THE HISTORY OF POLAND SINCE 1863 SOVIET AND EAST EUROPEAN STUDIES Editorial Board J O H N BARBER, A R C H I E BROWN, K DAWISHA, M KASER, DAVID LANE, MARY MCAULEY, A NOVE, A PRAVDA, G H N SETON-WATSON The National Association for Soviet and East European Studies exists for the purpose of promoting study and research on the social sciences as they relate to the Soviet Union and the countries of Eastern Europe The Monograph Series is intended to promote the publication of works presenting substantial and original research in the economics, politics, sociology and modern history of the USSR and Eastern Europe SOVIET AND EAST EUROPEAN STUDIES Books in the series A Boltho Foreign Trade Criteria in Socialist Economies Sheila Fitzpatrick The Commissariat of Enlightenment P Wiles, ed The Prediction of Communist Economic Performance Galia Golan The Czechoslovak Reform Movement Naum Jasny Soviet Economists of the Twenties Asha L Datar India s Economic Relations with the USSR and Eastern Europe, 19 J3-1969 T M Podolski Socialist Banking and Monetary Control Rudolf Bicanic Economic Policy in Socialist Yugoslavia G Hosking The Russian Constitutional Experiment: Government and Duma 1907—14 A Teichova An Economic Background to Munich J Ciechanowski The Warsaw Rising of1944 Edward A Hewett Foreign Trade Prices in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Daniel F Calhoun The United Front: the TUC and the Russians 1923-28 Galia Golan Yom Kippur and After: the Soviet Union and the Middle East Crisis Maureen Perrie The Agrarian Policy of the Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party from its origins through the revolution of 190j-1907 Gabriel Gorodetsky The Precarious Truce: Anglo-Soviet Relations 1924—2/ Paul Vysny Neo-Slavism and the Czechs 1S9S-1914 James Riordan Sport in Soviet Society: Development of Sport and Physical Education in Russia and the USSR Gregory Walker Soviet Book Publishing Policy Felicity Ann O'Dell Socialisation through Children's Literature: The Soviet Example Stella Alexander Church and State in Yugoslavia since 194; Sheila Fitzpatrick Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union 1921—1934 T H Rigby Lenin's Government: Sovnarkom 1917-1922 M Cave Computers and Economic Planning: The Soviet Experience Jozef M van Brabant Socialist Economic Integration: Aspects of Contemporary Economic Problems in Eastern Europe R F Leslie, ed The History of Poland since 1863 M R Myant Socialism and Democracy in Chechoslovakia, 194j—1948 Blair A Ruble Soviet Trade Unions: Their Development in the 1970s Angela Stent From Embargo to Ostpolitik: The Political Economy of West German-Soviet Relations 19JJ-1980 Jean Woodall The Socialist Corporation and Technocratic Power: The Polish United Workers' Party, Industrial Organisation and Workforce Control, 19J8—80 William J Conyngham The Modernisation of Soviet Industrial Management: Socioeconomic Development and the Search for Viability The History of Poland since 1863 R F LESLIE ANTONY POLONSKY JAN M CIECHANOWSKI Z A PELCZYNSKI EDITED BY R F LESLIE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS CAMBRIDGE LONDON NEW YORK MELBOURNE NEW ROCHELLE SYDNEY Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 IRP 32 East 57th Street, New York, NY 10022, USA 296 Beaconsfield Parade, Middle Park, Melbourne 3206, Australia © Cambridge University Press 1980 First published 1980 First paperback edition, with epilogue, 1983 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry title: The History of Poland since 1863 (Soviet and East European studies) Bibliography: p Includes index Poland - History - 20th century Poland History - 1864-1918 I Leslie, R F II Series DK4382.H57 943.8 78-73246 ISBN o 521 22645 hard covers ISBN o 521 27501 paperback Transferred to digital printing 2004 Contents List of maps vi Preface to the paperback edition vii Abbreviations 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ix Triloyalism and the national revival Poland and the crisis of 1900—7 Poland on the eve of the First World War The emergence of an independent Polish state The breakdown of parliamentary government Pilsudski in power, 1926-35 Poland without Pilsudski Poland in defeat, September 1939-July 1941 The ill-fated alliance, August 1941-April 1943 The years of Tempest, May 1943-December 1944 Post-war Poland The rise and ebb of Stalinism The October turning point 'The little stabilization' The decline of Gomulka Poland under Gierek Polish society, 1945-75 Epilogue: The rise and fall of Solidarity i 65 97 112 139 159 186 209 227 246 280 299 344 367 384 407 444 458 Notes 463 Select bibliography 485 Index 488 Maps Poland in the nineteenth century The Kingdom of Poland 1815-1914 Poland in 1939 The Oder-Neisse Line and East Prussia Population changes attendant on Polish occupation in 1945 Modern Poland Thanks are due to the London School of Economics who drew the maps xii 36 208 256 286 300 Preface to the paperback edition This history of Poland starts with the disastrous aftermath of insurrection of 1863 which constituted a major watershed in Polish evolution, marking the end of the political and social supremacy of the nobility and the emergence of new forces which made possible the creation of a modern nation Like history itself it has no end, but an attempt has been made to analyse events up to the present day Though it is a joint work, the authors take responsibility for their own individual chapters which have been subject to minimal editorship only R F Leslie (Chapters 1-3), Antony Polonsky (Chapters 4-7), Jan M Ciechanowski (Chapters 8-11) and Z A Pelczynski (Chapters 12-17) express opinions which are entirely their own Nevertheless, all the authors share certain views about the Polish past They believe that Polish history has too often been written as if it took place in a social and economic vacuum and they have thus stressed the importance of these factors in assessing political developments They recognize too the merits of both of the principal approaches to the political dilemma in which Poland finds itself and not therefore align themselves with either the realist/positivist or the romantic/insurrectionary view of the Polish past Polish history is full of striking paradoxes It oscillates between periods of great victories and achievements and abject defeats, between periods of concerted striving for freedom, justice and liberty and periods of humiliating and partly self-engendered decline The authors have tried to strike a balance between a too optimistic and a too defeatist interpretation of Poland's development This paperback edition appears at a difficult and grave moment in Polish history when a peaceful popular revolt against the mismanagement, corruption and injustice of the Communist system in the 1970s appears to have failed though not without inflicting a tremendous shock on the Communist Party, which perhaps will prove salutary Its authors hope that, as before, the resilience, faith and courage of the Polish people will enable them to overcome