Forging democracy the history of the left in europe 1850 2000 geof eley

FORGING DEMOCRACY FORGING DEMOCRACY The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000 Geoff Eley 2002 Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sa˜o Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto and an associated company in Berlin Copyright ᭧ 2002 by Oxford University Press, Inc Published by Oxford University Press, Inc 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Eley, Geoff, 1949– Forging democracy : The history of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000 / Geoff Eley p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-19-503784-7; 0-19-504479-7 (pbk.) Communism—Europe—History Socialism—Europe—History Democracy—Europe—History Sex role—Europe—History I Title HX239 E44 2002 940.2'8—dc21 2001052397 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper For Anna and Sarah, who deserve a better world Preface b e t w e e n t h e l a t e r 1970s and early 1990s Europe’s political landscape was radically rearranged The 1989 revolutions removed the Eastern European socialist bloc, and the Soviet Union dissolved Through an equally drastic capitalist restructuring, Western Europe was transformed Whereas socialist parties recaptured government across Europe during the later 1990s, moreover, these were no longer the same socialist parties as before Profoundly deradicalized, they were separating rapidly from the political cultures and social histories that had sustained them during a previous century of struggle Communist parties, consistently the labor movements’ most militant wings, had almost entirely disappeared No one talked any longer of abolishing capitalism, of regulating its dysfunctions and excesses, or even of modifying its most egregiously destructive social effects For a decade after 1989, the space for imagining alternatives narrowed to virtually nothing But from another perspective new forces had been energizing the Left If labor movements rested on the proud and lasting achievements built from the outcomes of the Second World War but now being dismantled, younger generations rode the excitements of 1968 The synergy of student radicalism, countercultural exuberance, and industrial militancy jolted Europe’s political cultures into quite new directions Partly these new energies flowed through the existing parties, but partly they fashioned their own political space Feminism was certainly the most important of these emergent movements, forcing wholesale reappraisal of everything politics contained But radical ecology also arrived, linking grassroots activism, communitarian experiment, and extraparliamentary mobilization in unexpected ways By 1980, a remarkable transnational peace movement was getting off the ground A variety of alternative lifestyle movements captured many imaginations The first signs of a new and lasting political presence bringing these developments together, Green parties, appeared on the scene In the writings of historians, sociologists and social theorists, cultural critics, and political commentators of all kinds, as well as in the Left’s own variegated discourse, an enormous challenge to accustomed assumptions was generated during the last quarter of the twentieth century The crisis of socialism during the 1980s not only compelled the rethinking of the boundaries and meanings of the Left, the needs of democracy, and the very nature of politics itself but also forced historians into taking the same questions back to the past Contemporary feminism’s lasting if unfinished achievement, for example, has been to insist on the need to refashion our most basic understandings in the light of gender, the histories of sexuality, and all the specificities of women’s societal place More recently, inspired partly by the much longer salience of such questions in the United