Ngữ âm tiếng kháng ở việt nam tt tieng anh

ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES TA QUANG TUNG THE PHONETIC SYSTEM OF KHANG LANGUAGE IN VIETNAM Major: Code: Ethnic minority Vietnam 9220109 languages SUMMARY OF LINGUISTICS PHD THESIS HÀ NỘI - 2020 in The thesis is accomplished at: GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Supervisor: Prof Dr Nguyen Van Loi Judge 1: Prof.Dr Vu Duc Nghieu Judge 2: Prof.Dr Bui Minh Toan Judge 3: Assoc Prof Dr Vu Kim Bang The thesis is to be defended at Academy-level Assessment Council, organized at Graduate Academy of Social Sciences, Academy of Social Sciences in 477 Nguyen Trai, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi At time hour day month year 2020 Search for the thesis available at: - Vietnam National Library - The library of Graduate Academy of Social Sciences INTRODUCTION Rationale 1/ Currently, the diachronic classification of Khang language is still being debated in linguistic research, mainly because it has not yet been based on the sufficient data about Khang language and Khmuic languages’ data in Vietnam Researches about the phonetic of Khang language can contribute to the understanding of the characteristics of Khang language, can help visualize the historical process, with the rules of preservation and innovation in phonetics of Southeast Asian languages and Oriental in general 2/ Which dialects are included in Khang language? Do the Khang speak one or more than one languages? So far these have still been questions that have not been answered clearly enough 3/ The Khang ethnic group is in danger of loosing language and many traditional cultural identities related to the language This situation requires the ch from many aspects, including the linguistics aspect Research objectives and tasks 2.1 Research objectives The thesis aims to describe the phonetic - phonological system in synchronic state, presenting the diversified, realistic picture of phonetics of Khang languages at local areas, explaining the phonetic events observed, on the basis of articulatory phonetics and acoustic phonetics 2.2 Research tasks - Doing literature review about the ethnic Khang, Khang languages in general; determine the theoretical basis - Collecting datas (through fieldwork and existing sources) - Establishing the phonetic system of Khang language and compare between Khang languages in local areas Research subject and scope 3.1 Research subject The phonetic system of Khang language in Vietnam 3.2 Research scope The phonetic system of Khang language realized in separate words (phonological words) and syllables, including segmental units (initial consonants, final consonants and vowels playing the role of nucleus); suprasegmental units (tone system) Research methodology and methods 4.1 Research methodology The thesis puts Khang language into a relatively constant synchronic state in the process of continuous change and development At the same time, consider the language as a combination of elements in the subsystem, with the internal relationships among elements, creating an integrated structural system Steps related to the methodology used in the thesis: presenting vivid reality (about phonetic facts) - explaining reality and discussing, presenting possibilities and solutions - leading to the phonological system (relationship between elements in the overall structure) 4.2 Research methods a Fieldwork linguistics method; b Descriptive method; c Experimental – instrumental method; d Typology comparative method and diachronic comparative method Contributions of the thesis Making clearly the characteristics of the phonetic system of Khang language; Making phonetic comparison between local dialects Creating a basis for further research Significance of the thesis 6.1 Theoretical significance Contribute datas and views that clarify the phonetic - phonological propositions, typology in linguistics; demonstrate the benefits of experimental - instrumental method with the help of computer analysis 6.2 Practical significance Aiming at solving current needs such as orthography creation, compiling tool books for teachers and language learners (Vietnamese Khang, Khang – Vietnamese dictionary, Khang language Grammar), contributing to preserve and develope languages of the Khang Organization of the thesis In addition to Introduction, Conclusion, Table of Contents and References, the thesis consists of chapters: Chapter 1: Literature review and Theoretical grounds; Chapter 2: Phonological words, syllables and tone systems of Khang languages; Chapter 3: Onsets and rhythms of Khang languages Appendices: Information about informants; 200 M Swadesh wordlist comparing Khang language patois; Viet – English – Khang wordlist including 1160 entries (Abbreviation: ÂT - syllable; ÂTC – main syllable; ÂV - phoneme; ÂVH - phonology; CTV - informant; DT - ethnic; F - formant; NÂ vowel; NÂ – ÂVH – phonetic - phonology; NÂH - phonetics; PÂ - consonant; TÂT - presyllable; TÂVH – phonological word; TĐ – tone) Chapter LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL GROUNDS 1.1 Literature review 1.1.1 Researches about Khang people The Khang were mentioned in some works of authors: La Van Lo, Nguyen Huu Thau, Mai Van Tri, Ngoc Anh, Mac Duong (in the book “Ethnic minorities in Vietnam”); Vuong Hoang Tuyen (book “Austroasiatic