the defeat and to create, within the stern limits of geopolitics, a future in which, in the words of the Gdansk shipyard workers' song, 'Poland will be truly itself Abbreviations AK AL BBWR CBKP CKN CPSU CRZZ FRG FSZMP GDR GL KOR KPP KPRP KRN KSR KW KZ NKN NKVD Armia Krajowa (Home Army) Armia Ludowa (People's Army) Bezpartyjny Blok Wspoipracy z Rzadem (Non-Party Bloc for Co-operation with the Government) Centralne Biuro Komunistow Polskich (Central Bureau of Polish Communists) Centralny Komitet Narodowy (National Central Committee) Communist Party of the Soviet Union Centralna Rada Zwiazkow Zawodowych (Central Council of Trade Unions) Federal Republic of Germany Federacja Socialistycznych Zwiazkow Mlodziezy Polskiej (Federation of Socialist Unions of Polish Youth) German Democratic Republic Gwardia Ludowa (People's Guard) Komitet Obrony Robotnikow (Workers' Defence Committee) Komunistyczna Partia Polski (Polish Communist Party) Komunistyczna Partia Robotnicza Polski (Communist Workers' Party of Poland) Krajowa Rada Narodowa (National Council of the Homeland) Konferencja Samorzadu Robotniczego (Conference of the Workers' Self-Government) Komitet Wykonawczy [Centralnego Komitetu Robotniczego] (Executive Committee of the Central Workers' Committee) Komitet Zagraniczny [Centralnego Komitetu Robotniczego] (Foreign Committee of the Central Workers' Committee) Naczelny Komite Narodowy (Supreme National Committee) Narodnaya Kommissiya Vevnutrikh Dyel (People's Commission of Internal Affairs) IX Select bibliography This bibliography is limited to principal works in English relating to Poland since the uprising of January 1863, whereas reference is made to Polish sources and secondary works in the endnotes Most of the works listed here contain extensive bibliographies Alton, T P., Polish Postwar Economy (New York, 1955) Bethell, N., Gomulka, His Poland and His Communism (London, 1969) Benes, V and Pounds, J G., Poland (London, 1972) Blit, L., The Origins of Polish Socialism: The History and Ideas of the First Polish Socialist Party•, 18/8—1886 (Cambridge, 1971) The Eastern Pretender: Boleslaw Piasecki: His Life and Times (London, 1965) Bromke, A., Poland's Politics: Idealism vs Realism (Cambridge, Mass., 1967) Bromke, A and Strong, J W., Gierek's Poland (New York, 1973) Budurowycz, B., Polish-Soviet Relations 19)2-19)9 (Columbia, 1963) Chmielewski, E., The Polish Question in the Russian State Duma (Knoxville, 1970) Ciechanowski, J M., The Warsaw Rising of1944 (Cambridge, 1974) Cienciala, A M., Poland and the Western Powers, 19)8—19)9: A Study in the Interdependence of Eastern and Western Europe (London, 1968) Cottam, K J., Roleslaw Limanowski (i8)j-i9)j) - A Study in Socialism and Nationalism (New York, 1978) Davies, N., White Eagle, Red Star- The Polish-Soviet War, 1919-1920 (London, 1972) Debicki, R., The Foreign Policy of Poland, 1919-19)9 (New York, 1962) Dziewanowski, M K., Joseph Pilsudski: A European Federalist, 1918-1922 (Stanford, 1968) The Communist Party of Poland: An Outline History (Cambridge, Mass., 1959, new ed 1977) Poland in the Twentieth Centry (New York, 1977) Gibney, F., The Frozen Revolution Poland: A Study in Communist Decay (New York, 195 9) Gieysztor, A., with S Kieniewicz, E Rostworowski, J Tazbir and H Wereszycki, History of Poland (Warsaw, 1968) Gross, F., The Polish Worker: A Study of a Social Stratum (New York, 1944) Gross, J T., Polish Society under German Occupation - The Generalgouvernement, 19)9-1944 (Princeton, 1979) Hiscocks, C R., Poland, Bridge for the Abyss? - An Interpretation of Developments in post-war Poland (London, 1963) Jordan, Z., The Oder—Neisse Line: A Study of the Political and European Significance of Poland's Western Frontier (London, 1952) 485 486 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Kaeckenbeeck, G., The International Experiment of Upper Silesia: A Study of the Workings of the Upper Silesian Settlement, 1922-1937 (London, 1942) Karol, K S., Visa for Poland (London, 1959) Kieniewicz, S., The Emancipation of the Polish Peasantry (Chicago, 1969) Kolankiewicz, G and Taras, R., 'Poland: Socialism for Everyman', in Political Change in Communist States, edited by A Brown and J Gray (London, 1977) Komarnicki, T., The Rebirth of the Polish Republic: A Study in the Diplomatic History of Europe, 1914—1920 (London, 1957) Korbel, J., Poland between East and West: Soviet and German Diplomacy towards Poland, 1919—19$) (Princeton, 1963) Korbonski, A., Politics of Socialist Agriculture in Poland, 194;—1960 (New York and London, 1965) Kulski, W W., Germany and Poland (Syracuse, New York, 1976) Lane, D and Kolankiewicz, G., Social Groups in Poland (New York, 1973) Leslie, R F., Reform and Insurrection in Russian Poland, ISJ6-IS6J (London, 1963) Lewis, F., A Case of Hope (New York, 1958) The Polish Volcano A case history of hope (London, 1959) Macartney, C A and Palmer, A W., Independent Eastern Europe — A History (London, 1962) Montias, J M., Central Planning in Poland (New Haven, 1962) Morrow, I F D., The Pace Settlement in the German—Polish borderlands (Oxford, 1936) Narkiewicz, O A., The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (Totowa, New Jersey, 1976) Nettl, J P., Rosa Luxemburg, vols (London, 1966) Newman, S., March 1939: the British Guarantee to Poland (Oxford, 1976) Polonsky, A., Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972) The Great Powers and the Polish Question 1941—4; (London, 1976) Raina, P., Political Opposition in Poland 1934-1977 (London, 1978) Rakowski, M F., The Foreign Policy of the Polish People's Republic {Sketches from Thirty Years of History) (Warsaw, 1975) Riekhoff, H von, German—Polish Relations 1918—1933 (Baltimore, 1971) Roos, H., A History of Modern Poland (London, 1966) Rosenthal, H., German and Pole: National Conflict and Modern Myth (Gainesville, 1976) Rothschild, J., Pilsudskfs Coup cfEtat (New York, 1966) Rozek, E J., Allied Wartime Diplomacy: A Pattern in Poland ( N e w York, 1958) Seton-Watson, G H N , Eastern Europe between the Wars, 1918-1941 (Cambridge, 1946) The East European Revolution (London, 1956) Shotwell, J., and Laserson, M., Poland and Russia, 1919-194; (New York, 1945) Stehle, H., The Independent Satellite: Society and politics in Poland since 1943 (London, 1965) Staar, R F., Poland, 1944-62: The Sovieti^ation of Captive People (Baton Rouge, 1962) Svennilson, S., Growth and Stagnation in the European Economy (Geneva, 1954) Syrop, K., Spring in October: The Polish Revolution of 19j6 (London, 1957) Taylor, J., The Economic Development of Poland, 1919-19jo (Ithaca, New York, SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 487 Thomas, W and Znaniecki, F., The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, vols (Boston, Mass., 1918) Tims, R., Germanising Prussian Poland (New York, 1941) Wandycz, P., France and her Eastern Allies, 1919—192J: French—Czechoslovak—Polish Relations from the Paris Peace Conference to Locarno (Minneapolis, 1962) Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917-1921 (Cambridge, Mass., 1969) The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 179j—1918 (Seattle, 1974) Czechoslovak—Polish Confederation and the Great Powers, 1940—194) (Bloomington, Wellisz, L., Foreign Capital in Poland (London, 1938) Wiskemann, E Germany's Eastern Neighbours: Problems relating to the Oder—Neisse Line and the C^ech Frontier Region (London, 1956) Wynot, E D., Polish Politics in Transition: The Camp of National Unity and the Struggle for Power (Athens, Georgia, 1974) Zawodny, J K., Death in the Forest: The Katyn Massacre (Notre Dame, Indiana, 1962) Nothing but Honour: The Story of the Warsaw Uprising (London, 1978) Zielinski, J G., Economic Reforms in Polish Industry (London, 1973) Zweig, F., Poland between Two Wars: A Critical Study of Social and Economic Change (London, 1944) Index In this index the following abbreviations are used: WWI - First World War WWII - Second World War agriculture: for cash, 28, 139, 163; decline of, 140-1, 172, 178, 379, 403; in Galicia, 10, 16-17; improved, 6, 141, 287-8, 362-3, 396-400, 407, 414, 417-19, 43 3> 439"4o, 449; investment in, 318-20, 414, 418; strikes in, 89, 181, 192, 194-5; see also collectivization; co-operatives; land holding; peasants; Six Year Plan AK see Home Army AL see People's Army Albania, 380 Albrecht, Jerzy, 346, 348, 370, 375, 392 airforce, Polish, 223-4, 269-70, 303 airlift, 272 Alexander II, Tsar, 38, 47, 54 Anders, Gen Wtadysiaw, 227-8 Andrzejewski, J., 324, 333, 437 Anglo-Soviet partnership, 232; see also Britain; USSR Anti-Comintern Pact, 205 anti-semitism see Jews anti-war groups, 119 Arab-Israeli war, 391 Arciszewski, Tomasz, 64, 279, 281 army, Polish: decline of, 200; destroyed, 209-12; exiled, 123, 222-3, 269-70; origin, 107; and Pitsudski, m , 114-22, 150, 156, 158, 193; political education in, 385-6; problems with, 149-50, 157-8, 164-5, lJJ-~9> 204, 222-3; a n d resistance, 221; and suffrage, 96; in USSR, 227, 252—6, 270, 275, 303; in W W i , 118, 120-6, 133; see also military organizations arts, 301-2, 333, 337-8; see also culture Association of Armed Struggle (ZWZ), xi, 222, 224, 230-1, 234 Austria, 13-14, 115-22, 332, 420 Austrian Poland, 8-26, 92-7, 104-9, 127~~8, 130-2 autonomy see independence Babiuch, E., 405, 412, 432 Badeni, Count K., 24-5 Balicki, Zygmunt, 54, 71, 75, 82, 87 Bank: Commercial, 66; Country, 17; Galician, 10; of Poland, 7, 39; Polish-American, 149; Polish Land, 33; Polish Loan, 128 Barbarossa Plan, 225 Barcikowski, K., 413, 442 Bartel, Kazimierz, 161-2, 167, 171, 173, 220 battlefield, Poland as, 97, 207 BBWR see Non-Party Bloc for Co-operation Beck, Col Jozef, 160, 182-4, 196—7, 202—4 Belgium, 428, 438 BeneS, President, 231, 242, 245 Beria, 331, 336 Berling, Gen Zygmunt, 220, 251, 264, 270 Berman, Jakob, 294, 322, 324, 335, 347 Beseler, Gen., 116, 120, 122-3, lz^ Biaiystok, 36, 70, 84, 89, 137 Bierut, Bolestaw, 265, 294, 302, 304, 308, 311, 331, 335-6, 344-5 Biliriski, Leon, 112, 131 Bismarck, 33, 53 Blit, Lucian, 217 Bloody Sunday and Crisis, 76-86 Bloody Wednesday, ; see also massacres; violence Bobrzyriski, Michat, 63, 105-6 Bohemia, 205-6 Bojko, Jakub, 20-1, 106 Bor-Komorowski, Gen Tadeusz, 235-6, 247, 250, 254-5, 261, 265-72, 276 Brandt, Chancellor Willy, 395-6, 438 Brandys, K., 324, 336 breakdown of parliamentary government, 150-8 Brezhnev, Leonid, 393, 429 Britain: and Pilsudski, 135; and Mikolajczyk, 226, 258-9, 265, 268, 277-9; and Poland, 62, 72, 138, 206, 209-10, 213, 245, 253-4, 281-6, 396; and USSR, 223, 226, 232, 243-4, 260; 488 INDEX Britain (cont.) see also Anglo-Soviet partnership; Yalta agreement Brzesc, prisoners of, 174, 179-80, 190, 195 Bulganin, Marshal, 331—2, 351, 356 Bulgaria, 276, 420 Bund, Jewish, 52, 69-70, 80, 82, 90, 103, 153, 168, 191, 198 Burian, Count, 117 Bulygin, Nikolai, 79, 84 Byelorussia: and Poland, 39-40, 135-8, 145, 148, 163, 167, 175-6, 280, 444; and USSR, 182, 212-14, 218-19, 267-70, 286 Camp for a Greater Poland (OWP), x, 172, 181 Camp of National Unity (OZON), x, 193-9 camps, concentration, 190, 215, 217; see also extermination capital see investment, agricultural; investment, industrial Catholic Peasant Party, 131-2 Catholic social movement (PAX), x, 308, 328-9, 355, 361-2, 376, 388, 390 Catholic Union, 168 Catholics: and elections, 72, 105; and Germany, 388; and Gierek, 408, 411, 429, 438; and marxism, 327-30; periodicals of, 362; and PZPR, 361-3, 371-5; in Second Republic, 164, 286, 294; and strikes, 436; in WWII, 218; see also papacy; religion CBKP see Central Bureau of Polish Communists censorship, 22 Central Bureau of Polish Communists (CBKP), ix, 251 Central Council of Trade Unions (CRZZ), ix, 301, 353, 360, 371, 410, 413, 426 Central Workers' Committee (KW), ix, 67 Centrolew, 173-6, 179—81 changes, political, 186-92, 354-66 Cheim, 100-1, 114, 124 China, 359, 380-1 Christian Alliance of National Unity, 15 Christian Democrats, 152-4, 168-9, *73~6, 181; see also Centrolew Christianity, 19-20, 30-1, 89-90, 93, 143-5; see also Catholics; religion Churchill, Winston, 1, 224-6, 244, 248-9, 258-60, 265, 268, 275-9 Cieszyn see Teschen civil war, 291 CKN see National Central Committee class, 10, 55, 70-3, 96, 101-2, 128, 446-57 coal production, 17, 21, 28, 44, 315-16, 321-2, 358 coalition governments, 127, 153-4 Cold War, 327 collapse of Poland, 209-13 489 collectivization: dissolved, 363; opposed, 219; post-war, 283, 288, 296-7, 318-20, 333 'colonels' cabinets', 171 Colonization Commission, 32-3, 35 Combat Section, Secret, 80-1 Comecon, 393-4, 401, 429-30 Cominform, 296 Commonwealth, Polish, communications, 45, 139-40, 179, 236; see also railway communist parties, 154, 168-9, X75~6, 249-53; see also Stalinism; Central Workers' Committee; Polish United Workers' Party; National Workers' Party; National Workers' Union; Union of Polish Workers Communist Party, Polish, see Polish Communist Party Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), ix, 336, 344-54, 393, 429-3° Communist Workers' Party of Poland (KPRP), ix, 104, 128 Conference of the Workers' Self-Government (KSR), ix, 371 conscription, 27, 274, 303; see also army conservatives: in 19th century, 10-13, 23-4, 31; pre-WWI, 106; in Second Republic, 130-2, 151-4, 165; in WWII, 121, 124, 128; see also National Democrats Constitutional Democrats see Kadets constitutions, 27, 193, 294, 310 consumption, increased, 407, 411, 413-18, 433-5, 441, 456 co-operatives, 372, 449 corruption, 162 Council of National Unity (RJN), x, 237-8 councils, people's, 355, 433-4 CPSU see Communist Party of the Soviet Union Cracow, 5, 8, 10-15, 21-4, 424; demonstrations in, 5, 94, 156, 190; university of, 10, 15, 62-3 Crimean War, 9, 37 Crises, 5, 18, 26, 65-96 CRZZ see Central Council of Trade Unions culture, 322-30, 333, 336-7, 347; see also arts; drama; literature currency, 139, 156-7, 199, 314 Curzon Line, 137, 208, 258-63 passim, 281, 285 Cyrankiewicz, Jozef, 298, 344, 350, 353, 356, 405, 423 Czartoryski family, Czechoslovakia: non-nuclear, 382; and Poland, 148, 183-4, 203, 224, 228, 231, 245, 286, 444; strikes