The history of final vowels in english

The History of Final Vowels in English Topics in English Linguistics Editors Jan Svartvik Herman Wekker Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York The History of Final Vowels in English The Sound of Muting Donka Minkova Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York 1991 M o u t o n de Gruyter (formerly M o u t o n , The Hague) is a Division of Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin © Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the A N S I to ensure permanence and durability Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Minkova, D o n k a , 1944 — The history of final vowels in English : the sound of muting / D o n k a Minkova p cm — (Topics in English linguistics ; 4) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-89925-784-4 (alk paper) English language —Vowels I Title II Series PE1157.M5 1991 42Γ.5 —dc20 · 91-28082 CIP Die Deutsche Bibliothek — Cataloging in Publication Data Minkova, Donka: The history of final vowels in English : the sound of muting / D o n k a Minkova — Berlin ; New York : M o u t o n de Gruyter, 1991 (Topics in English linguistics ; 4) ISBN 3-11-012763-6 NE: G T © Copyright 1991 by Walter de Gruyter & Co., D-1000 Berlin 30 All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages N o part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Printing: Ratzlow-Druck, Berlin Binding: Lüderitz & Bauer, Berlin Printed in Germany Contents Preface ix Chapter Schwa in the history of English 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Problems involved in the present study Forces at play in schwa loss Remarks on method Analytical procedures Chapter More background: Accounts of schwa loss 2.1 Choice of sources 2.2 Lorenz Morsbach (1896): Mittelenglische Grammatik 2.3 Karl Luick (1921-1940): Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache 2.4 Richard Jordan: (1934/1968) Handbuch der mittelenglischen Grammatik 2.5 Wilhelm Horn/Martin Lehnert (1954): Laut und Leben Englische Lautgeschichte der neueren Zeit (1400 — 1950) 2.6 Karl Brunner (1962): Die englische Sprache, ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung Vols I, II 2.7 Joseph Wright and E M Wright (1923): An Elementary Middle English Grammar 2.8 Fernand Mossé (1949): Manuel de l'anglais du moyen âge 2.9 Jacek Fisiak (1970): A Short Grammar of Middle English 2.10 Peter Erdmann (1972): Tiefenphonologische Lautgeschichte der englischen Vokale 2.11 Summary Chapter Textual evidence 3.1 Principles and methods specific to the study of schwa loss in Middle English 3.2 Types of evidence 3.3 Graphically marked morpho-syntactic loss of -e 10 15 15 16 20 23 24 24 25 26 27 27 28 35 35 37 45 vi Contents 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Unetymological final -e Elision in hiatus Rhyme evidence Scribal errors, editorial corrections Graphically unmarked evidence Chapter Phonological aspects of schwa loss 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 The phonemic status of schwa in Middle English The Middle phonemic inventory Distribution Phonetic parameters Distinctive features Phonological correlates of schwa loss Some consequences Chapter Morphological aspects of schwa loss 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 The morpho-syntactic functions of schwa The morphologization of schwa loss Classification and ranking of factors for schwa loss Syntactic correlates Extralinguistic factors Hierarchy of factors within individual word classes Chapter Early schwa deletion as a prosodie phenomenon 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Early schwa loss data The shared properties of early schwa loss The