ethnic minorities in Northern Vietnam”); Dang Nghiem Van, Nguyen Truc Binh, Nguyen Van Huy and Thanh Thien (book “Ethnic minorities belonging to Austroasiatic linguistic family in Northwest Vietnam”); Pham Quang Hoan, Dang Thi Hoa (book “Khang people in Vietnam”) 1.1.2 Researches about Khang languages 1.1.2.1 Reseaches about Khang languages from diachronic relation The classification of Khang language has not yet been determined Currently, ideas about the position of Khang language are mainly in the following directions: Viewpoint 1: Khang language is closely related to the Vietnamese language and the Muong language: A.G.Haudricourt, Dang Nghiem Van Viewpoint 2: Khang language belongs to Palaungic languages: supported by Paul Sidwell and Michel Ferlus Viewpoint 3: Khang language belongs to Khmuic languages, Mon – Khmer branch, Austroasiatic language family This is the idea supported by: David Thomas and Robert K Headley; Gerard Diffloth; Dao Jie; I Peiros; Chazée; Nguyen Huu Hoanh This thesis temporarily shares the viewpoint of considering Khang language as a part of Khmuic languages, Northern Mon-Khmer subbranch, Mon-Khmer branch, Austroasiatic language family of the majority of linguists 1.1.2.2 Researches about the phonetics of Khang language 1/ Researches about syllables Naomitsu Mikami defines the syllable structure of Khang language: C(C)V(C)/ T where C is a consonant, V is a vowel (can be a single vowel or diphthongs), T is a tone Edmondson Jerold A., Nguyen Huu Hoanh and Ta Quang Tung remarked that Khang language was a sesquisyllabic language with a structure consisting presyllables and main syllables 2/ Researches about segmental units Naomitsu Mikami, Nguyen Huu Hoanh and Ta Quang Tung remarked the existence of complex consonants However, the number of complex consonants proposed by authors are not the same The final consonant system of two Khang patois (Chieng Bom, Thuan Chau district and Chieng On, Quynh Nhai district - Son La province) not have trill /r/, /s/, /h/ phonemes Khang in Thuan Chau has the appearance of final consonant /l/ According to Naomitsu Mikami, there is a final consonant /ʔ/ Author Nguyen Van Huy in his science article “Information about Khang people in Quang Lam village” in 1975, commented: Khang Quang Lam's consonants have a series of double initial consonants, sometimes with words with up to tripple initial consonants; There are some fricative, trill consonants like /s/, /r/ Regarding the vowel system, Naomitsu Mikami, Nguyen Huu Hoanh and Ta Quang Tung all confirmed the existence of the vowel system including: /i, ɯ, u, e, ɤ, o, ɛ, a, ɔ/ and diphthongs /iə, uə, ɯə/ The difference is whether there are duration contrast between /ɤ, ɤ̆/ and /a, ă/ 3/ Researches about suprasegmental units Naomitsu Mikami, Nguyen Huu Hoanh and Ta Quang Tung affirmed the existence of a rich tone system, but commented that the number and characteristics of each tone in different dialects are different 1.1.2.3 Researches about Khang Quang Lam In 1975, in the project “The problem of identifying the composition of ethnic minorities in the North of Vietnam”, ethnologist Nguyen Van Huy published the scientific article “Information about Khang people in Quang Lam village”: comparison between the Khang Quang Lam language and Khang language in other localities, Xinh Mun and Kho Mu have a crosslinking relationship Especially, Quang Lam and Khang languages are very close in terms of phonetic structure as well as the number of “basic morphemes” 1.2 Theoretical grounds 1.2.1 Theoretical grounds about Phonetics and Phonology 1.2.1.1 Phonetics and Phonology Phonetics, understood in narrow sense, is a linguistics discipline that specializes in the natural (physical, physiological) aspect of human sounds Phonology approachs to the social aspect of this object Some linguists based on the speech and language opposition of F de Saussure suggest separating phonetics and phonology But in reality, these two dimensions must rely on each other, one to get the other Researching methods in Phonetics - Phonology Basically, there are two types of methods: The first type: "subjective method" The second type: “objective method” 1.2.1.2 Acoustic phonetics Acoustics phonetics studies the physical properties of human sounds Several aspects need to be paid attention: sound wave; spectrogram; spectrum; pitch and fundamental frequency; intensity; formant; duration; amplitude 1.2.1.3 Segmental units and suprasegmental units 1/ Phonological word Syllable There are main forms of phonological words of languages in Vietnam: First form: Phonological word = Main syllable In this first form, phonological word, syllable have the same boundaries with morpheme Second form: Phonological word = Presyllable + Main syllable 2/ Consonant In traditional Phonetics - Phonology, consonants are conceived as phonemes created when the airflow from the lungs goes up and through the generator, completely or partially obstructed at any position 3/ Vowel In traditional Phonetics - Phonology, vowels are conceived as phonemes created when the airflow from the lung goes up and through the oral cavity without obstruction and freely, the vocal cords vibrate and parts of the articulators are not stressed at any point 4/ Tone Tone is the term used in phonology, indicating the difference in pitch of the same syllable Tone is