States and partly by practical explosions of racialized conflicts in the 1980s and 1990s, a similar examination of race and ethnicity has begun Many other facets of identity joined a growing profusion of invigorating political debates In the process, the earlier centrality of class, as both social history and political category, dissolved While class remained an unavoidable reality of social and political action for the Left in the twenty-first century, the earlier centering of politics around the traditional imagery of the male worker in industry had to be systematically rethought Conceived in one era, therefore, this book was completed in another I began writing in a Europe of labor movements and socialist parties, of strong public sectors and viable welfare states, and of class-centered politics and actually existing socialisms Though their original inspiration was flawed and the Soviet example was by then damaged almost beyond recall, Communist parties in the West remained carriers of a distinctive militancy In the public sphere, rhetorics of revolution, class consciousness, and socialist transformation still claimed a place With Socialists riding the democratic transitions triumphantly to power in Spain, Portugal, and Greece, Polish Solidarnosc tearing open the cobwebbed political cultures of Eastern Europe, and French Socialists forming their first postwar government, things seemed on the move The years 1979–81 were for socialists an encouraging and even an inspiring time This gap between optimism and its ending, between the organized strengths of an already formed tradition and the emergent potentials for its succession, is crucial to the purposes of my book I’ve written it to capture the drama of a still-continuing contemporary transition To so required both a detailed accounting of the past and a bold reconstruction of the present because both the achievements and the foreshortenings of the old remain vital to the shaping of the new Although the century after the 1860s claims the larger share of the book, accordingly, the lines of the later twentieth-century argument are always inscribed earlier on In that sense, I would argue, history can both impede the present and set it free Moreover, beginning in the 1860s, my account moves forward through a series of pan-European revolutionary conjunctures, from the settlements accompanying the two world wars through the dramas of 1968 to the latest restructuring of 1989–92 Ultimately, despite the endless complexities of detailed historiographical debate, the agonies of epistemology, and the excitements and frustrations of theory, historians can never escape the discipline’s abiding conundrum of continuity and change In some periods and circumstances, the given relationships, socially and politically, seem inert and fixed Culture signifies the predictable and overpowering reproduction of what “is.” It claims the verities of tradition and authorizes familiar futures from the repetitions of viii p re f ace a naturalized past (“what has always been the case”) Politics becomes the machinery of maintenance and routine The image of a different future becomes displaced into fantasy and easily dismissed The cracks and fissures are hard to find But at other times things fall apart The given ways no longer persuade The present loosens its grip Horizons shift History speeds up It becomes possible to see the fragments and outlines of a different way People shake off their uncertainties and hesitations; they throw aside their fears Very occasionally, usually in the midst of a wider societal crisis, the apparently unbudgeable structures of normal political life become shaken The expectations of a slow and unfolding habitual future get unlocked Still more occasionally, collective agency materializes, sometimes explosively and with violent results When this happens, the formal