rhythmic phrasing of early schwa deletion The Early Schwa Deletion Rule 55 62 69 71 75 87 87 91 104 106 109 114 125 125 133 134 140 146 149 155 155 158 159 162 Chapter Schwa preservation in Late Middle English as a prosodie phenomenon 171 7.1 Final -e in weak adjectival inflexions 7.2 The weak adjectives in Chaucer 7.3 The weak adjectives in non-Chaucerian Late Middle English 171 172 173 Contents 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 Accounts of adjectival schwa preservation The rhythmic nature of final -e The metrical structure of adjectival phrases The proposal reviewed: objections Conclusion vii 175 177 178 186 187 Bibliography 193 Index 217 Preface Schwa has always been the poor relation of the stressed vowels in English historical phonology The academic searchlights have been directed on the developments of the vowels in stressed position Most studies in the field make some reference to the changes of unstressed vowels, yet the supposedly predictable genesis and unidirectional fate of the ubiquitous schwa-type vowels have attracted very little attention Seen in a wider context, however, the reduction of unstressed vowels to schwa and its subsequent loss in final position has had a more p r o f o u n d effect on the phonology, prosody, and grammar of the language than any individual qualitative or quantitative change of the stressed vowels This book is an attempt to bring together traditional philological records and knowledge of the ways and means of schwa loss and reexamine them in relation to the entire language system The first three chapters of the book deal with the data base: how we know that unstressed vowels in final position were reduced and lost, what methods and resources can be used in this context, how we classify and interpret the various types of textual evidence Separating out poetic from non-poetic schwa loss, graphic f r o m inferred evidence, loss of nonmorphemic, root-final schwa f r o m loss of inflexional schwa, proves useful in establishing causes and consequences of the process on all levels Chapter addresses rarely asked questions a b o u t the synchronic status of schwa in Middle English An examination of the evidence for phonemic identification of the unstressed vowel in final position suggests that in terms of traditional phonemic analysis schwa has always been part of the phonemic inventory of English In Early Middle English there was a match between the underlying, or lexical, representation of schwa, and its surface realization Instances of early deletion are analysed as postlexical rules operating first within a narrow set of environments, and later across the board in word final position By the end of the Middle English period, after c 1400, schwa is disallowed as an underlying segment in absolutely final position except in a peripheral subset of markedly foreign borrowings Optional insertion rules operate in very specific lexical items and in some clearly defined prosodie contexts Chapter covers the morphological correlates of the change In Middle English as many as eighteen different grammatical functions can be associated with the morpheme represented by in writing This suggests that lack of morphological distinctiveness is a m a j o r factor in 206 Bibliography Makaev, Enver Akhmedovich & Elena S Kubryakova 1977 "Diachronicheskaya morfonologiya drevnyh germanskih yazykov" [Diachronic morphonology of the ancient Germanic languages] in: Istoriko-tipologiceskaya morfologiya germanskyh yazykov [Historical-typological morphology of the Germanic languages.] Moscow: Nauka 13-86 Malsh, Derry & Roseanne Fulcher "Tensing and syllabification in Middle English", 1975 Language 51.2: 302-314 