an element of syllables, with the function of distinguishing word meaning Tones can be distinguished from each other according to pitch; voice qualities 1.2.2 Theories about the relationship between ethnic and language, language and dialect Languages and dialects of Khang ethnic 1.2.2.1 Theories about the relationship between ethnic and language, language and dialect 1/ The relationship between ethnic and language In fact, not every case of an ethnic community uses only one language and each language can only be used in one ethnic group Therefore, language, though very important, is not the only criterion to identify ethnic groups in a multi-ethnic nation 2/ Language and dialect Hoang Thi Chau in Tiếng Việt miền đất nước: “Phương ngữ thuật ngữ ngôn ngữ học để biểu ngơn ngữ tồn dân địa phương cụ thể với nét khác biệt so với ngơn ngữ tồn dân hay với phương ngữ khác” 1.2.2.2 Languages and dialects of Khang ethnic 1/ The division basis of Khang internal languages - The division based on residental areas: It is possible to identify Khang languages in localities based on the distribution of residents following Da River: The left bank of Da River, to the east are Khang groups in Quynh Nhai, Than Uyen, Tam Duong; on the right bank of Da River, to the West are Khang groups in Thuan Chau Son La, and Tuan Giao - Dien Bien - The division based on lexical comparision: Results: The result of 200 Swadesh wordlist lexical comparision: Table 1 Lexical comparision of Khang patois K.Thuận K.Quỳnh K.Mường K.Mường K.Quảng Châu Nhai La P La T Lâm K.Tuần 81 % 76,5 % 71,5 % 70,2 % 35,5 % Giáo K.Thuận 73 % 70 % 70,1 % 42 % Châu K.Quỳnh 82,5 % 82 % 34,5 % Nhai K.Mường 88,5 % 30,5 % La P K.Mường 41,5 % La T The limited similarity (only from 30,5% to 42%) separates Khang Quang Lam language out of Khang Low Land (Muong La, Thuan Chau, Quynh Nhai, Tuan Giao) This number is especially low in the relationship between Khang Quang Lam and Khang language in Quynh Nhai, Tuan Giao (over 30,5 – 35,5%) At such low lexical similarity, it is difficult to consider “Quang Lam is a dialect of Khang language” In terms of lexicon, the relationship between Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau is somewhat closer, from 81% Similarly, between Quynh Nhai Muong La, the lexical similarity is also very high, from 82% The lexical similarity between Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau and Quynh Nhai - Muong La is lower, only from 70% to 73% - The division based on linguistics awareness In terms of ethnic consciousness, a fact has been recorded: 100% of Khang ethnic people in localities are aware that they are "Khang people" However, when informants in other areas and Quang Lam talked, informants in other areas commented that there were misunderstood between them and Quang Lam people Quang Lam people had a different "voice" that was difficult to understand This "confusing" can be in two aspects: lexical and phonetics 2/ How many languages and how many dialects does the ethnic Khang speak and what are they ? - How many languages ? Languages of Khang ethnic in Vietnam: Khang Quang Lam; Khang Low Land - How many dialects ? In Khang Low Land language block: Khang language group in Tuan Giao and Thuan Chau belongs to the right bank - the western side of Da river with Khang language group in Quynh Nhai, Muong La, Than Uyen, Tam Duong in the left bank - east of the Da river 1.3 Chapter summary 1/ The characteristics (including phonetics) of Khang language are still a subject of debate and get the attention of many linguists 2/ On theoretical and practical basis, the Khang language belongs to the Khmuic language group, Northern Mon – Khmer sub branch, Mon Khmer branch, Austroasiatic language family Results from the viewpoint of linguistic geography, ethnic awareness and lexical comparison show that: Khang ethnic group speaks two languages: Khang language in Quang Lam village, Quang Lam commune, Muong Nhe district - Dien Bien (Khang Quang Lam) Khang Low Land; Because there are two languages, a separate description is needed The thesis “Phonetic system of Khang language in Vietnam” takes Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau and Khang Quang Lam as the main representatives in phonetic description, with references to other local Khang varieties Chapter PHONOLOGICAL WORDS, SYLLABLES AND TONE SYSTEMS OF KHANG LANGUAGES 2.1 Phonological word and syllables of Khang languages 2.1.1 Phonological word and syllables of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau 2.1.1.1 Phonetic description 2.1.1.2 Structure of phonological word and syllables of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau 1/ Discussions 2/ The complete model of the phonological word of Khang Tuan Giao Thuan Chau: Main syllable Presyllable T C1 V1 C2 C3 V2 C4 (Notes: C – consonant; V – vowel; T – tone) - Presyllable structure: The presyllable of Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau has the structure: CV, where: C is the stop consonant, fricative consonant or lateral consonant; V is the vowel: a or ə For example: məɗɤk3 (gum) - Main syllable structure: The complete structure of main syllable: CCVC + T For example: lɛ1 pluj4 (initial) The beginning of the syllable are onset (initial consonants), that can be a single consonant or complex consonants The second component of a syllable