institutional worlds of politics in a nation or a city and the many mundane worlds of the private, the personal, and the everyday move together They occupy the same time The present begins to move These are times of extraordinary possibility and hope New horizons shimmer History’s continuum shatters When the revolutionary crisis recedes, little stays the same as before Historians argue endlessly over the balance—between contingency and structure, process and event, agency and determination, between the exact nature of the revolutionary rupture and the reach of the longer running pasts But both by the thoroughness of their destructive energy and by the power of their imaginative release, revolutionary crises replenish the future The relationship of the lasting institutional changes to the revolutionaries’ willed desires will always be complex William Morris famously expressed this in A Dream of John Ball: “I pondered how [people] fight and lose the battle, and the thing that they fought for comes about in spite of their defeat, and when it comes turns out not to be what they meant, and other [people] have to fight for what they meant under another name.”1 Since the 1930s revolutionary sensibility has become ever more tragic in this way, memorably captured in Walter Benjamin’s image of the angel of history, with its back to the future, unable “to stay, awaken the dead, and make whole what has been smashed” and compelled instead to gaze “fixedly” on the seamless catastrophe of the past, piling “wreckage upon wreckage” at its feet The angel is propelled into an unseeable future by an unstoppable force, “a storm blowing from Paradise.” “This storm,” Benjamin reflects, “is what we call progress.”2 Revolutions no longer receive a good press The calamity of Stalinism and the ignominious demise of the Soviet Union have been allowed to erase almost entirely the Russian Revolution’s emancipatory effects Stalinism’s ferocities during the 1930s and 1940s did irremediable damage to Communism’s ethical credibility, it should be immediately acknowledged, enabling associative allegations against all other versions of socialist ideas Justified reminders of capitalism’s destructive and genocidal consequences for the world, both inside Europe and without, can never dispose of those preface ix Wollen, Peter “Modern Times: Cinema/Americanism/the Robot.” In Raiding the Icebox: Reflections on Twentieth-Century Culture Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1993 ——— “The Situationist International: On the Passage of a Few People through a Rather Brief Period of Time.” In Raiding the Icebox: Reflections on Twentieth-Century Culture Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1993 Wood, Elizabeth A The Baba and the Comrade: Gender and Politics in Revolutionary Russia Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1997 ——— “Prostitution Unbound: Representations of Political and Sexual Anxieties in Post-Revolutionary Russia.” In Jane Costlow, Stephanie Sandler, and Judith Vowles, eds., Sexuality and the Body in Russian Culture Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993 Wood, Neal Communism and British Intellectuals London: Gollancz, 1959 Woodall, Jean, ed Policy and Politics in Contemporary Poland: Reform, Failure and Crisis London: Pinter, 1982 Woodcock, George Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements Cleveland: Meridian Books, 1962 Woollacott, Angela On Her Their Lives Depend: Munitions Workers in the Great War Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994 Wrigley, Chris Lloyd George and the Challenge of Labour: The Post-War Coalition 1918–1922 Hemel Hempstead, England: Wheatsheaf, 1990 ——— “The State and the Challenge of Labour in Britain 1917–1920.” In Chris Wrigley, ed., Challenges of Labour: Central and Western Europe 1917–1920 London: Routledge, 1993 Wuănderich, Volker