Manczak, Witold 1980 "Laws of analogy", in: Fisiak (ed.), 283-289 Marchand, Hans The categories and types of present-day English word1969 formation A synchronic-diachronic approach München: C H Beck Martinet, Andre 1964 Elements of general linguistics, translated by Elisabeth Palmer, London: Faber and Faber Mcintosh, Angus 1956 'The analysis of written Middle English", in Roger Lass (ed.), 35-58 1963 "A new approach to Middle English dialectology", in Roger Lass (ed.), 392-404 McLaughlin, John C A graphemic-phonemic study of a Middle English 1963 manuscript The Hague: Mouton MED 1930Middle English Dictionary Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press Miller, Patricia D 1972 "Vowel neutralization and vowel reduction", in: Papers from the 8th Regional Meeting, Chicago Linguistic Society, 1972: 482-490 Millward, Celia M A biography of the English Language New York: Holt, 1989 Rinehart and Winston Minkoff, Marco English Historical Grammar Sofia: Nauka i izkustvo 1955 [Third edition 1972] [1972] Bibliography 207 Minkova, Donka 1978 1981 1982 1983 1984a 1984b 1985 1987 in press Moore, Samuel 1951 [1968] Morris, Richard 1867 1873 "Unstressed final -£ in the Ormulum", English Studies 1, Sofia University: 162-181 "Middle English Final -e from a phonemic point of view", in: Michael Davenport et al (eds.), 191-209 "The environment for open syllable lengthening in Middle English", Folia Linguistica Histórica III/l: 2958 "On the hierarchy of factors leading to schwa loss in Middle English", English Studies, 2, Sofia University: "Early Middle English metric elision and schwa deletion", in: English historical linguistics: Studies in development Sheffield: CECTAL conference papers series No 3, ed by Norman Blake & Charles Jones: 56-67 "On the hierarchy of factors causing schwa loss in ME", Neuphilologische Mitteilungen LXXX 4: 445-454 "Of rhyme and reason: Some foot-govemed quantity changes in English" In Papers from the 4th International Conference on English Historical Linguisticsx Amsterdam, 10-13 April 1985, ed by Rogo1 Eaton, Olga Fischer et al 163-79 "The prosodie character of early schwa deletion in English", in: Anna Giacalone Ramat et al (eds.) Papers from the 7th International Conference on Historical Linguistics Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins 445459 "Verse structure in the Middle English Genesis and E x o d u s " Forthcoming in Journal of English and Germanic Philology 1991 Historical Outlines of English Sounds and Inflections [Revised by Albert H Marckwardt, Ann Arbor, Michigan: George Wahr Publishing Co., 1968.] Old English Homilies EETS London: Oxford University Press The Story of Genesis and Exodus, An Early English Song, about A.D 1250, [Second and Revised edition.], EETS, London: Trubner & Co 208 Bibliography Morris, Richard & Walter W Skeat (eds.) 1898 Specimens of early English; with introduction, notes, and glossarial index vols Oxford: Clarendon Press Morsbach, Lorenz 1896 Mittelenglische Grammatik, Halle, Max Niemeyer 1913 Grammatisches und psychologisches Geschlecht im Englischen Berlin Moskal'skaya, Olga I 1977 "Tipologiya sistemy padezhei" [Typology of the case system] in: Istoriko-tipologiceskaya morfologiya germanskyh yazykov [Historical-typological morphology of the Germanic languages], Moscow: Nauka, 175-227 Mossé, Fernand 1952 Handbook of Middle English Translated by James A [1968] Walker [8th printing], 1983 Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press Moulton, William G The sounds of English and German Chicago: The 1962 University of Chicago Press OED The Oxford English Dictionary 12 vols 1933 Ogura, Mieko 1981 "Perception of disyllabic words in English and its