is the rhythm In the rhythm there are elements: The first element: nucleus, by single vowels or dipthongs The second element: coda, by consonants, not compelling Tone is the suprasegmental component 2.1.2 Phonological word and syllables of Khang Quang Lam 2.1.2.1 Phonetic description 2.1.2.2 Structure of phonological word and syllables of Khang Quang Lam The complete model of the phonological word of Khang Quang Lam: Main syllable Presyllable T C1 V1 C2 C3 C4 V2 C5 (Notes: C – consonant; V – vowel; T – tone) For example: rəŋcɔŋ4 (giường) - Presyllable structure: In Khang Quang Lam, being responsible for C1 in the structure of C1V1C2 of presyllable are: p, t, c, k, h, Ɂ, ɓ, ɗ, m, l, r, s (stop consonants, fricative consonants, trill consonants and lateral consonants) For example: kəlti4 (banana) Being responsible for V1 in the presyllable are: a, u and ə For example: təmpah1 (pat) In case the presyllable is open (without final consonants), vowels in Tone 6: down – up (broken), low register Voice quality creaky voice appears in the middle Symbolized: [212] For example: co6 (painful) b In syllables not ended by sonorant consonants: In syllables not ended by sonorant consonants, there are only tones: Photograph 2 Tone system of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau in syllables not ended by sonorant consonants Tone 1: fall, high register Symbolized: [43] For example: pup43 (body’s back) Tone 2: rise, low register Symbolized: [12] For example: pup12 (rotten) 2/ Register For register, tone system of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau is distinguished into groups: high register tones ([44], [323], [35ʔ], [43]) and low register tones ([11ʔ], [212], [31ʔ], [12]) 2.2.1.2 Voice qualities In Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau, there is a distinguish between: modal voice // creaky voice // glottal stop 2.2.2 The tone system of Khang Quang Lam The tone system of Khang Quang Lam can be distinguished from each other by criteria: pitch and voice quality Phonologically, what are responsible for distinguishing tones in Khang Quang Lam are criteria: register, contour and voice quality The register is defined by two basic levels: high and low In syllables ended not by sonorant consonants, tones oppose each other following register criterion: high – low, the contour criterion is brought down as residual criterion 2.2.2.1 Pitch 1/ Contour Phonetically, following contour criterion, the tone system of Khang Quang Lam consists of tones: a In syllables ended by sonorant consonants: 11 There are tones: Photograpgh The tone system of Khang Quang Lam (in syllables ended by sonorant consonants) Tone 1: level, high register Symbolized: [44] For example: tu1 (hole) Tone 2: fall, low register Symbolized: [21Ɂ] For example: tu2 (to build) Tone 3: rise, high register Symbolized: [35] For example: tu3 (to destroy) Tone 4: fall, high register Symbolized: [52] This is the falling tone For example: tu4 (to eat) Tone 5: fall, high register Symbolized: [52Ɂ] For example: tu5 (burnt rice) b In syllables not ended by sonorant consonants: b In syllables ended by stop, voiceless consonants: There are tones: Photograph Tone system of Khang Quang Lam in syllables ended by stop, voiceless consonants 12 Tone 1: level, high register Symbolized: [44] For example: ɓăt44 (vegetables) Tone 2: not level, fall, low register Symbolized: [32] For example: rəmɓăt32 (tears) b In syllables ended by fricative, voiceless consonants /h, s/ In syllables ended by fricative, voiceless consonants /h, s/, only tone appearsː level, high register Symbolized: [44] For example: mɯs44 (young man) Photograph Tone system of Khang Quang Lam in syllables ended by /h, s/ː tɯs44 (mushroom) 2/ Register The tone system of Khang Quang Lam consists of two groups: - High register tones: 52, 52Ɂ, 44, 35, and 44 in syllables ended not by sonorant consonants ended by p, t, c, k and 44 in syllables ended not by sonorant consonants ended by h, s - Low register tones: 21Ɂ and 32 in syllables ended not by sonorant consonants ended by p, t, c, k 2.2.2.2 Voice qualities In Khang Quang Lam, there are modal voice // glottal stop 2.2.3 Tonemes of Khang languages Table Tonemes of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau following distinctive features: contour and register Features Contour Register Down Rise Down Level High Low Tonemes up + + Tone + + Tone + + Tone 13 + + Tone + + Tone + + Tone Table 2 Tonemes of Khang Quang Lam following distinctive features: contour, register and voice quality Features Contour Register Voice quality Rise Fall Level High Low Modal Glottal Tonemes + + + Tone + + + Tone + + + Tone + + + Tone + + + Tone 2.2.4 The similarities and differences of tone systems of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau and Khang Quang Lam Synchronically, among local dialects of Khang languages, there are similarities and differences in tone systems Both Khang Quang Lam and Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau have level, rise and down tones On register, both languages have two groups: high register and low register At syllables ended not by sonorant consonants, the criterion of high and low register become special criterion, and the contour criterion become the residual criterion The differences are: In terms of quantity: If we consider tone 44 in