time dimensions 35 towns and regions 24 trade union officials’ test results 114–17 tradition in law 130 translation 11, 240 transnational companies 223 brochures 243–4 on core values 226–7 diversity and inclusion 225, 226 employee presentation 231–3 on mobility between countries 226 treatment of disease 37 uniformity of group 151 Uppsala, Sweden, local community 199 Uppsala contrastive corpus 199 Uppsala LSP corpus 46, 49, 50, 51, 74 Uppsala University, Sweden 62, 199 chair of economic sciences 83 research programme 50 research project 177–9, 199–200 van Dijk, T.A 34, 44, 142 verbal and non-verbal interaction 74, 80 vocabulary 62 websites of transnational companies 194 ‘we’-feeling 19, 151, 152, 169, 170 welfare and legal-political framework 25 Wodak, R and Meyer, M 142 workforce diversity 11, 248–9 workplace discourse 13, 14, 143–4, 249–50 workplace multilingualism 143, 181 work-related conversations 178 world concept 33, 34, 35, 63 writers external, for banks 201, 203 professional and non-professional 201 writing in banks 201 case study 152–3 in collaboration 164 engineering companies 201 in professions 32 and talking 17–18 at work 153 writing law-texts cognitive-rhetorical parameters 124 social conditions 124 sociolinguistic parameters 124 written discourse, major role at company 181 written interaction, collection of 179 written medium 158–9 275 ... book is available from the British Library ISBN: 97 8-0 -8 26 4-9 21 3-5 (hardback) 97 8-0 -8 26 4-9 25 1-7 (paperback) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The Publisher has applied for CIP... Years of Schooling Frances Christie and Beverly Derewianka Professional Discourse Britt-Louise Gunnarsson Professional Discourse Britt-Louise Gunnarsson Continuum International Publishing Group The... written texts produced by professionals and intended for other professionals with the same or different expertise, for semi-professionals, i.e learners, or for non-professionals, i.e lay people