in, 331; trade with, 357, 420; and USSR, 245, 392, 394; see also Teschen Czechowicz, Gabriel, 162, 170—3, 180 Czernecki, Josef, 107 49° INDEX Dabrowska, Maria, 180, 333 Danzig, 134, 183, 203, 205, 208 Daszyriski, Ignacy, 22, 25, 64, 86, 95, 126-7, 151, 167, 172-3, 187 December riots, 404-5, 408—13; see also strikes defection, 378 democratic centralism, 348 Democratic Party (SD), x, 288-98 passim, 308-10, 361, 365, 375, 385, 423 democratization, 344-66, 368, 377, 437-8 demonstrations, 349-54, 359, 363, 374, 389-90; see also insurrections; strikes; violence deportation, 32, 115, 214-19, 230, 273, 285-8, 358; see also emigration depression see economy detente, 428-32 Deutscher, Isaac, 389 Diksztajn, Szymon, 49-50 disarmament, 127, 382 disease, 8, 46; see also health disenfranchisement, 293; see also suffrage displacement see deportation Dtugosz, Wladysiaw, 106 Dmowski, Roman, 64, 142; death, 198; in elections, 91, 131-2; fascism, 192; and frontiers, 133; and independence, 119; philosophy of, 71; and Pilsudski, 149; politics of, 54, 75, 82, 87, 99-100, i n , 113, 181; and USSR, 114; and West, 119; and Witte, 86 Dojlidy affair, 149 Dowbor-Musnicki, Gen Jozef, 121 drama, 337-8, 389; see also culture Dubcek, 394 duma, 86-92, 99-101 Dworakowski, 311, 346 D^iadjy 389-90 Dzierzyriski, Felix, 69, 82, 103-4 strikes; Teachers' Rights and Duties; Teachers' Union; university Education, Societies for, 30, 54, 71, 82-3 Education, Ministry of, 428 elections: to duma, 86-92, 99-101; in 19th century, 14, 24-6, 31; post-WWI, 127-8, 130-2, 167-9; post-WWII, 292-5, 298, 310-11, 364-5, 376, 385, 425; pre-WWI, 87, 99-101; in Second Republic, 175-6, 188, 196-7; see also suffrage electoral system, reform of, 188-9, 37^i •**' a^so proportional representation; suffrage emigration, 16, 28, 61, 143, 287-8; of Jews, 32, 202, 358, 391, 444 employment, 313-14, 339-40, 397, 418; see also occupations; unemployment epidemics, 8, 46 Estonia, 218 European Economic Community, 381 Evans brothers, 44 executions, summary, 89, 217 exiles, political, 180, 190, 195, 198, 287, 383, 412; see also emigration; government-in-exile exports, 139, 321, 378-9, 396-8, 415-20, 439 expulsion see deportation extermination, 214-17, 241-2; see also Jews; massacres; violence famine see food fascism, 182, 192, 196; see also Nazism finance see currency; economy; inflation; investment, agricultural; investment, industrial; loan Finder, Pawel, 229, 238, 250 food: lack of, 8, 216-18, 283, 434, 440; prices, 102, 404-5, 408-13, 435-6; supplies, 414, foreign policy: of Beck, 182-3, 1O1> °f Gomulka, 380-3, 393-6; of Pilsudski, 133-8, Economic Association, Polish, 347 152, 207; of Sikorski, 227-45; of Sosnowski, 261, 267, 275 Economic Planning, State Commission for, see fragmentation of land, 140-3; see also land State Commission holding Economic Reconstruction see Three Year Plan economy: crisis of 1922, 155-7; decline of, France: collapse of, 13, 213, 218, 223-4; and 171-2, 177-8, 199; post-WWII, 289, 311-22, Poland, 4-5, 125, 138, 183-4, 200, 203, 206, 37° 375~~8o; recovery, 162-3, 311-22; see also 209-10, 213, 382, 396, 428, 438; investment inflation; investment; loan; Plans, Economic in Poland, 142; and Polish army, 123 Eden, Anthony, 232, 257-8, 277 Franco-Soviet Pact, 184 education: forbidden, 215, 218; improved, 179, Frank, Hans, 216-17 416, 427-8, 448, 453-4; and intelligentsia, Freedom and Independence Group (WIN), xi, 454; Jews in, 163, 181-2, 202; in Kingdom 290—1 of Poland, 72, 76; in 19th century, 7, 10, 'friendship visits', 380 14-15, 24, 27, 30, 33, 42, 54, 61-2; in Front of National Unity, 376 People's Poland, 325-7, 340; in Polish, 30, frontiers of Poland: in 19th century, 1-4, 32; 33, 72, 76, 98, 116; pre-WWI, 72, 76, 98; in in Second Republic, 148, 158; in WWI, 124, Russian, 219; in Second Republic, 140, 148, 133-8; in WWII, 219, 223, 226-7, 232> 237> 163, 179, 182; and social mobility, 42, 317; 242-5, 256, 259; see also Curzon Line; Oderin WWII, 215, 218, 237; see also school Neisse Line INDEX 491 Galicia: Bank of, 10; elections in, 24-6, 94-5, Haneman, Jan Stefan, 252, 262 130—3; industry in, 7, 17, 21; insurrections health, 448; see also disease in, 5, 94, 96, 195; in 19th century, 5, 7—8, Helsinki Declaration, 429, 431 10-11, 16-17, 21-6; pre-WWI, 94-5, 104-9; Himmler, Heinrich, 215, 241, 273 historians, Polish, 62-3 in Second Republic, 145, 147, 182, 195; Hitler, 183, 204-5, 209-18; see also Nazism university in, 14; in WWI, 121, 127-8, 130—3, 136, 138 Home Army (AK), ix, 234-75 passim, 280-2, Gapon, Father Georgei, 77, 84 290-1, 306, 361 gentry, 2-3, 6, 11, 40; see also landowners Homeland see National Council German Democratic Republic, 302, 331, 356—7, Horwitz see Walecki housing, 401-2, 418, 433, 439 395, 420, 434 Hungary, 12-13, 231-2, 356-9, 420 German Federal Republic, 302-3, 332, 382, Hutten-Czapski, Bogdan, 112 395-6, 428 hyperinflation, 149, 156 germanization, 27, 32, 214, 216 Germano-Polish Pact, 183 Ignar, S., 375 Germano-Soviet Pact, 206, 211 illiteracy, ly, see also literacy Germans as minority, 145, 163-4, 169, 175-6, 201, 209, 285-8, 444 imports, 415-20, 428, 434, 439-40 Germany: disarmed, 127; investment in incentives, 402 Poland, 142-5; language, 27, 33, 62-3, 93; independence, 4, 69, 112-13, 119-20, 124-8, and Poland, WWI, 112-13, 116-25; and 295; see also Republic, Second Polish Poland, WWII, 201-2, 205, 214-18; Independence, 'Nie', 280, 290 pre-WWI, 98, 100; and Second Republic, Independent Socialist Party of Labour, 168 152, 164-5; a n d Stalin, 205, 213-18; see also industry: cottage, 144, 317-18, 362, 374, 453; Hitler: Nazism; resistance; war decline, 172; disrupted, 379; in Galicia, 7, ghettos, 216-17, 241; see also Jews 17, 21; growth of, 141-3, 162-3, 2OO> 289, Gierek, Edward, 346, 348, 391, 405-43 384, 396-8, 402, 407, 414-21, 433, 441; Jews in, 143-6; in Upper Silesia, 27-9, 134, 141-2, GL see People's Guard Glowacki, Alexander, 63 287; in Russian Poland, 37, 41, 44-8, 52; and socialism, 45-52; and war, 73, 140; gminy, 423, 425 workers in, 448-51, 45 5; see also coal Gohichowski, Count Agenor, 9-10, 12, 14-15 production; exports; investment, Gomulka, Wladystaw: expulsion of, 229, agricultural; investment, industrial; 295-7, 304-5; fall of, 384-406; foreign nationalization; Nowa Huta; Plans, policy of, 380-3; 393-6; and KRN, 250-1, Economic; Poznari 264; militarism, 273; as negotiator, 238—40; pardoned, 336-7, 346, 352; and PPR, 283-4, Industry, Mining, Trade and Finance, Union 294; and PZPR, 354-83; and USA, 382 of, (Leviathan), 143 inflation, 148-9, 156, 314, 377, 421; see also Gorczyriski, Witold, 113, 121 economy Goremykin, 114, 119 government and parliament, 150-8, 165-85; see insurrections: in 18th century, 3, 220; in 19th century, 5, 8, 11, 29, 220; in 20th century, also local government 74-82, 94, 96, 103, 134, 195; see also Government-General area, 214-18 demonstrations; strikes government-in-exile, 222—5, 236, 253—8, 265, intelligence, 107-8 274, 281; see also 'Tempest' intelligentsia: defined, 143-5; exterminated, Grabski, Stanislaw, 