syllables ended not by sonorant consonants ended by fricative, voiceless /h, s/ and tone 44 in syllables ended not by sonorant consonants ended by voiceless, stop consonants /p, t, k/ are one The number of tones in Khang Quang Lam is less than the number of tones Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau tone (5 tones in comparision to tones) In terms of contour: In Khang Quang Lam language, there are no “bending” up – down tones like Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau This may be related to the existence of final consonants /ʔ, r, l, s, h/ in Khang Quang Lam About voice quality: In the tone system of Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau, there are three voice qualities: modal, creaky and glottal stop Khang Quang Lam has no creaky voice Regarding the criteria of distinguish tones: the tone system of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau need criteria: register and contour The tone system of Khang Quang Lam needs criteria: register, contour and voice 14 quality 2.3 Chapter summary 1/ Phonological words of Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau and Khang Quang Lam can have the form: monosyllable phonological word; or consists of a presyllable (Front syllable) and a main syllable (Back syllable), which are sesquisyllabic phonological word 2/ The tone system of Khang languages are contour - register tone system Both Khang Quang Lam and Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau have high level tones, low level tones, rise tones and fall tones In terms of register, both languages have only two groups: high register and low register The first difference is in the number of tones, from the phonetic aspect, both languages have tones From the phonological aspect, if considering tone 44 in syllables ended not by sonorant consonants ended by voiceless, fricative consonants /h, s/ and tone 44 in syllables ended not by sonorant consonants ended by voiceless, stop consonants /p, t, k/ in Khang Quang Lam language to be the same, the number of tones of Khang Quang Lam is less than the number of tones of Khang Tuan - Thuan Chau tone (5 tones compared to tones) Khang Quang Lam did not have “bending” tones like the Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau The tone system of Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau has three voice qualities: modal, creaky and glottal, while Khang Quang Lam has no creaky voice The tone system of Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau needs only distinctive criterias: register and contour, while Khang Quang Lam needs distinctive criterias: register, contour and voice quality Chapter ONSETS AND RHYTHMS OF KHANG LANGUAGES 3.1 Onsets of Khang languages 3.1.1 Onsets of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau 3.1.1.1 Phonetic characteristics 3.1.1.2 Initial consonants of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau 1/ Discussions 2/ The initial consonant system of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau a Single consonants: Table The single initial consonant system of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau Place of articulation Labial Tongue tip ɓ pʰ ɗ tʰ Manner of articulation Voiced S Noise Aspirated T Voiceless 15 Tongue blade Tongue root kʰ Glottal O P F R I Noise Unaspirated NASAL Voiceless Voiced LATERAL p m t n s z l v c ɲ ʔ k ŋ h b Complex consonants: The complex consonant system of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau: /pl, kl, ml, kw, kʰw, hw/ From the phonological aspect, it is possible to identify the initial complex consonant combinations according to the criteria: with/ without these following elements /l, w/ General rule: Cl, Cw 3.1.2 Onsets of Khang Quang Lam 3.1.2.1 Phonetic characteristics 3.1.2.2 Initial consonants of Khang Quang Lam 1/ Single consonants: Bảng Initial single consonant system of Khang Quang Lam Place of articulation Labial Manner of articulation Voiced S Aspirated T Noise Voiceless O Unaspirated P NASAL Voiceless F Noise Voiced R I LATERAL C TRILL ɓ pʰ p m v Tongue tip Tongue blade Tongue root ɗ tʰ t n s z l r ɟ ɡ kʰ k ŋ c ɲ Glottal ʔ h 2/ Complex consonants: Complex consonants can be identified according to criteria: with/ without the following elements /r, l, w/ General rule: Cl, Cr, Cw 3.1.3 The similarities and differences of initial consonants of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau and Khang Quang Lam The most noticeable difference between Khang Quang Lam and Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau is the number of consonants and complex consonants holding the function of initial consonants: - In Khang Quang Lam, there are single initial consonants /ɟ/, /ɡ/, /r/ that are not found in Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau - In Khang Quang Lam, in addition to complex consonants with the second elements that are lateral consonant l and the bilabial fricative consonant w as in Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau, there are complex consonants that the second element is /r/ The number of each type of 16 complex consonants in Khang Quang Lam is also more diversified than Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau 3.2 Rhythms of Khang languages 3.2.1 Rhythm of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau 3.2.1.1 Components