Arbeiterbewegung und Selbstverwaltung Wuppertal, Germany: Hammer, 1980 Wyman, Mark DPs: Europe’s Displaced Persons, 1945–1951 Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998 Wyncoll, Peter The Nottingham Labour Movement 1880–1939 London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1985 Yeo, Eileen “Culture and Constraint in Working-Class Movements, 1830–1855.” In Eileen Yeo and Stephen Yeo, eds., Popular Culture and Class Conflict 1590– 1914: Explorations in the History of Labour and Leisure Brighton England: Harvester, 1981 ——— “Some Practices and Problems of Chartist Democracy.” In James Epstein and Dorothy Thompson, eds., The Chartist Experience: Studies in WorkingClass Radicalism and Culture, 1830–1860 London: Macmillan, 1982 Yeo, Stephen “A New Life: The Religion of Socialism in Britain, 1883–1896.” History Workshop Journal (autumn 1977): 5–56 Young, Brigitte Triumph of the Fatherland: German Unification and the Marginalization of Women Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999 Young, John W Britain, France and the Unity of Europe 1945–51 Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1984 ——— France, the Cold War and the Western Alliance, 1944–49 Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1990 Zappi, Elda Gentili If Eight Hours Seem Too Few: Mobilization of Women Workers in the Italian Rice Fields Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991 684 bi b l i o g raphy Zarnowska, Anna “Religion and Politics: Polish Workers c.1900.” Social History 16 (1991): 299–316 Zhelitski, Bela “Postwar Hungary, 1944–1946.” In Norman M Naimark and Leonid Gibianskii, eds., The Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 1944–1949 Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997 Zinner, Paul, ed National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe New York: Columbia University Press, 1986 Zsuffa, Joseph Be´la Bala´zs: The Man and the Artist Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987 Zuege, Alan “The Chimera of the Third Way.” In Leo Panitch and Colin Leys, eds., Socialist Register 2000: Necessary and Unnecessary Utopias New York: Monthly Review Press, 1999 b ib l io g r a p h y 685 Index abortion, 375–76 Acheson, Dean, 300 Adenauer, Konrad, 417 Adler, Friedrich, 178, 179, 279 Adler, Victor, 42, 89, 92 Adorno, Theodor, 259 Agnelli, Giovanni, 415 Aguilera, Gonzalo de, 276 Aksel’rod, Pavel, 129 Albertini, Ave, 323 Aldermaston March, 356 Alexander, Bill, 494 Alexander, Sally, 369 Algeria, 335 Americanization, 353 anarchism, 26, 64, 87, 95–97, 98 Andreotti, Giulio, 412, 487 Andropov, Iurii, 437 Antal, Frigyes, 208 “April Theses” (Lenin), 141 artisans See skilled workers arts, 201–19 Asia, 299, 301 association, 29 Atlee, Clement, 303 Austria broadening discontent, 138 economic reforms, 236 multinational movement, 92, 93 Red Vienna, 212–13, 222, 237 and Serbia, 124–25 and social democracy, 226 women in, 106, 198 authoritarianism, 242 autonomists, 459–60 Azana, Manuel, 271–72 Baader, Andreas, 420 Babeuf, Gracchus, 25 Badajoz (Spain), 276 Badoglio, Pietro, 284, 285 Bakunin, Michael, 26, 35, 39, 95, 96 Bala´zs, Bela, 207, 208, 209 Balcerowicz, Leszek, 450, 451 Baldesi Project, 163 Barcelona (Spain), 273, 274, 423–24 Barnes, George, 193 Barth, Emil, 166 Basnett, David, 393 Basso, Lelio, 285 Battersby, Audrey, 368 Bauer, Otto, 213, 266, 410 Bebel, August, 42, 45, 87, 90, 99, 100, 115, 258 Belgium, 68, 101, 239–40, 241 Bell, Tom, 252 Bellamy, Edward, 46, 115 Benes, Edward, 285 Benjamin, Walter, 206 Benn, Tony, 462, 463, 468 Bergson, Henri, 211 Beria, Lavrenty, 329 Berlin (Ger.), 202, 300, 330 Berlinguer, Enrico, 409–12, 415, 489, 494 Berlusconi, Silvio, 487 Bermondsey (London), 337–38 Bernstein, Eduard, 42, 90, 91 Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation, 341 Bevin, Ernest, 303, 316, 319–20 Bibo´, Istva´n, 306 Bickerstaffe, Rodney, 