57-60, 64, 129-30 215-18; and Gierek, 412; and marxism, 337, Grabski, Wtadyslaw, 64, 88, 151, 156-7, 281 373; in 19th century, 42; occupations of, grain trade, 2, 41, 358, 411 451-2; in revolt, 387-90, 437-8; in Second Grazyriski, Michai, 164 Republic, 147; see also education Great Economic Organizations (WOG), xi, international relations see foreign policy 419, 434-5 Grot-Rowecki, Col Stefan, 222, 230, 238-41,247 Inter-Party Political Circle, 118, 120-1 invasion of Poland see Germany; USSR Grudzieri, Z., 413, 432 investment, agricultural, 318-20, 414, 418 Gurko, Field Marshal Osip, 42, 54-5 investment, industrial: foreign, 10, 45, 66, 142, gypsies, 217, 444 162, 192, 377, 382; increased, 339, 416-21, 433; lack of, 140, 199, 319-20, 352, 439; see Halifax, Lord, 223 also loan, foreign; economy Haller, Gen Jozef, 123-5, 129, 149, 192 iron production, 28, 44; see also steel industry handicrafts see industry, cottage 49 INDEX Jabloriski, Prof Henryk, 405, 412, 423 Jagielski, M., 405, 412 'Janka', Colonel, 268 Jankowska, Maria, 49 Jankowski, Jan, 239-40, 272 Jaroszewicz, Gen Piotr, 303, 311, 375, 394, 404-5, 409-11, 416, 432-40 passim Jaruzelski, P., 405, 409, 412 Jaruzelski, Gen W., 459-60, 461 Jaszczuk, Boleslaw, 402—3, 405, 409 Jcdrychowski, Stefan, 251, 311-12, 353, 375, 405 Jedrzejewicz, Janusz, 177, 356 Jewish Club, 157 Jewish Workers' Union see Bund Jews: attacked, 50, 70-2, 84, 89, 129, 192, 194, 201-2, 217, 345, 387-8, 394; in census, 40; in education, 163, 181-2, 202, 389-90; emigration of, 32, 202, 358, 391, 444; exterminated, 215-17; improved conditions, 163; in industry, 143—6; as intelligentsia, 145; in Kingdom of Poland, 40, 70, 146; pogroms, 70, 84, 89, 202, 217; political parties, 131-2, 153-4, 167-9, J75~6> 181, 222, see also Bund; restrictions on, 182; in towns, 3; and USSR, 219, 330-1; and WWI, 158 Jez see Milkowski Jodko-Narkiewicz, Witold, 60, 67, 75, 107-8 journals see periodicals Kadar, Janos, 357, 405-6 Kadets, 85, 88, 99 Kaganovich, 355, 359 Kalecki, Michael, 354, 397 Kania, S., 413, 432 Kasprzak, Marcin, 52, 58 Katyn Forest deaths, 244, 261 Kelles-Krauz, Kazimierz, 68, 75 Kepa, J., 390, 405, 412-13 43 Kingdom of Poland: autonomy, 103, 117, 128; and Crisis 1900-7, 66-73; education in, 72, 76; elections in, 99, 130—2; Germans in, 145; industry in, 141-2; Jews in, 40, 70, 146; National Government in, 18-19; Polish language in, 72, 76, 98; Polish people in, 40-2; uprisings, 11, 77-9, 81, 103; and USSR, 5, 38-9 Kisielewski, 412, 431 Kliszko, 303, 352, 355, 375, 405, 409 Ktosiewicz, Wiktor, 301 Koc, Adam, 115, 160, 196, 199 Kociotek, Stanislaw, 392, 405, 409 Kolakowski, Prof Leszek, 389-90 Korczyriski, Gen G., 386 Korean War, 322, 332 Korfanty, Wojciech, 152, 164 Korytowski, Witold, 105 Kosciatkowski, 189-91, 199 Kosygin, Alexei, 393 Koszczyc, Wactaw, 18 Kot, Prof Stanislaw, 227, 262 Kott, Jan, 346 Kozmian, Stanislaw, 13 KPP see Polish Communist Party KPRP see Communist Workers' Party of Poland Kraszewski, Jozef, 63 Kreditanstalt, 10 KRN see National Council Kronenberg, Leopold, Kruczek, W., 392, 405, 410, 413, 426 Khrushchev, Nikita, 331, 344-6, 355, 359, 380, 393 Krusiriski, Stanislaw, 51 Krzywicki, Ludwik, 51, 57 KSR see Conference of the Workers' Self-Go vernment Kucharzewski, Jan, 123—4, 126 Kukiel, Gen Marian, 108-9, l&°* z^1 Kulczycki, Ludwik, 69, 72 Kultura, 383, 388, 431 Kulturkampf, 29, 31 Kurori, J., 388-9, 437 KW see Central Workers' Committee Kwiatek, Jozef, 74 Kwiatkowski, Eugeniusz, 162, 171, 186-200 passim Labour, Bloc of, 168-9 Lampe, Alfred, 220, 251 Lanckorana pact, 15 land, compulsory purchase, 88, 181 Land Credit Society, 7, 10, 41 land holding: in New Poland, 140-3, 151, 154, 157; in 19th century, 16, 35, 44; reform of, 238, 250-1, 275, 287-8, 400; see also Colonization Commission; fragmentation of land landowners, 27-8, 40, 142, 446-9; see also gentry; magnates Lange, Oskar, 362, 375 language: Byelorussian, 219; German, 27, 33, 62-3, 93; Lithuanian, 39; Polish, 26—7, 30, 33, 39, 54, 62, 72, 76, 98, 114, 116, 215; Russian, 39, 62, 219; Ukrainian, 200-1, 219; see also education Latvia, 148, 218 League for Reform of Republic, 167 legal systems, 139-40, 179, 309-10, 362 Lenin, 70, 107, 119, 136 'Leviathan', 143 liberalism, 438 Lieberman, Herman, 170, 174, 180, 186 Likowski, Edward, 93 Limanowski, Bolesiaw, 21-2, 49-50, 57 Lipiriski, Prof Edward, 431-2 INDEX literacy, 24, 148; see also education; illiteracy literature, 61, 63, 145, 322-4, 333, 336-7, 457; see also culture; Writers' Union Lithuania: in 19th century, 39-40; post-WWII, 444; pre-WWI, 72; in Second Republic, 148, 183; in WWI, 123-4, 135-6, 231; in WWII, 249; see also Polish-Lithuanian Social Revolutionary Party living standard see consumption loan, foreign, 85, 157, 382, 438-9; see also investment, agricultural; investment, industrial; economy local government, 309, 423-5 Lodz, 52, 191, 424; industry in, 44-5, 145; see also strikes Loga-Sowiriski, 356, 360, 375, 409 Losocki, Count Zygmunt, 106 Lubieriski family, Lubomirski family, 46, 122-3, I27> J 49 luA, 143 Luxemburg, Rosa, 59, 70, 104 Lwow, 5, 10, 21; battles for, 114, 268, 286-7; demonstrations in, 94-5; university of, 10, 14-15, 24, 62-3, 105 Mackiewicz, Stanislaw, 149, 383 magnates, 2-3, 6, 16; see also landowners Maklakov, Nikolai, 113 Malenkov, 331-2, 335, 359 Malinowski, Alexander, 75 Marchlewski, Julian, 57, 59, 103-4, 136, 138 Marshall Plan, 296 Masons, 197 massacres, 77-8, 82, 90, 92, 244, 261; see also extermination; Jews; violence Matuszewski, Ignacy, 171 Matuszewski, Mateusz, 103 Matwin, Wiadyslaw, 335, 348, 370 May Days, 74, 82, 102, 336 media, mass, 327, 373, 391; see also periodicals; press censorship; Radio Mendelson, Stanistaw, 49, 57-8 Michalski, Jerzy, 152 middle class, 10, 70—3; see also class Miedziriski, Bogustaw, 166, 172, 189 Mikotajczyk, Stanistaw: and Americans, 261-2; and British, 226, 258-9, 265, 268, 277-9; and Peasant Party, 222, 278; post-WWII, 281-4, 290, 292, 294, 308; and resistance, 253; and USSR, 247, 259, 273-9; o n Warsaw, 212; and Witos, 195, in WWII, 236, 246-7, 264 Mikoyan, 355, 359 military organisations see AK; AL; GL; NSZ; POW; Volunteer Reserve of Citizens' Militia; ZBoWiD; ZWZ Milkowski, Zygmunt, (Jez), 54, 63 Mine, Hilary, 295, 311-12, 338 mining see coal production 493 minorities, 163, 200, 444; see also Byelorussia; Germans as minority; Jews; Lithuania; Ukrainians in Poland mobility, social, 42, 317, 320 mobilization see conscription Moczar, Gen Mieczyslaw, 378, 385-6, 392, 405, 412 Modzelewski, K., 388-9 Molojec, Bolestaw, 229, 238 Molotov, 219, 232, 249, 275, 281, 331 money see currency; economy; inflation; investment; loan Moraczewski, Jedrzej, 127-8, 130, 166 Moravia, 205-6 Morawski, Prof., 335, 344, 348, 370, 390 Moscicki, Ignacy, 61, 160, 180, 186—90, 193—7, 222 Moscow, 42, 84-5; see also USSR music see culture Nagy, Imre, 331-2, 335 narod, 143 Narodnaya Volya, 48-9, 51, 53 Narutowicz, Gabriel, 61, 152, 155 National Armed Forces (NSZ), x, 233-4, 250, 291 National Central Committee, ix, 118, 120 National Council (RN), x, 222 National Council of the Homeland (KRN), ix, 250-3, 262-5, National Democratic Party (SN-D), xi, 56, 93 National Democrats: post-WWII, 290; pre-WWI, 71-2, 76, 79, 82, 86-93, 96, 99—100; in Second Republic, 128, 130—2, 137, 146, 149—55, 165-7; m Silesia, 35; in Ukraine, 182, 200; in WWI, 114, 118, 130-2; in WWII, 221-2, 237, 276 National Development Loan, 314 'National Government', 7, 111, 114 National League, 54, 75, 82 National Party, 181, 191-2, 197-8 National Peasant Union (NZCh), x, 102, 108, 150-6 National Radical Camp (ONR), x, 181, 192-3, 195, 198 national revival, 1-64 National Socialist Commune, 57-8 National Workers' Party (NSR), x, 151, 166-9, 173, 176, 181, 192; see also Centrolew National Workers' Union (NZR), x, 83, 90, 100, 128, 131-3, 151-4 nationalism see independence nationalization, 178, 218, 238, 299, 457 'Natolinites', 354—60 navy, Polish, 223, 303 Nazi-Soviet Pact, 296 Nazism, 182-3, !9°> 2OI » 2O3> 24!