of the rhythm and types of rhythms in Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau 1/ Components of the rhythm: - Nucleus, assuming the responsibility by single vowels and dipthongs - Coda, assuming the responsibility by final consonants 2/ Types of rhythms: - Open: for examples: ve44 (the left); ti5 (location) ; sɛ44 (crib) - Half open: for examples: mɛw11ʔ (Hmong people); faj44 (dam); - Half closed: for examples: tɔŋ35ʔ (field); vin44 (wind); cɯəŋ35ʔ (bed) - Closed: for examples: lik12 (iron); hap43 (wall); puk43 (pommelo); 43 mot (ant) 3.2.1.2 Nucleus of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau 1/ Phonetic descriptions 2/ Vowel system of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau Table 3 The single vowel system of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau Articulation Back Unrounded Front Openess level/ Height Close/ High Middle Open/ Low i e ɛ 17 Short Long ă ɯ ɤ a Rounded u o ɔ Photograph The single vowels of Khang Tuan Giao – Tuan Chau Table Dipthongs of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau Movement Movement Movement Movement from from front from back from rounded rounded – – back – back – unrounded unrounded + + iə + + ɯə + + uə 3.2.1.3 Codas of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau 1/ Phonetic descriptions 2/ Final consonants of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau Table Final consonant system of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau Place of articulation Tongue Tongue Tongue Bilabial Manner of tip blade root articulation PLOSIVE p t k NASAL m n ŋ SEMI CONSONANT w j 3.2.2 Rhythm of Khang Quang Lam 3.2.2.1 Components of the rhythm and types of rhythms in Khang Quang Lam There are types of rhythms in Khang Quang Lam: - Open: For examples: tɤ52 (dust); ca21ʔ (location) ; ru44 (brook); 18 - Half open: For examples: ʔăw44 (father); - Half closed: ended by /m, n, ɲ, ŋ, r, l/, for examples: ʔɔm44 (water); 52 kɔn (cigarettes); ʔəjɔŋ44 (tree); ɗɤ̆r44 (land); lel44 (salt) - Closed: ended by /p, t, c, k, s, h/, for examples: ləmɓăt44 (forest); kɔp44 (upland field); klɤic32 (pig); pos44 (deer); mah44 (rice) 3.2.2.2 Nucleus of Khang Quang Lam 1/ Phonetic descriptions 2/ Vowel system of Khang Quang Lam Table Single vowel system of Khang Quang Lam Articulation Back Unrounded Front Openess level / Rounded Short Long Height i ɯ u Closed/ High e ɤ̆ ɤ o Middle ɛ ă a ɔ Open/ Low Photograph The single vowels of Khang Quang Lam 19 Table Dipthongs of Khang Quang Lam Movement Movement Movement Movement from front – from back – from rounded from rounded – back back – unrounded unrounded + + iə + + ɯə + + uə 3.2.2.3 Codas of Khang Quang Lam 1/ Phonetic descriptions 2/ Final consonants of Khang Quang Lam Table Final consonant system of Khang Quang Lam Place of articulation Manner of articulation Noise S T O P F R I Nasal Bilabial Tongue tip Tongue blade Tongue root p t c k m n ɲ ŋ Noise Lateral s w l Glottal h j r TRILL 3.2.3 The similarities and differences of rhythms of Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau and Khang Quang Lam The vowel systems of two languages are basically the same Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau has only the distinction between a/ ă, while Khang Quang Lam has the distinction between ɤ/ ɤ̆, a/ ă The presence of final phonemes /r, l, s, h, c, ɲ/ is the remarkable difference between the rhymes of Khang Quang Lam and Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau 3.3 Chapter summary At the onset, both Khang Quang Lam and Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau had phonemes /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, p, t, c, k, ʔ, ɓ, ɗ, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, s, h, v, z, l/ Single initials /ɟ/, /ɡ/, /r/ in Khang Quang Lam are the differences between Khang Quang Lam and Khang in Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau Both Khang Quang Lam and Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau have complex consonants that the second elements are lateral consonant /l/ and the bilabial semi – consonantl /w/, but the number of complex consonants in each group of Khang Quang Lam is richer than that of Khang Tuan Giao - 20 Thuan Chau In Khang Quang Lam language, there are complex consonants that the second element is trill consonant /r/, these are complex consonants that are not found in Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau In the rhythm, assuming the responsibility of the nucleus of both Khang Quang Lam and Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau are single vowels /i, e, ɛ, ɯ, ɤ, a, ă, u, o, ɔ/ and three diphthongs /iə, ɯə, uə/ However, in Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau, there is only the distinction between /a/ and /ă/ Khang Quang Lam has the distinction between /ɤ/ and /ɤ̆/; /a/ and /ă/ Holding the function of both languages as final consonants are phonemes: /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, w, j/ The additional appearance of phonemes /r, l, s, h, c, ɲ/ in Khang Quang Lam is the basic difference between Khang Quang Lam rhythm and Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau rhythm CONCLUSION 1/ The identification of languages and dialects of Khang ethnic: Khang languages belong to Khmuic language group (together with Xinh Mun, Kho Mu and Iduh