393 Bierut, Boleslaw, 331 blacks, 473 Blanc, Louis, 29 Blanqui, Auguste, 25, 36, 87 Blanquism, 26, 31, 37, 39 Blatchford, Robert, 14 Blok, Alexander, 203 Blum, Le´on, 268, 269–70, 271, 321 Bogdanov, Aleksander, 204 Bolshevism, 123, 152 and culture, 204–7 and revolution, 145–50, 223–25 and women, 188 and Zimmerwald movement, 129, 130 Bondfield, Margaret, 195 Bonomi, Ivanoe, 285 Bordiga, Amadeo, 171, 254 Bordoni, Gaetano, 354 Boărner, Holger, 422 Bourne, Joan, 495–96 Bowlby, John, 326 Boyer, Miguel, 426 Brandler, Heinrich, 250 Brandt, Willy, 418, 419 Branting, Hjalmar, 154 687 Brezhnev, Leonid, 358, 359, 437, 439 Britain See Great Britain British Social Democratic Federation (SDF), 13–15 Brousse, Paul, 86 Browne, Stella, 190 Buchez, Philippe, 28 Bulgaria, 445, 451 Buonarroti, Filipo, 25 Buozzi, Bruno, 134 Burns, John, 14 Burrows, Herbert, 14 Bush, George, 444 Butler, R.A., 387 Cabet, E´tienne, 28–29, 31, 36 Caetano, Marcelo, 409 Callaghan, James, 337, 388, 392 Capital (Marx), 35, 36, 37, 38, 42, 43, 45 capitalism Bernstein on, 90 and class consciousness, 50 and democracy, 301–4 and early industry, 18–20, 49–50, 60 Keynesian, 316, 317, 318, 319 and Marx, 37 and social democracy, 316–17 capitalist stabilities, 235–48 Carnot, Sadi, 96 Carpenter, Edward, 99, 115 Carrillo, Santiago, 409, 411, 415, 423 Castro, Fidel, 341 Ceausescu, Nicolae, 446 Cernı´k, Oldrich, 357, 359, 360 Chamberlain, Neville, 280 Chartism, 19, 22, 28, 32, 34, 53, 54 Chernenko, Konstantin, 437 Chernobyl (Soviet Union), 438 Chiaromonte, Geraldo, 379 Chile, 409 Christianson, Aileen, 369 Churchill, Winston, 158, 283, 299, 308 Cı´sar, Cestmı´r, 357 Clarion (British newspaper), 14 class, 39, 50, 52, 80, 88 as analytic category, 394 consciousness, 50, 77, 81, 93 and identity, 464 loosening of affiliations, 399–402 political dimension, 395 voting, 401 See also working class Class Struggle, The (Kautsky), 89 Clementis, Vladimir, 309 Cocchi, Romano, 279 Cohn-Bendit, Daniel, 343, 345, 346, 348– 49, 351, 352 688 index Cold War, 288, 298, 301–4, 307, 311, 313, 315, 327, 329, 429 collectivism, 312, 481 colonialism See imperialism Cominform, 300, 307–8 Comintern, 182, 183, 252, 256–57, 263– 64, 266–67, 275, 281, 282, 284, 308 See also Second Comintern Congress Communism, 9, 180, 250 Cold War, 288, 298, 301–4, 307, 311, 313, 315, 327, 329, 429 containment, 300 crisis of, 333–35, 500 in Czechoslovakia, 254, 285, 493–94 demonizing of, 301 in Eastern Europe, 306–11, 499 end of, 429–56, 483 Eurocommunism, 408–17 in France, 350, 413–14, 416 future of reform, 454–55 in Great Britain, 252, 256, 494–95 in Italy, 291–95, 415, 491 and Left, 360–63 left-wing, 152–64 “Little Moscows,” 256 national, 255–57, 283–87 and Nazi-Soviet Pact, 279–83 in Poland, 433–34 and Popular Front, 263–67 post-Second World War, 290–98 revolutions of 1989, 443–46 in Second World War, 278–89 shaping tradition, 253–55 and social democracy, 225–29, 499 in Soviet Union, 249–53, 430 split with socialism, 121, 124 and women, 188–92 Communist International, 176–84, 249, 250 Communist Manifesto (Marx), 36, 43 Communist parties, 176–84, 407, 452–53 conflict, and democracy, constitutional states, 220–29, 239–41, 447 consumerism, 187–88, 353–54 cooperation, 27, 29 Cooper, Selina, 104 Cornforth, Maurice, 281 corporatism, 241–45, 247, 316–17, 319, 387–90, 396 council communism, 162 counterculture, 459–60 Cousins, Frank, 389 Cox, Dora, 495 Cox, Idris, 495 craftsmen, 19, 52–54 Craxi, Bettino, 487 Croce, Benedetto, 211 Crosland, Anthony, 317 Cuba, 341 culture, 201–19 Cunhal, Alvaro, 409 Cyprus, 335 Czechoslovakia Communism in, 254, 285, 307, 310, 493–94 economy, 450, 451 feminism in, 106 multinational movement, 92, 93 Prague Spring, 342, 357–60, 363, 493, 499 revolution of 1989, 445–46 in Second World War, 278 socialists in new nationalist framework, 159–60 Soviet invasion, 358–63, 408, 431, 435 D’Alema, Massimo, 