> 29^» see a^s° Hitler; Germany 494 INDEX Second Republic, 161, 166-7, J92> ! i m WWII, 221-2, 237, 276 'passivists', 118, 122 PAX see Catholic social movement Peasant Commission, 43 Peasant Electoral Committee, 20 Peasant Farmers' Party, 166-70, 173, 175-6 H) Peasant League, 168; see also Centrolew NKN see Supreme National Committee Peasant Party (SL), x; and Mikolajczyk, 222, NKVD see People's Commission 278; in 1970's, 424; in People's Poland, 282, Non-Party Bloc for Co-operation with the 288-98, 308; in Second Republic, 147, 181, Government (BBWR), ix, 167-70, 175-6, 191, 194-5, 197; in WWII, 221-2, 237, 276, 180, 189, 193 279 Nowa Huta, industry at, 289, 315, 374 peasants: in 19th century, 2-11, 16-21, 27-8, Nowa Kultura, 323, 336, 347, 387 40, 43; post-WWII, 446-51, 45 5; pre-WWI, Nowak, Zeon, 311, 336, 345, 375 67, 89; in Second Republic, 143 Nowe Drogi, 354, 359, 378, 389 Petczyriski, Gen Tadeusz, 247 Nowotko, Marceli, 229, 238 NSR see National Workers' Party People's Army (AL), ix, 230, 233-4, 264 NSZ see National Armed Forces People's Commission of Internal Affairs NzCh see National Peasant Union (NKVD), ix, 283 NZR see National Workers' Union People's Guard (GL), ix, 230, 238 People's Poland, 280-383 periodicals: abroad, 59, 226, 388-9, 431; occupations, 446-53; see also employment Catholic, 362; in 1970's, 438; in 19th Ochab, Edward, 304, 345-9, 2-6 passtm, 375, century, 15, 18-19, 21, 23, 47, 53-4, 59; in 392 People's Poland, 323, 347, 363, 368-9, 373, October, the Polish, 354-66 378; pre-WWI, 102, 108; repressed, 387; in Oder-Neisse Line, 256, 263, 280, 284-6, 294, Second Republic, 166, 189, 220; Ukrainian, 3°*> 395 15, 243; in USSR, 251; see also media Odessa mutiny, 84 Piasecki, Boleslaw, 192-4, 328, 355, 361, 376 oilfields, 17, 21 Piekalkiewicz, Prof Jan, 238-9 Okulicki, Gen Leopold, 268, 280, 282, 290 Pilsudski, Jozef, 64; and army, i n , 114-22, 'Oliwa', Lieut Col., (Kiwerski), 266 150, 156, 158, 193; arrest, 67; and Dmowski, Olszowski, O., 413, 429 149; and elections, 129, 132-3, 155; foreign ONR see National Radical Camp policy of, 133-8, 152; in government, 59-60, Order and Public Security Dept., (Okhrana), 159-85; influence after death, 186-7, 199; 67 and PPS, 75, 80-1, 107-9, 114, 125-8; and Organic Work, 7, 9-10, 47 Sikorski, 155, 157 Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists Piniriski, Count Leon, 25, 94 (OUN), 182 PKP see Political Consultative Committee ORMO see Militia Volunteer Reserve of PKPG see State Economic Commission for Citizens' Militia Economic Planning Osobka-Morawski, Edward, 252, 262-3, 2^5> PKWN see Polish Committee of National *79> *83 Liberation Ostrowski, Count Jozef, 123 OUN see Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists Plans, Economic, 315, 378-9, 396-403, 414-20, 433-43; see also Six Year Plan; Three Year OWP see Camp for a Greater Poland Plan OZON see Camp of National Unity Po prostu, 347, 368-9, 373 pogroms see Jews; massacres Paderewski, Ignacy, 61, 64, 129-30, 133, 137, 192, 222 police, security, 51, 102, 306-7, 378, 386, 389 papacy, 29, 33, 47, 86, 328-38, 374, 429, 438; Polish Circle, 34, 88-91, 94-6, 101, 105, n o , see also Catholics M7 paramilitarism, 108-9 Polish Committee of National Liberation Paris Conferences, 58, 75 (PKWN), x, 75, 263-5, 268, 272-9 parliament see government Polish Communist Party (KPP), ix, 198, 219, 'Partisan Faction', 385-7, 392, 412, 433 228-9, *64> 296, 336» 344 partitions, 3, 32 'Polish Corridor', 210 Party of Labour: post WWII, 288-98, 308; in Polish Economic Association, 347 ' Neoslavism', ioo New Course, 330-8 newspapers see periodicals Nicholas II, Tsar, 54-5, 73, 79, 85, 113-14 'Nie' see Independence Nikolayevich, Grand Duke Nikolai, 85, n o , 495 INDEX Polish-German Non-Aggression Pact, 201-2 Polish Government of National Unity, 222-3, 290 Polish League, 54 Polish-Lithuanian Social Revolutionary Party, 51 Polish Military Organization (POW), x, 115, 118, 149, 177, 187 Polish National Committee, m , 123, 125, 129, M3 Polish National Organization (PON), x, 115 Polish Peasant Party (PSL), x; in the 19th century, 20, 25; post WWII, 290-9; pre-WWI, 95, 102-6, 108; in Second Republic, 126, 128, 130—2, 150—6, 161, 166-70, 173 Polish Peasant Union (PZL), x, 79, 87, 92, 101-2, 131-3 Polish People's Republic, 310 Polish Progressive Party, 108 Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Silesia (PPSDGiS), x, 86, 95-6, 108, 132 Polish Socialist Party (PPS), x, 58-61, 68-70, 75; and economic plans, 311; and elections, 87, 92, 122, 131-3, 197-9; military activity, 80-2; and Russians, 78-80; post-WWII, 283-4, 288-99; *n Second Republic, 149, 152-6, 166-70, 173, 181, 191; and strikes, 90, 126, 195; in WWI, 115; in WWII, 221-2, 237, 250-2, 264; see also Centrolew; PPS-Frakcja Rewolucyjna; PPS-Left Polish Socialist Party of the Prussian Partition (PPSzP), x, 35,93 Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR), x; criticized, 388—9; expulsions from, 387, 389, 391; in 1960's and 1970's, 385-6, 398-401, 404-43; in People's Poland, 297-8, 301-16, 322-32, 337, 344-51, 357, 36l» " 3; see also Gomulka; October; 'Partisan Faction' Political Consultative Committee (PKP), x, 237 Polityka, 373, 391, 443 Polskosc, 56 Pomerania, 139, 145, 163, 205, 214, 285 PON see Polish National Organization Poniatowski, J., 383 Ponikowski, Antoni, 151 popes see papacy Popiel, Karol, 162 Popiel, Pawei, 11 Popiel, Wincenty, 71, 73, 78 Poplawski, Jan, 87 Popular National Union, 132, 172 Popular ('Folks') Front, 181 population growth: in 19th century, 16, 28, 39-40, 45-6; post WWII, 397, 415, 444-6, 455; in Second Republic, 141, 200 Posen, 5, 29 Potemkin mutiny, 84 Potocki, Count Alfred, 13-14, 23 Potocki, Count Andrzej, 94, 105 Potsdam Conference, 284-7 POW see Polish Military Organization powiaty, 423-4 Poznari, 4, 62; Stalin works in (ZISPO), xi, 349-5 Poznania, 28-32, 62, 134, 139, 145, 163 PPS see Polish Socialist Party PPSDGis see Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Silesia PPS-Frakcja Rewolucyjna, 81, 90, 102, 104, 107-8 PPS-Left, 81, 90, 103-4, 107, 