implication for Middle English lengthening in open syllables", Project on Linguistic analysis University of California, Berkely, 1- 24 1987 Historical English phonology A lexical perspective Tokyo: Kenkyusha Ohlander, Solve 1976 Phonology, meaning, morphology On the role of semantic and morphological criteria in phonological analysis (Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis.) Goteborg, Sweden Ohsiek, Deborah "Heavy syllables and stress" in: Syllables and Segments, 1978 ed by Alan Bell & Joan Hooper, Amsterdam: North Holland, 35-45 Onions, Charles Talbut The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology Oxford: 1966 Oxford University Press Bibliography 209 Panton George A & David Donaldson (eds.) 1869 The gest hystorialeof the destruction of Troy EETS O.S.39 London: Truubner & Co Parkes, Malcolm Beckwith "On the presumed date and possible origin of the 1983 manuscript of the "Orrmulum": Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Juniusl", in Eric G Stanley and Douglas Gray (eds.), Five Hundred Years of Words and Sounds A Festschrift for Eric Dobson Cambridge: D S Brewer, 115-128 Paul, Hermann 1880 Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte Halle: Niemeyer Pearsall, Derek (ed.) Manuscripts and texts Editorial problems in Later 1987 Middle English literature Essays from the 1985 conference at the University of York Cambridge: D.S Brewer Peck, Russel A (ed.) 1980 Confessio amantis /John Gower Toronto; Buffalo: University of Toronto Press; in association with the Medieval Academy of America Penzl, Herbert 1957 "The evidence for phonemic changes" in: Roger Lass (ed.), 10-25 Philipp, M 1970 Phonologie de l'allemand Paris: Presses Universitaires de France Plotkin, Vul'f Yakovlevich 1972 The dynamics of the English phonological system The Hague: Mouton 1976 OnepK auaxpoHnnecKOR ΦΟΗΟΠΟΓΗΗ aHrnHñcKoro H3biKa [Outline of the diachronic phonology of the English language] Moscow: Nauka Polivanov, Evgenii Dmitrievich 1931 'Tfle nejKaT npnMHHbi H3biK0B0H 3bojiiouhh?" [1981] [Wherein lie the reasons for the evolution of language?] in: Berezin (ed.), 51-56 210 Bibliography Postal, Paul 1968 Poussa, Patricia 1982 Aspects of Phonological Theory New York: Harper "The evolution of Early Standard English: the creolization hypothesis", Studia Anglica Poznaniesia XIV: 6987 Preminger, Alex (ed.) 1974 The Princeton encylopedia of poetry and poetics Princeton: Princetion University Press Pulgram, Ernst 1961 "French fa/: statics and dynamics of linguistic subcodes", Lingua 10: 305-326 Quirk, Randolph & Charles Leslie Wrenn 1957 An Old English grammar New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc Rastorguyeva,Tatyana Adrianovna A history of English Moscow: Vyssaya skola 1983 Rennison, John 1980 "What is Schwa in Austrian German? The Case for Epenthesis, and its Consequences" in: Wolfgang Dressier (ed.), Phonologica 1980 Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft, 351-357 Reszkiewicz, Alfred 1973 A Diachronic grammar of Old English Warszawa: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe Rozental, Ditmar El'iasevich & Margarita A Telenkova 1976 CjlOBapb-CnpaBOIHHK JIHHrBHCTHieCKMX TepMHHOB [A reference dictionary of linguistic terms], 2nd edition, Moscow: Prosvescenye Samuels, Michael L "Chaucerian final - s", Notes and Queries, Dec 1972.4451972 449 1972a Linguistic evolution Cambridge: University Press 1987 "The status of the functional approach" in Explanations and Linguistic Change, ed by Willem Koopman et al 239-251, and 257-259 Sarrazin, Georg 1898 "Mittelenglische Vokaldehnung in offener Silbe und Streibergs Dehnungsgesetz", Archiv fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Literaturen 