489 Darwin, Charles, 45 David, Eduard, 126, 166 Davison, Emily Wilding, 103 De Gaulle, Charles, 284, 344–46, 348– 50, 363, 486 deindustrialization, 386–87, 399 Delmar, Rosalind, 368 de Man, Hendrik, 239, 240 democracy broadening boundaries of, 220–29 and capitalism, 301–4 definitions of, 3–4, 22 early fronts, 85–108 in Eastern Europe, 304–7 economics of, 21, 238 in Europe, 3–12, 447 in Italy, 409–10 Marx on, 40 in Poland, 431–37 radical, 18–19, 111, 295–98 remaking, 405–28 and social history, 20 socialist parties as torchbearers, 109 strong drives for, 116 transnational dimension, 4–5 visions of, 18–20 and women, 22–24 See also social democracy Denmark, 67, 68, 377, 460 Derossi, Laura, 354 dictatorship, 305 Dimitrov, Georgii, 263, 264–65, 281, 284, 310 Dini, Lamberto, 488 Dittmann, Wilhelm, 166 Dohnanyi, Klaus von, 422 Dongas Tribe, 477 Dubcek, Alexander, 342, 357–60, 445, 446 Duclos, Jacques, 282 Dutschke, Rudi, 343, 364, 418 Dutt, Rajani Palme, 282 dyarchy, 155, 156 Eastern Europe Communist bloodletting in, 309–10 economy, 449–54 industrial unrest, 330 politics, 305, 439, 492–93 post-Communist revolutions, 443–49, 499 prospects of democracy, 304–7 Soviet-style centralism, 429 Stalinization of people’s democracies, 307–11 women in, 324 See also specific countries Ebert, Friedrich, 165, 166, 167 economics, 21, 38, 236–38, 283, 449–54 Edmunds, John, 393 Egypt, 332 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 332 Engels, Friedrich, 27, 33–38, 40–42, 45, 62 England See Great Britain Ensslin, Gudrun, 420 entertainment, 187, 215–17 Erfurt Program, 89, 99 Eurocommunism, 408–17 “Eurocommunism” and the State (Carrillo), 411 Europe broadening of discontent, 135–38 democracy in, 3–12, 447 early democratic fronts, 85–108 feminism in, 196–97 First International, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 62 geography of socialism, 64–65 industrialization and working class, 47– 61 Left in, 220–29, 467–68 parliamentary government in, 66–69 revolutionary circumstances in, 120– 21, 153–60 rural areas, 94, 385 Second International, 86–93 trade unionism in, 70–74 See also Eastern Europe; Western Europe; specific countries evolution, 45 Exodus Collective, 479–81 extraparliamentary movements, 500 in d e x 689 family, 30, 54–56, 102, 186–87, 194, 218, 312–13 fascism, 242, 245, 246, 261, 266, 280, 288, 495, 499 Female Eunuch (Greer), 368 feminism in Czechoslovakia, 106 early attempts, 30 in Great Britain, 103–5, 106, 195–97, 368–75 and labor, 322 post-1960, 24, 313, 326, 366–83 of pre-1914 labor movements, 100 radical, 472 social, 187 and socialism, 99, 112–13 Women’s Liberation Movement, 367– 81, 461 between world wars, 195–98 See also women; women’s suffrage Fernbach, David, 354 Ferri, Enrico, 45 Fiaschi, Goliardo, 494 films See movies First International, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 62, 95 First World War, 118, 121, 123–38, 186, 192, 209, 499 Fischer, Ruth, 251 Fiszbach, Tadeusz, 434 Fogarasi, Be´la, 208 Foot, Michael, 337, 463 Ford, Henry, 199 “Forums,” 448–49 Fourier, Franc¸ois-Charles, 27–28, 29, 30 France Communism in, 350, 413–14, 416 labor in, 53, 69, 268–69, 270 Left in, 32 moves toward unity, 263, 284 politics in, 486–87 Popular Front, 268–70 postwar, 290–91 in Second World War, 284 socialism in, 29, 64 social reforms in, 87–88, 89 student protests (1968), 343–53 Trotskyism, 458 Vichy regime, 282 women in, 190, 321, 379 Franco, Francisco, 422, 423 Frank, Ludwig, 126 Frankfurt School, 259, 362 Franko, Ivan, 95 French Revolution, 5, 17, 18, 25 From Trotsky to Tito (Klugman), 309 690 index Gaitskell, Hugh, 387 Galicia (Habsburg Empire), 95 Gallacher, William, 280 Gallifet, Gaston, 87 Geismar, Alain, 345, 346 generation gap, 354–55, 458 Gens, Jacob, 231–32 George, Henry, 46 George V (King of England), 157 German Communist Party (KPD), 190– 92, 250–52, 257, 261–262 German Social