119, 126-8 PPSzP see Polish Socialist Party of the Prussian Partition Pravda, 51 press censorship, 166, 177, 197, 327, 333; see also media; periodicals prices, 314-15, 404, 408, 417, 435-6; see also strikes Prochnik, Jozef, 130 Proletariat I, 51-2; II, 57-8; III, 69 propinac/a, proportional representation, 99, 147, 188; see also electoral system; suffrage Prus, Boleslaw, (Glowacki), 63 Prussia, 4, 28, 134, 285 Prussian Poland: 7, 26-35, 92-7, 128, 130-2; see also Pomerania; Posen; Poznania; Silesia Prystor, Alexander, 80, 109, 171, 173, 177, 186 Pr^edswit, 50 Pr^eglqd Kulturalny, 323, 347, 387 Prvyglqd Ws^echpolski, 23, 54 PSL see Polish Peasant Party purges, 177, 191, 290, 297, 301, 304-6, 359-60, 369, 390-1 PZL see Polish Peasant Union PZPR see Polish United Workers' Party Raczkiewicz, Wladystaw, 222, 224, 261, 275-6 Radical Peasant Party, 153-4, 168 Radio: Free Europe, 387-8; Polish, 327, 351, 373; see also media Radkiewicz, Stanistaw, 295, 307, 346 Radziwiti family, 124, 165 railway, 4, 7, 10, 17, 21, 45, 65, 100, 139; see also strikes Rakosi, Matyas, 331-2, 373 Rakowski, M F., 443 Rataj, Maciej, 191 Rapacki, A., 375, 382, 429 rearmament, 315 recession see economy Red Army see USSR reform, 368-9, 396-404, 422-8; see also electoral system; land holding refugees, 202; see also deportation 49 INDEX religion, 219, 322-30, 371-4, 445; see also Catholics; Christianity repatriation, 358, see also deportation Republic; Polish, 1-2; Second Polish, 139-207 resistance, Polish, 218-21, 233-42, 253-7, 265, 274, 295; see also 'Tempest' retail trade, 3, 318, 362, 448, 453, 455 'revisionism', 359, 368, 372, 380, 386—7, 394 revolts see insurrections; strikes Ribbentrop-Molotov Line, 208, 214 Rifle groups, 107-8 rights, human, 9, 31, 43, 438 riots see December riots; insurrections; strikes RJN see Council of National Unity RN see National Council Kobotnik, 67, 108, 150, 170, 199 Rokossovsky, Marshal Konstantin, 271-2, 302-3, 360 Rola-Zymierski, Gen Michai, 263, 270 Romania, 123, 148, 206, 228, 231, 356, 381, 394-5, 420 Romer, Tadeusz, 259, 265 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 224, 226, 232, 243, 248-9, 258, 281 Rozwadowski, Gen., 126, 160 Rural Youth, see Union of Rural Youth Russia see USSR Russian Poland, 36-61, 65-92, 99-104, 127-8; see also Biatystok; Kingdom of Poland; Vilna; Volhynia Russians as minority, 168-9, 175-6, 444 russification, 39, 44, 55, 97; see also Stalinism Russo-Japanese war, 73-6 Ruthenian-Ukrainian Radical Party, 24 Rutkowski, Jerzy, 193 sabotage, 241; see also resistance St Petersburg, 42-3, 51, 77-8 Sanacja, 160, 180—1, 188, 191—6, 221, 250—1 Saphieha, Adam, 9, 11, 18 Sapieha, Eustachy, 129 Sapieha, Prince Leon, 7, 9-10 Sazonov, 98, 113, 117, 119 Schaff, Prof Adam, 326, 334, 389, 392 Schmidt, Helmut, 428, 438 school strikes, 79, 93; see also education science academies, 61-2, 347 SD see Democratic Party SDKP see Social Democracy of Kingdom of Poland SDKPiL see Social Democracy of Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania Security Office (UB), xi, 307, 337, 362 Scl-Rob, 168-9, 175—6 Service for the Victory of Poland (SZP), xi, 220-1 serwituty, 9, 43 shortages, 72, 434; see also food Sichynsky, Miroslav, 105 Siedlce, 89, 100-1 Sikorski, Col Wtadyslaw; and army, 123; death, 236; foreign policy, 227-45; and 'Front Morges', 192; in government, 109; in government-in-exile, 222-8, 240-2; interned, 124; and Pilsudski, 155, 157; and Stalin, 227-8, 246; and USA, 224, 232, 242-3 Silesia, Upper: education in, 182; Germans in, 164, 214, 283; industry in, 27-9, 134, 141-2, 287; Poles in, 4, 35; politics of, 134, 147, 168-9; population of, 28 Six Year Plan, 307, 311-22, 338-43, 352, 400 Skoropadsky, Pavlo, 124 Skrzyriski, Alexander, 157 Skulski, Leopold, 132, 137 Skwarczyriski, Gen Stanislaw, 196 SL see Peasant Party Slawek, Walery, 74, 80-1, 109, 160; in government, 173, 177, 186, 188—9, 196—7 Stawoj-Sktadkowski, Felicjan, 109, 163, 174, 190-1, 193, 195-6 Slonimski, Antoni, 324, 347, 361, 387, 389, 412 Smigly-Rydz, Edward, 109, 120; and army, 187, 200, 210-11; in government, 189-96, 199, 204 Smolka, Franciszek, 10-11, 13 SN-D see National Democratic Party Social Democracy of Kingdom of Poland (SDKP) x, 58-60 Social Democracy of Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL), x; in 19th century, 59-60; pre-WWI, 69, 78-82, 87, 90-2, 103-4, 107; in WWI, 119, 126-8 Social Democrats, Russian, 85, 89, 91, 103-4,107 Social Democrats, Ukrainian, 105 social services, 418-19, 441 socialism in 19th century, 21-2, 34, 46-61 Society of Friends of Learning, 30 Sosnowski, Gen Kazimierz: and army, 109, 222, 236, 246-8; foreign policy of, 261, 267, 275; and government-in-exile, 224-6; and independence, 107; as minister of war, 152; and resistance, 253, 273 Soviet-Czech treaty, 231, 245, 257-9 Soviet-Polish agreement, 225, 231 SP see Party of Labour spy trials, 304, 306 Spychalski, Marian, 239, 252, 262, 305, 352, 355, 36o> 375, 4°5 stability 1957-63, 367-83 Stablewski, Archbishop, 34, 93 Stalin: and Allies, 1, 226, 232, 249, 257-8, 265, 275-9, 281, 284; death, 330; and Germany, 205, 213-18; and KRN, 252, 262-4; Kruschev on, 345; and Poland, 219-20, 228-31, 260-4, 280, 295-6; and resistance, 203; and Sikorski, 227—8, 246 INDEX Stalin Works see Poznari Stalinism, 297, 299-343, 354 Stapiriski, Jan, 20, 25, 106 starvation see food State Commission for Economic Planning (PKPG), x, 311, 377 state farms, 399, 440 Steczkowski, Jan Kanty, 124-5 steel industry, 289, 315, 430; see also iron production Stojalowski, Father Stanislaw, 19-21, 24-5 Stpiczyhski, Wojciech, 186 strikes: agricultural, 89, 181, 192, 194-5; Catholics and, 436; in Czechoslovakia, 331; decline in, 102; frontier, 124; Galician, 94, 96; in Lodz, 46, 57, 78, 82, 89-90, 378, 410-11; in 1950's, 316; overprices, 404-5, 408-13, 435-6; railway, 84, 95, 156, 158, 177; school, 79, 93; in Second Republic, 156, 158, 190, 194; in USSR, 77-8, 84-5; in Warsaw, 78, 82, 84; see also December riots; demonstrations; insurrections students' demonstrations, 389-90 Sturgkh, Karl, 112 Strzelecki, Ryszard, 386, 405 suffrage, 24, 94-6, 122, 293; see also electoral system Supreme National Committee, (NKN), ix, 110—11, 114, 117—18, 120 Svyatopolk-Mirsky, Prince Piotr, 74-6, 79 'Swallow, Operation', 286 Swierczewski, Gen Karol, 264, 291 Swietopelk-Czetwertyriski, Prince S., 87 Swiezynski, Jozef, 126 Switalski, Kazimierz, 160, 171-2, 176, 179 Szczepanowski, Stanislaw, 18, 23 Szczeparislci, Prof Jan, 427-8 Szeptycki, Gen Stanislaw, 118, 130 Szlachcic, Franciszek, 385, 409, 412-13, 43* SZP see Service for the Victory of Poland Szujski, Jozef, 11, 13, 63 Szydlak, J., 410, 413, 432 Szyr, Eugeniusz, 312, 355 tariffs, 44-5, 157 Tatar, Gen Stanislaw, 261 taxation, 73, 128, 140, 156-7, 219, 374 Teachers' Rights and Duties, Charter of, 427; see also education Teachers' Union, 195, 361 Tehran meeting, 1, 258 Tejchma, J., 405, 410, 413, 442 'Tempest', 230, 234, 239, 255, 261, 264—9 Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (TKSSN), xi, 108 Tenth Department, 