101: 65- 86 Bibliography 211 Schindler, Frank 1975 Fakroren phonetischer Performanz, Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik Bei-Hefte, Neue Folge No 14 Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Schlauch, Margaret 1959 The English Language in Modern Times since 1400 Warszawa: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe Selkirk, Elisabeth 1980 1984 "Prosodie domains in phonology: Sanskrit revisited"Juncture, ed by Mark Aronoff and Mary-Louise Kean 107-131 Stanford University: Anma Libri Phonology and Syntax: The Relation Between Sound and Structure Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press Seymour, Michael C (ed.) The Bodley Version of Mandeville's Travels EETS 253 1963 London: Oxford University Press Sievers, Eduard 1905 [1968] Simeonova, Rus ska Κ 1975 "Old Germanic metrics and Old English metrics" [Reprinted in: Jess B Bessinger Jr & Stanley J Kahrl (eds.), Essential Articles for the Study of Old English Poetry Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books,1968,267-289 HeMCKHfiT rJiaceH 3βχκ τ> H HeroBHre öhJirapcKH 3BYKOBH CbO TBeTCTBHfl Β CHCTeMä Ha HeyUapeHHre rjiacHH [The German vowel h/ and its Bulgarian vocalic counterparts in the system of unstressed vowels] [Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of Sofia.] Slipcenko, L.D "Castota fonemy i dlina slova" [Phoneme frequency and the length of words], Strukturnaya i matematiceskaya lingvistika 5: 104-110 Smimitski, Alexander E 1977 1951 "Vzaimootnosenie mezdu reduktsiey glasnyh ν istorii gramaticeskoy sistemy imeni ν germanskih yazykah" [The interplay of vowel reduction and the history of the grammatical system of the noun in the Germanic languages] Izvestiya AN SSR, OLYA, Tom X, Vypusk 2:184-198 212 Bibliography Smith, Lucy Tomlin (ed.) 1885 York Mystery Plays London: Russel and Russel [Reissued 1963] Smithers, Geoffrey Victor (ed.) 1952-1957 Kyng Alisaunder, EETS, 227, 237 London: Oxford University Press 1983 'The Scansion of Havelok and the Use of ME -en and -e in Havelok and by Chaucer", in: Douglas Gray and Eric G.Stanley (eds.) Middle English Studies Presented to Norman Davis in Honour of his Seventieth Birthday Oxford: Clarendon Press 195-235 Sommerstein, Alan 1977 Modern phonology London: Arnold Southworth, James Granville 1947 "Chaucer's final - e in rhyme", Ρ MLA LXII 4: Part I, 910-936 1948 "Chaucer's final - e in rhyme", PMLA LXIII Part II Stanley, Eric Gerald (ed.) 1960 The Owl and the Nightingale London: Thomas Nelson 1988 "Rhymes in English medieval verse: from Old English to Middle English" in: Edward D.Kennedy, Ronald Waldron & Joseph S Wittig (eds.), Medieval English Studies Presented to George Kane Wolfeboro, N.H.: D.S.Brewer, 19-55 Stockwell, Robert P 1961 "The Middle English 'long close' and 'long open' vowels", in: Roger Lass (ed.), 154-164 1952 Chaucerian graphemics and phonemics, A study in historical methodology, [Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of Virginia.] Stockwell, Robert P & Donka Minkova 1988a "The English vowel shift: problems of coherence and explanation", in: Dieter Kastovsky & Gero Bauer (eds.), 355-395 1988b "A rejoinder to Lass", in: Dieter Kastovsky & Gero Bauer (eds.), 411-419 Strang, Barbara 1962 Modern English Structure New York: St Martin's Press 1970 A History of English London: Methuen Bibliography 213 Stratmann, Francis Henry 1878-1891 Middle English Dictionary Oxford: Oxford University Press Sweet, Henry 1888 A History of English Sounds Oxford 1922 An Anglo-Saxon reader in prose and verse (9th edition.) Oxford: Clarendon Press 1875-6 "Words, logic, grammar", TPS 1875-6: 470-503 Tarlinskaya, Marina 1971 "Metr