Democratic Party (SPD), 59, 67, 83, 262 conflicts in, 116 and culture, 213–15, 216, 217 and economy, 238–39, 317 and First International, 39 and First World War, 125, 126, 128, 12930, 132, 135 formation, 7980 in Goăttingen, 82 as main governing party, 418–19 and Marxism, 42, 44–45, 68 peasant-based strategy, 93, 94 plurality of outlooks, 43 as protector of working-class family, 194 in Remscheid and Hamborn, 57 revisionism, 417 and Second International, 86, 88, 91 and Social Democratic Republic, 165– 69 as strongest socialist party, 89–90 and women, 99, 100, 102, 200, 313 Germany arts and intellectuals in, 208–11, 213– 16 broadening discontent in, 136, 137, 138 East German Uprising, 330 economy, 237, 238–39, 450 First World War, 125–38, 158 labor in, 70–71, 73–74, 76–78, 119, 161–64, 167 Nazi-Soviet Pact, 279–83 postwar, 297 revolutionary turbulence, 165–69, 172– 75 rural areas, 93–95 and social democracy, 225–26 socialist subculture, 79–80 suffrage in, 67 unification, 5, 38, 67 women in, 99, 190–92, 193 working class in, 56–57, 59 See also German Social Democratic Party; Nazism; West Germany Geroă, Ernoă, 332 Gierek, Edward, 431, 432 Gladstone, William Ewart, 31 glasnost, 438 globalization, 501, 502 Glotz, Peter, 467–68, 482 Goegg, Marie, 107 Goldet, He´le`ne, 345 Gomulka, Vladislav, 309, 310, 331, 332, 431 Gonzalez, Felipe, 423, 425–27 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 437–43, 444, 451, 454, 455, 483, 484, 500 Gormley, Joe, 390 Gorz, Andre, 403 Goăttingen (Ger.), 82 Gottwald, Klement, 254, 307, 309 Gramsci, Antonio, 162, 171, 254, 255, 266, 267, 323, 491 cultural and educational initiatives, 211, 214, 215, 217 on Lenin, 152 and Marxism, 258–59 on sexuality, 199 on women’s issues, 189 Grand Alliance, 283–84, 288 Gray, Mary, 15 Gray, Willie, 15 Great Britain artisans in, 19 Chartism, 19, 22, 28, 32, 34, 53, 54 and Cold War, 303 Communism in, 252, 256, 494–95 deindustrialization, 386–87 “Do-It-Yourself” politics, 476–81 egalitarianism, 312 homosexuality in, 474 industrialization in, 19, 51 labor in, 53, 97, 101–2, 133–34, 157– 58, 387–94, 465–66 Labour Party, 244, 295–96, 337–38, 461–64, 474 Lanchester case, 13–15 Left in, 462–67 liberalism in, 67 nationalization in, 295–96 New Left, 355–56 preconditions for capitalist industrialization, 49 socialism in, 13–15, 99, 319–20 student protests (1968), 342 trade unionism in, 71, 72, 101–2 Trotskyism, 458 women in, 101–7, 189–90, 192, 194– 97, 323, 368–75 working class in, 59 Great Scourge and How to End It, The (Pankhurst), 105 Greece, 286, 291, 302, 310, 409 Green parties, 421–22, 453, 468, 484– 86, 500 Greer, Germaine, 368 Grimm, Robert, 128 Groener, Wilhelm, 167 Grosz, George, 209, 211 Gro´sz, Karoly, 444 Guesde, Jules, 86, 87, 88, 89, 127 Guevara, Ernesto Che, 341 Gullo, Fausto, 292 Gurney, Jason, 276 Gysi, Gregor, 452 Haase, Hugo, 125, 166 Haase, Klara, 100 Hall, Stuart, 335, 362, 491 Hamborn (Ger.), 56–57 Hammesfahr, Gottlieb, 78 Hansson, Per Albin, 318, 325 Hardie, Keir, 14, 323 Harding, Thomas, 479 Havel, Va´clav, 445–46, 448 Heartfield, John, 209 Hewitt, Patricia, 338 Hilferding, Rudolf, 91, 237, 238 Hitler, Adolf, 275, 278, 279, 280 Hoălz, Max, 11920 homosexuality, 327, 33738, 472, 47376 Honecker, Erich, 444, 445 Horkheimer, Max, 259 Horovitz, Michael, 356 Hoxha, Enver, 309 Hue´, Otto, 76–77 Hungary Communism in, 306 Communist purges in, 309, 310 difference from Russia, 307 exodus to West Germany, 444 intellectuals and arts, 207–8 1956 uprising, 331–32 Soviet invasion of, 333, 334, 335, 362 Soviet Republic, 155 women in, 107–8 Husa´k, Gustav, 360, 446 Icarian movement, 28, 36 identity, 464, 472–76 Illyes, Gyula, 306 imperialism, 91, 112, 299, 301, 335 independent mass party of labor, 39 individualism, 21 industrialization British deindustrialization, 386–87 early, 19 in d e x 691 industrialization (continued ) and making of working class, 