in Vietnam), the Northern Mon-Khmer subbranch, Mon-Khmer branch, Austroasiatic language family This is the current opinion agreed by the majority of researchers The concept of the Khang languages as a part of Paluangic language group is very noticeable, but more datas are needed to verify How many languages the Khang speak ? Comparing language varieties of the Khang shows that Khang Quang Lam and Khang in other regions (Than Uyen - Tuan Giao - Quynh Nhai - Thuan Chau - Muong La – Tam Duong) not have high lexical similarity, in comparision to the similarities between Khang Tuan Giao and Khang Quynh Nhai In terms of geographical distribution, Khang Quang Lam people settled in the upper reaches of Da River; Khang in other regions settled in Tuan Giao, Thuan Chau, Muong La and Quynh Nhai in the middle of Da river Results from the perspective of linguistic geography, ethnic history, ethnic self-awareness also help to affirm: The Khang ethnic speaks two languages: Khang language in Quang Lam; Khang Low Land language in Tuan Giao, Thuan Chau, Muong La and Quynh Nhai, Than Uyen, Tam Duong Khang Low Land language can be divided into two dialects: Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau situated in the right bank of Da river; Khang Muong Nha - Quynh Nhai – Than Uyen – Tam Duong situated in the left bank of Da river Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau and Khang Quang Lam were considered as the representatives - main objects in phonetic description 2/ Phonological words, syllables and tone systems of Khang 21 language: The complete model of the phonological word of both Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau and Khang Quang Lam is: Form Main syllable Form ± Presyllable + Main syllable In Khang Quang Lam, 408/1057 phonological words collected have sesquisyllabic form (38.6%) Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau has 6/1084 phonological words collected have dissyllabic form (0.5%) This can be seen as a noticeable difference, creating a different impression of the Khang Quang Lam compared to Khang language in other regions The phonological word of Khang languages may have mono form or sesquisyllabic form The basic difference between “presyllable” and “main syllable” in sesquisyllabic phonological words: The main syllable is in the following position in the phonological word (presyllable stands in the preceeding position), the main syllable is pronounced with greater stress and longer duration than the presyllable About structural aspect: Presyllables have simple structure, while the main syllable is more diverse In addition, not all phonemes can be used to combine the presyllable In presyllables: C1 in the structure C1V1C2 is: /p, t, c, k, h, Ɂ, ɓ, ɗ, m, l, r, s/ (stop, fricative, trill and lateral consonants); V1 is: /a, u/ and /ɤ/ (with the allophone is ə) In open presyllables (without final consonants) V1 is: /a/, /u/, /ɤ/; in half open presyllables (ended by /m, n, ŋ, l, r/): vowel is /ɤ/, C2 is liquid consonants /r, l/, or nasal consonants /m, n, ŋ/ Syllables: In terms of synchronic, both Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau and Khang Quang Lam belong to the sesquisyllabic type: Phonological words can take the form of monosyllabic phonological words; or consists of a presyllable and a main syllable (dissyllabic phonological words - “one syllable and a half”) The main syllable of both languages has the complete model: CCVC + T Differences: In Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau, the presyllable has CV model; In Khang Quang Lam, the presyllable has CVC model Main syllable Presyllable Tone C1 V1 (C2) C3 C4 V2 C5 (C – consonant; V – vowel; T – tone; (C2) only in Khang Quang Lam) About tone: The tone systems of Khang languages are distinguished by criterias: pitch and voice quality The pitch consists of two criterias: 22 register (high/ low); contour (level/ fall /rise/ down - up) Voice qualities: with/ without glottal stop In terms of synchronic, among Khang languages, there are similarities and differences in tone Similarities: Both Khang Quang Lam and Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau have high tones, low tones; level tones, rise tones and fall tones In syllables ended not by sonorant consonants in both languages, high/ low register is the distinctive feature, contours are the residual criterion Differences: Khang Quang Lam has only tones, less than tone compared with Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau (6 tones, according to the same phonological hypothesis) Notably: Khang Quang Lam in syllables ended not by sonorant consonants ended by /s, h/ has only one tone (considered as a variation of tone 44 syllables ended not by sonorant consonants ended by /p, t, c, k/) Contours: Khang Quang Lam does not have a “down – up” tone like Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau Voice quality: Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau has three types: modal, creaky, glottal stop Khang Quang Lam did not have creaky voice Distinguish features: In Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau, contour and tone are two criterias that are sufficient to distinguish; voice qualities can be considered as an residual feature; In Khang Quang Lam, all three criterias contour, register and voice quality must be combined