i ritm docoserovskogo rifmovanogo stiha" [Metre and rhythm of pre-Chaucerian rhymed verse] Voprosy yazykoznaniya, 1971, No 3: 73-88 1973 "The syllabic structure and meter of English verse from the 13th through the 19th c.", Language and Style 6: 249272 1976 English verse Theory and history The Hague: Mouton 1984 "Rhythm-morphology-syntax-rhythm", Style 18/1: 1-26 Tatlock, John S P & Arthur G Kennedy 1927 A concordance to the complete works of Geoffrey Chaucer and to the Romant of the Rose Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No 353 Thomason, Sarah G 1980 "Morphological instability, with and without language contact", in: Jacek Fisiak (ed.), 359-373 Tolkien, John Ronald Revel (ed.) 1962 The English Text of the Ancrene Wisse, edited from MS CCCC 402, EETS, London: Oxford University Press Topliff, Delores 1970 "Analysis of singular weak adjective inflection in Chaucer's works", Journal of English Linguistics 4: 78-90 Trubetzkoy, Nikolai Sergeevich 1929 "Sur la "Morphonologie", in: A Prague School reader in linguistics compiled by Joseph Vachek, Indiana: IUP, 1964,183-187 1939 Principles of phonology [1969] Translated by C Batltaxe, Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969 214 Bibliography Vachek, Josef 1959 1962 1964 1966 1976 van Draat, P Fijn 1912 "Notes on the quantitative correlations of vowels in the phonematic development of English", Melanges linguistique et de philologie F Mossé in memoriam, Paris: Didier 444-456 "On the interplay of external and internal factors in the development of language", Lingua 11:433-448 "On peripheral phonemes of Modern English" Brno Studies in English, Vol 4:7-111 (ed.) The Linguistic School of Prague: an introduction to its theory and practice IUP Selected Writings in English and General Linguistics The Hague: Mouton "Rhythm in English prose The adjective", Anglia XXXVI, Neue Folge XXIV: 1-59 Visser, Fredericus Theodoricus 1970 An Historical Syntax of the English Language In four volumes Leiden: E J Brill Wardale, Edith Elizabeth 1937 An introduction to Middle English London: K.Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co Ltd Weinreich, Uriel, Labov, William & Marvin Herzog 1968 "Empirical foundations for a theory of language change" in: Winfred P Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel.(eds.), Directions for Historical Linguistics, A Symposium Austin: University of Texas Press, 95-188 Welna, Jerzy 1978 A diachronic grammar of English Part One Phonology Warszawa: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe White, R.M (ed.) 1852 The Ormulum, Oxford: University Press Wieden, Wilfried 1982-1983 "Communicative aspects of vowel reduction in English speech", Wiener Beiträge zur Englischen Philologie 79 A yearbook of studies in English language and literature 1982/83: 79-88 Wiese, Richard 1986 "Schwa and the structure of words in German", Linguistics 24: 697-724 Bibliography 215 Wright, Joseph & Elizabeth M Wright 1923 An elementary Middle English grammar (2nd edition.) Oxford: University Press Wright, Thomas (ed.) 1856 Songs and carols from a manuscript in the British Museum of the fifteenth century London: T Richards Wurzel, Wolfgang 1980 "Ways of morphologizing phonological rules" in: Jacek Fisiak (ed.), 443-463 Wyld, Henry 1936 A history of modern colloquial English (3rd edition.) Oxford: University Press Yerkes, David 1982 Syntax and syle in Old English (Medieval and Rainessance Texts and Studies 5.) New York: Bingham ton Zirmunski, Viktor Maksimovich 1954 "Vnutrennye zakony razvitiya yazyka i problema gramaticeskoy analogii" [Internal laws of linguistic development and the problem of grammatical analogy] [1976] [Reprinted in: Mira