307-8 terrorism, 51-2, 291, 307 497 Teschen (Cieszyn), Duchy of, 4, 8, 134-5, 181, 183-4, 197, 203, 286 textile industry, 44-6, 82, 145, 410-11 Three Year Plan, 289, 306, 311-12 Thugutt, Stanislaw, 147, 157 TKSSN see Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties Tokarzewski, Gen Marian, 220-1 trade, 171, 199, 357, 420, 428, 438; see also exports; grain trade; imports; retail trade trade unions, 101, 301-2, 360-1, 371, 425; see also Central Council of Trade Unions Trans-Olza, 231, 286 travel visas, 434 trials, show, 304, 306, 337, 388-9 triloyalism and national revival, 1-64 Trubetskoy, Prince, 83 Trudoviki, 88-9 Truman, Harry, 282, 284, 296 Try buna L.udu, 344, 375 tsar see Alexander Tygodnik Pows^echny, 362, 374 Tyszka-Jogiches, Leon, 59, 103-4 Tyszkiewicz, Count Wladyslaw, 55, 76, 87 UB see Security Office Ukraine: concessions to, 24; language of, 200—1, 219; periodicals in, 15, 243; Poles in, 39-40; and politics, 14, 72, 167—9, I 75~6; problems with, 200-1; Republic of, 124; unification of, 243; university of, 163; and USSR, 212-14, 218-19, Ukrainians in Poland, 148, 163, 182, 184, 249, 444 Ukrainian Military Organization, 174 Ukrainian National Democratic Union (UNDO), 182, 200 underground see resistance UNDO see Ukrainian National Democratic Union unemployment: abolished, 384; decline of, 162-3; planned for, 402; rise of, 73, 157, 171, 178, 200; see also employment Union of Fighters for Freedom and Democracy (ZBoWiD), xi, 361, 386, 412 Union of Peasant Party, 20 Union of Polish Patriots (ZPP), xi, 251-3, 262—3 Union of Polish Socialists Abroad, 8-9 Union of Polish Students (ZSP), xi, 385, 427 Union of Polish Workers (ZRP), xi, 7-8 Union of Polish Youth (ZMP) (Zet), 54, 71, 310, 313, 327, 333, 338, 346-8, 360-3, 372 Union of Rural Youth (ZMW), xi, 361, 372, 385, 427 Union of Scouts (ZHP), xi, 361, 385, 427 Union of Socialist Youth (ZMS), xi, 361, 371-2, 385, 388, 427 INDEX United Nations, 357, 382, 429 United Peasant Party (ZSL), xi, 308, 310, 361-5, 371-5, 5, 398» U , 423-4 United States of America: and Gierek, 428, 438; Gomuika in, 382; and investment in Poland, 142, 377, 382; and Poland, 206, 245, 294, 396, 420, 438; and Sikorski, 224, 232, 242-3; and USSR, 226, 228, 243-4, 282, 296, 429; in WWI, 122 university: criticism in, 388-9; Jews in, 163, 181-2, 202; of Lwow, 10, 14-15, 24, 62—3, 105; of Lublin, 374; and marxism, 325-6, 329, 340-1; in 19th century, 10, 14-15, 62-3, 67; purges in, 177, 391; Ukrainian, 163; of Warsaw, 62, 67, 116, 388-9 Unszlicht, Jozef, 103 upper classes, 55, 70-3, 96, 128; see also class uprisings see insurrections urbanization, 46, 446-7 USSR: alliances with, 114, 184, 203, 206, 211, 225, 231, 245, 257-9, 74, 29^> army of, 5, 212-14; and Britain, 223, 226, 232, 243—4, 260; and Byelorussia, 182, 212-14, 218-19, 267-70, 286; and culture, 324; and Czechslovakia, 245, 392, 394; and Jews, 219, 330-1; language of, 39, 62, 219; and Mikolajczyk, 247, 259, 273-9; ^ n t o Poland, n o , 212-26 passim, 283, 355, 358, 380-3, 428-32; Polish Army in, 227, 252-6, 270, 275, 303; and Polish independence, 113-22, 136-8, 152; relations with Poles, 43, 114, 203, 225, 231, 240, 243, 249-53; resistance to, 235-8; Revolution, 121-2; strikes in, 77-8, 84-5; and Ukraine, 212-14, 218-19, 286; and USA, 226, 228, 243-4, 296, 429; and Yugoslavia, 336; see also Alexander II; Russians as minority; russification; Stalin; Stalinism; Yalta agreement Vilna, 36, 40, 135, 218, 268, 286-7 violence, 44, 57, 74, 156, 158, 192, 319, 404; see also massacres Volhynia, 136, 201, 266-7 Volunteer Reserve of Citizens' Militia (ORMO), x, 386, 389 voting see elections; electoral system vovoidships, 423-4, 454 wages; low, 156, 379; rising, 289, 311-12, 339, 377-8, 397, 408, 410, 417-19' 433-4, 4 i ; steady, 218, 384 Walecki, Henryk, (Horwitz), 80, 104 Waie.sa, L., 8, 460, 461,462 war: Arab-Israeli, 391; Crimean, 9, 37; First World, 97-138, 140; and industry, 73, 140; Russo-Japanese, 73-6; Second World, 208-79 Warsaw: attacked, 82, 138, 210-12, 273-5; Duchy of, 4; evacuation of, 115; ghetto, 216-17, 241; liberated, 280; in 1970's, 424; 'Positivism', 18, 47; railway, 4, 100; rallies in, 355; rebuilding of, 289; Reds, 11; university of, 62, 67, 116, 388-9; uprisings, 74, 78, 82, 84, 234-5, 241-2, 270-5; Treaty Organization, 332, 430; Workers' Committee, 79 Warski-Warszawski, Adolf, 59, 70, 103 Waryriski, Ludwik, 22, 49-52 Wasilewska, Wanda, 220, 251, 263, 265 Wasilewski, Leon, 60, 67 Wasilewski, Zygmunt, 131 West, relationships with, 119, 327, 367, 382, 420-1, 428-30 'Wici', 360, 372 Wielopolski, Marquis Alexander, 46 Wielopolski, Zygmunt, 46-7, 55, 144 'Wilk', Col., (Krzyzanowski), 267-8 Wilson, President, 125, 133 WIN see Freedom and Independence Group Witaszewski, 305, 360, 378 Witos, Wincenty, 106, 126-8, 147; arrest, 174; exile, 180; in government, 151, 156, 158, 180, 192, 198-9 Witte, Sergei, 84-6 Wodzicki family, 13 WOG see Great Economic Organizations Wojciechowski, Stanislaw, 64, 155, 158 Wola Ludu, 290, 292 women, 42, 96, 450 Work, Organic, 7, 9—10, 47; see also employment workers see industry workers' councils, 353, 433-4 working class, 101—2; see also class; peasants working conditions, 29, 45-6 writers, 361, 387; see also literature Writers' Union (ZLP), xi, 322-3, 347, 361, 390 Wrotnowski, Antoni, 48 Wysiouch, Boleslaw, 19—20, 24 Wyszyriski, Cardinal Stefan, 330, 362, 388, 395, 43 , 436 Yalta agreement, 281-2, 284 youth organizations, 63, 426-8 Yugoslavia, 228, 308, 336, 356, 380 Zagorski, K., 450 Zagorski, Gen Wladyslaw, 117, 166 Zaleski, August, 224-6 Zaleski, Filip, 23 Zambrowski, Roman, 309, 345, 356, 386 Zamoyski, Count Maurycy, 82, 87, 155 Zamoyski family, 46 Zaranie, 102 Zawadzki, Alexander, 264, 301, 311, 344, 375, 380 Zawieyski, Jerzy, 375, 390 INDEX ZBoWiD see Union of Fighters for Freedom and Democracy 'Zegota', Major, (Sztumberg-Rychter), 267 Zemlya i Volya, 49, Zet see Union of Polish Youth ZNP see Union of Scouts Ziemialkowski, Florian, 10-11, 14 Zionism, 153; see also Jews ZISPO see Poznari ZLP see Writers' Union ZMP see Union of Polish Youth ZMS see Union of Socialist Youth ZMW see Union of Rural Youth Znak group, 390 Zolkiewski, Stanislaw, 37, 392 ZPP see Union of Polish Patriots ZRP see Union of Polish Workers ZSL see United Peasant Party ZSP see Union of Polish Students ZWZ see Association of Armed Struggle Zyblikiewicz, Mikolaj, 17-18 Zycie Warszawy, 347, 443 Zyndram-Koscialkowski, Marian, 188 499 ... national revival Poland in the 1860's The Poland of today owes its frontiers to the discussions between the leaders of the USSR, Great Britain and the United States of America The shape of the new state... century upon the expansion of the grain trade, the lords of the manor and the great proprietors drew upon the labour of the peasants for cultivation of the demesnes The nobility looked to the market... not POLAND IN THE l86o's survive the defeat of Napoleon I Nevertheless, the semi-autonomous Kingdom of Poland, attached to Russia by the Treaty of Vienna of 1815, offered the possibility of a