to distinguish tones phonologically, because tone and in Khang Quang Lam have the same pitch characteristics (phonetically symbolized: [52]) 3/ Onsets and rhythms of Khang languages: Distinctive features of single consonants: Places of articulation: bilabial, tongue tip, tongue blade, tongue root, glottal; manners of articulation: stop/ fricative, noise/ nasal (lateral), aspirated / unaspirated, voiced / voiceless Complex consonants are differentiated mainly based on the characteristic of the second element in the complex CC (Cr, Cl, Cw) Similarities between Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau and Khang Quang Lam: In the onset, both Khang Quang Lam and Khang Tuan Giao – Thuan Chau have /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, p, t, c, k, ʔ, ɓ, ɗ, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, s, h, v, z, l/ The single initial consonants /ɟ/, /ɡ/, /r/ in Khang Quang Lam are the differences between two languages Both Khang Quang Lam and Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau have complex consonants with the second elements are /l/ and /w/, but the number of each complex of Khang Quang Lam language is richer than that of Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau In addition, in Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau, there are no complex consonants the second element of which is trill consonant /r/, as in Khang Quang Lam 23 Distinctive features for single vowels: the tongue moves forward and backward in the oral cavity; rounded or unrounded properties; openess of mouth; duration The single vowel differs from the diphthongs in the ± dynamic property (the change in the position of the tongue, shown on the formant parameters) In the main syllable, keeping the function of the nucleus of Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau rhythm are single vowels /i, e, ɛ, ɯ, ɤ, a, ă, u, o, ɔ/ and three diphthongs /iə, ɯə, uə/ (in Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau there is no phonological opposition between ɤ/ ɤ̆) Keeping the function of the nucleus of Khang Quang Lam rhythm are single vowels /i, e, ɛ, ɯ, ɤ, ɤ̆, a, ă, u, o, ɔ/ and three diphthongs /iə, ɯə, uə/ Final consonants are distinguished by places of articulation: bilabial, tongue tip, tongue blade, tongue root, glottal; following manners of articulation: stop / fricative / trill Keeping the function of final consonants in Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau are: /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, w, j/; Khang Quang Lam has larger phonemes: /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, w, j, r, l, s, h, c, ɲ/ The presence of /r, l, s, h, c, ɲ/ is the noticeable difference in the rhythm of Khang Quang Lam against Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau This difference has created a different impression between Khang Quang Lam language and Khang language in other regions 4/ Khang Tuan Giao - Thuan Chau went further than Khang Quang Lam language on the path of monosyllabicization process and lost many “ancient” phonetic traces of proto Khmuic In order to contribute to the conservation and preservation of Khang language, an endangered language, as well as languages of Khmuic language group in Vietnam (Xinh Mun, Kho Mu and Iduh), need to create or improve orthography; record and translate folk art works and new compositions; compile tool books (dictionaries, grammar books, textbooks ) for teachers and learners in bilingual education, propose language use in the media and taking traditional culture conservation policy through their native language These are things that are expected to be done in the future, based on this research 24 PUBLISHED RESEARCH WORKS OF THE AUTHOR RELATED TO THE THESIS TOPIC Tạ Quang Tùng (2016), “Hệ thống điệu tiếng Kháng (trên sở liệu phân tích máy tính)”, Journal of Language and Life, number (244) Tạ Quang Tùng (2017), “Từ âm vị học âm tiết ngôn ngữ Khơ Mú Việt Nam”, Journal of Language and Life, number Tạ Quang Tùng (2017), “Tiếng Kháng Việt Nam trước nguy mai một”, Proceedings of National Linguistics Conference, Quy Nhon University, Quy Nhon Tạ Quang Tùng (2018), “Chữ viết dân tộc thiểu số Việt Nam với việc biên soạn từ điển (trường hợp tiếng Kháng)”, Journal of Dictionary and Encyclopedia, number 2, page 49 – 57 Tạ Quang Tùng (2019), “Trạng thái ngôn ngữ Kháng Việt Nam”, Proceedings of National Linguistics Conference, Thu Dau Mot University, Binh Duong Tạ Quang Tùng (2019), “Đặc điểm hệ thống ngun âm tiếng Kháng – ngơn ngữ có nguy mai Việt Nam (khái quát từ kết phân tích máy tính”, Proceedings of Endangered languages in Vietnam currently – theoretical and practical issues, Thai Nguyen University of Education, Thai Nguyen 25 ... Hoang Thi Chau in Tiếng Việt miền đất nước: “Phương ngữ thuật ngữ ngôn ngữ học để biểu ngôn ngữ toàn dân địa phương cụ thể với nét khác biệt so với ngơn ngữ tồn dân hay với phương ngữ khác” 1.2.2.2... (2016), “Hệ thống điệu tiếng Kháng (trên sở liệu phân tích máy tính)”, Journal of Language and Life, number (244) Tạ Quang Tùng (2017), “Từ âm vị học âm tiết ngôn ngữ Khơ Mú Việt Nam , Journal of Language... (2019), “Đặc điểm hệ thống nguyên âm tiếng Kháng – ngơn ngữ có nguy mai Việt Nam (khái quát từ kết phân tích máy tính”, Proceedings of Endangered languages in Vietnam currently – theoretical and