Guchman& S.D Katznel'son (eds.), General and Germanic Linguistics Selected Works by V.M Zirmunski Leningrad: Nauka, 1976,26-60.] Zuravlev, Vladimir Konstantinovich 1977 "Pravilo Gavlika i mehanizm padeniya slavyanskyh redutsirovanyh", [Havlik's rule and the mechanism of the loss of the reduced vowels in Slavonic], Voprosy Yazykoznaniya 1977, No 6: 30-44 Zinder, Lev Rafailovich 1979 06maa tpoHermca [General phonetics.] (2nd edition.) Moscow: Vyssaya ¿kola Zinder, Lev Rafailovich & L.V Bondarko (eds.) 1980 Κ npoôneMbi H M e του U 3KcnepnMeHTanbH0-0HeTHHecKoro aHajiH3a p e w [Problems and methods of the experimental phonetic analysis of speech], Leningrad: University Press 216 Bibliography Zinder, Lev Rafailovich &Tatyana Stroyeva 1965 HcTopHtecKaa φοΗβτπκΛ HeMeuKoro H3buca [Historical Phonetics of the German Language] Moscow: Vyssaya skola Index A Adjective, 11,25, 38,48-51, 65, 78, 127-129, 131-132, 140, 149-150, 156,158,171-177,179-183,185187,188n.2,3,4,5,189n.6, n.10, 190n.l8, n.20, n.23,191n.24 disyllabic, 183 plural, 56 singular, 127,175 strong, 50-51,58,60,127,172, 178 weak, 19,54,127-129,138,162, 172-173,177-178,180,182 Advertís), 49,51-54,65,78,84n.26, 113,131-132,140,149-150, 152n.ll, 174,189n.l0 Adverbial, 17,48,102,131-132,140, 143 Allegro speech, 163 Alliteration, 42,66,75-76,84n.30 Allograph(s), 35-36, 82n.l0 Allomorph(y), 12n.l, 126, 129-132, 137-138,151n.3, n.4 Allophone, 6,12n.l, 88,95-100,102104,106,108,118n.l0,119n.l7, n.19,120n.21 Analogy, 4-5,7,11,12n.4,18,29,30, 32n2,44,56-57,60,126-127,131, 136,139,142,180 Apocope, 18,33n.8,88,130,177 Assonance, 42 Autosegment(al), 121n.23 Auxiliary, 184 Β Bilingualism, Borrowing, 14n.l0,29,110,163 (See also Loan) Boundary, 63,68,111,158,160, 168n.l5 Caesura, 75-76 Causation, 15,22,28,35,40,56,147, 164 Clitic, 62,111-112,129,153n.l7 clitic group, 160,168al3,163, 165,169n.l7, n.19 cliticization, 17,21,40,62-63, 111, 135,149,156,163,169n.l7 decliticization, 141,153n.l7 Constraint, 10,27,38,75,92,111, 123n.34,164-166,169n.l7 phonotactic, 68,111,165 Context, 5-7,19,23,26,33n.8,38, 54,71,73,92,94-95,107,112, 117n.8,122n.29,133-134,140, 144-145,152n.9,155,165,172 Contrast(ive), 27,106 graphemic 35 minimal (pairs) 7,108 phonemic/phonological, 5,35,36, 88,91,92,94,%, 99,101,102, 114,119n.l6,121n24,122n29 weak-strong 171 (See also Opposition) Creole 9,19,143,147-148 Creolization 9,14n.l0,34n.l5,147148 D Dialect, 9,20,24,35-36,52n.l4,55, 81n.2,90-91,98,114,119n.l7, n.18,121n.24,122n.30,129-130, 139,142,147-148,151n.4, 153n.l7,172,176,178 218 Index Midlands, 3,14η.10,18-19,2526,30,48,53,130,137,147, 151n.4,187 Northern, 3,18-19,22-26,30, 34n.ll,48,121n.24,130,137, 147,151n.4,168n.l2 Scottish, 18,25 Southern, 18-19,26,30,34n.l 1, 54,114,130 Declension, 125,138,151n.8 weak, 19,26,127-128,183-184 strong, 60,127-129,190n.23 Deletion, 4,6-7,19,27-30,4446,5455,58,60,63,83η.18,96,102103,105,107-109, 111, 113,116, 119n.l8,123n.34,125,131-133, 135,138,140,151n.8,155,159160,162-166,167n.l0,168n.l5, 169n.l7, n.19,171,179-180 Delinking, 121n.23 Dephonologization, 94 (See also Reanalysis) Digraph(s)36,59,98 Distinctiveness, 1,89,93,96,108, 136-137,141,149,159,176,186 formal, 52,136-140,143,149150,154n.23 functional, 91,136-139,149, 154n.23 Elision, 20-21,40,4345,54-56,58, 61-67,75-80,83n.l3, n.15,84n.34, 111-113,123n.34,155-156, 169n.l8,173-174,177,184, 190n.20 graphic, 44,49,156 in hiatos, 44,62,64-66,68,135, 154n.22,155 obligatory, 64,66,78,156 optional, 62 Emendation, 4041,71,73 Euphony, 55 Evidence, 3,8-9,18,21-22,26,28, 32n.2, n.4,34n.9,3845,49,52-55, 58,60,62-63,66,68-71,74,76-77, 84n.30,101,112-113,115, 119n.l8,123n.32,127,133,138, 141,153n.l4,n.l5,158,165-166, 167n.ll, 172-173,176-177 metrical, 24-25,4142 poetic, 41,75 scribal, 37,39,53 spelling, 1,17,102 textual, 4,19-20,25,29,35,37, 73,81,83n.l4,87,125,143,155, 171 Extralinguistic, 3,13n.9,16,29,137, 143,146,149 F Fluctuation, 43,4648,50,81n.5 Formula(ic),47,65,112,156 G Grapheme, 1,12n.l, 13n.6,35-36,49, 89,92,98,107,121n.24 Graph(ic), 22,35-36,37,39,49,52, 68-75,78-79,82n.l0,89,92,94, 98,112,156,158,167n.5 Hiatus, 21,23,30,33n.6,44,62,6465,67-68,101,102,110-111,113, 123n.34,132-135,154n.22,155156,159,165,169n.l7,18 Homonymy, 126 Homophony, 55,126,138 Index 219 Incongruity, 46-47,81n.3 Inflexion, 1-2,9-10,14η.10,17,19, 40,46,48,50-56,79,81n.5,89,97, 101,120n.21,122n.28,126-128, 130-132,134-135,141-145,147148,150n.2,151n.3,4,153n.l5, 20,159,171-175,182,184,186187,191n.24 leveling of, 5,38 weak, 166,171-2,177 Insertion, 7,40,102-103,107, 122n.28,133 unetymological, 18,56,60,67 Interlanguage, 9,34n.l5,147 L Loan(s), 20-22,29,113,122n.29 M Morphophoneme, 88,96,122n.28, a29,134 Ν Native, 9,20,22,26,29-30,34n.9,41, 49,53,75,110,113,164,167n.ll Neutralization, 1-2,5,18,28,89-90, 94-95,102,104,107,109,117n.3, 7,8,9,119n.l7,125-126,130, 133,135,138,144-145,159 Nouns, 2,11,25,38,46-49,51,53-57, 59,60,65,73,78-79,81n.6,83n.l3, 125-130,132,137-138,142,147, 149-150,151n.3,153n.7,20,165, 166n.2,171,174,176-177,184, 186,190n.l5,20 feminine, 39,57,59-60,84n25, 125 masculine, 57,83n.23,84n.25 neuter, 57,83n.23 Nunnation, 67-68 O Opposition, 1,6,34n.l4,60,89,9295,99-102,104-105,115,117n.8, 118n.ll,n.l2,119n.l6,n.l7,133, 151n.8,178,186 (See also Contrast) Ρ Paradigm(atic), 4-5,12η.4,27-29,37, 46,49-50,52,55,57,60-61,100, 102,116,126-128,130-133,136139,142,147,151η.3,4,182,184, 190η.23 Preposition(s), 17,24,46,51,65,79, 112,131,138,143-145,149, 153η.20,156,166η.2,182,184186,190η.15 Pronoun(s), 38,53-54,65,151η.5, 156,186 Prosodie, 3,17,21-23,28,30,34n.ll, 43,45,47,62-63,67-68,100,104, 107-108,111,113-114,117η.6, 120η.22,121η.23,122η.28,129130,132,134-135,148-149, 151η.3,155-156,159-160,164166,166η.2,171,176-178,180, 182,184,187-188,188η.3,4 boundary, 99 domain, 159-160,165,168η 14, 19 hierarchy, 160,165,169η.19 R Reanalysis, 7,153η.17 Reconstruction), 17,37,64,105 220 Index Reduction, 1-2,12n.4,17-18,21-24, 28-30,33n.7,8,82n.l0,83n.20, 88-90,96,109,112,117n.3,4,5,6, 7,9,119n.l8,120n.22,121n.23, 122n.27,126-128,132-134, 152n.l3,164-5,179 Redundant/Redundancy, 2,24,52,90, 107,118n.l2,137,142-143 Rhyme, 24,40,42,53-54,66,68-70, 75-76,84n.31,116,163-165 Rhythm, 29,41,55,65,79,98,112, 115,156n.4,158n.l0,169,177178,179n.9,179n.l0,180-181, 182n.l5,184-187 dysrhythmy, 180 euihythmy(ic), 99,180,182, 183n.l8,184,186-187 rhythmic alternation, 179, 182183 rhythmic function of -e , 177 rhythmic phrasing, 159 Scansion, 27,41-43,43n.4,75,78,80, 157n.5,158 Statistic(s), 46-48,56,83n.20, 105n.31,137n.l0,174 Syncope, 32n.4,33n.8,75-76,88,110, 113,167n.5,167n.l0,168n.l2, 190n.23 Syncretism, 19,25,52,102,138,142, 145 Τ Tachygraph(s), 36,41,73,98 V Verse, 22,24-25,4143,45,49,53, 155,158n.l0,164n.l8,166,175, 176n.6,177,183,185 Ζ Zero, 27,38-39,48,55-56,95,100102,102n28,104,126-127, 126n.3,132,137-139 .. .The History of Final Vowels in English Topics in English Linguistics Editors Jan Svartvik Herman Wekker Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York The History of Final Vowels in English The Sound of. .. within the guidelines of the A N S I to ensure permanence and durability Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Minkova, D o n k a , 1944 — The history of final vowels in English : the. .. fruitful in stimulating further research and in prompting alternative hypotheses In the history of schwa in English a certain degree of "functionality" has to be incorporated into the account of its