47–61 militant, 117 and skilled workers, 52–54 Soviet, 430 unevenness of, 48, 51 and women, 54–56 Industrial Syndicalist Education League, 97 Ingrao, Pietro, 411 insurrection, 25–26 intelligentsia, 207–10 International Brigades, 276 International Working Men’s Association See First International Iotti, Nilde, 494 Ireland, 381 Isherwood, Christopher, 202 Israel, 332 Italian Socialist Party (PSI), 88–89, 98, 116, 170–74 Italy anarchists in, 64 arts in, 211 broadening discontent, 136, 137 Communism in, 291–95, 415, 491 democracy in, 409–10 labor in, 72, 134, 163, 302–3 politics, 458–59, 487–89 revolutionary turbulence, 169–75 in Second World War, 284–85 socialism in, 45, 65 social reforms in, 88–89 student protests (1968), 342 unification, 5, 38 women in, 321–22, 378, 379 Jackson, Tommy, 252 Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 433, 434, 444 Jaure`s, Jean, 21, 86, 87–88, 89, 90, 126, 263 Jeffreys, Sheila, 373 Jenkins, Glenn, 480 Jenkins, Roy, 463 Jews, 304, 310–11 Jogiches, Leo, 114 John Paul II (Pope), 432 Jones, Jack, 388, 389, 471 Jospin, Lionel, 487 Juan Carlos (King of Spain), 422, 423 Julia´n, Narciso, 273 July Days, 146 Ka´da´r, Janos, 332, 334 Kahan, Barbara, 496 Kamenev, Lev, 146, 205, 249, 280 Kania, Stanislaw, 432, 434 692 index Kapp Putsch, 119, 120, 169, 227 Karolyi, Michael, 155 Kassak, Lajos, 207 Katayama, Sen, 86 Kautsky, Karl, 42, 45, 78, 88–91, 93–95, 99, 110, 114, 179, 235, 239 Kennan, George F., 294 Kerensky, Alexander, 125 Keynesianism, 316, 317–18, 319, 389, 396–97, 453, 481, 501 Keyworth, Florence, 323 Khrushchev, Nikita, 329, 330–31, 333, 362, 439, 441, 455 Kienthal international conference, 128, 129, 130 Kiesinger, Kurt Georg, 418 Kinnock, Neil, 458, 463 Kissinger, Henry, 410 Klaus, Va´clav, 450, 451, 493 Klugman, Jack, 309 Kobitsch-Meyer, Herbert, 120 Koedt, Anne, 370 Kohl, Helmut, 448 Kohout, Pavel, 358 Kollontai, Aleksandra, 187, 188, 189 Konrad, Gyoărgy, 447 Kornilov rising, 141, 142 Korsch, Karl, 258–59 Kossuth, Lajos, 111 Kostov, Trajco, 309, 310 Kovner, Abba, 231, 232 KPD See German Communist Party Krasnov, Petr, 150 Kravchuk, Leonid, 442 Krenz, Egon, 445 Kriegel, Frantisek, 357, 359, 360 Kropotkin, Peter, 95 Kuliscioff, Anna, 114 Kun, Bela, 155 Kuron, Jacek, 434 labor bifurcation with industry, 45 in Europe, 38 expansion of, 74–79 in France, 53, 69, 268–69, 270 in Germany, 119, 161–64 in Great Britain, 53, 97, 101, 157–58, 387–94, 465–66 in Italy, 72, 134, 163, 302–3 Marx on, 37 and national economies, 243 nineteenth-century, 31 in Poland, 431–37 politics of, 384–404 pre-1914 values, 44 radicalization of, 131–35 rise of, 62–84 and skilled workers, 52–53 in Spain, 424 in Western Europe, 312 and women, 22–23, 100–102, 322, 324–25 workers’ councils, 160–64 See also trade unions; working class Labor and Socialist International (LSI), 264, 279 Labour Party (G.B.), 244, 295–96, 337– 38, 461–64, 474 Lafontaine, Oskar, 467 Lama, Luciano, 412, 415 Lanchester case (Great Britain), 13–15 Lansbury, George, 15 Largo Caballero, Francisco, 272–74, 275 Laval, Pierre, 268 Lawrence, Susan, 195 Left and Communism, 360–63 contemporary, 471 in culture, 201–19 definition of, 17 in Eastern Europe, 305 in Europe, 220–29, 467–68 future of, 364, 464–67 in Great Britain, 462–67 and liberalism, 30 “loony Left” syndrome, 338 and Marxism, 33–45 of parliament and people, 467–69 post-Second World War, 406 radicalizing, 116 regrouping during First World War, 127–31 remaking, 483–89 and Russian Revolution, 123 and social democracy, 110–11 and socialism, 6–9, 407 in Spain, 423, 425 and women, 185–200, 378–81 Legien, Karl, 134 Lenin, Vladimir, 91, 142, 236, 249, 253 “April Theses,” 141 criteria for affiliation with Comintern, 182 Gramsci on, 152 and power of workers, 146–49 and Proletkult, 205 on Soviet benefits for women, 188 and Third International, 176–77, 179 and Vienna Union, 178 What Is to Be Done?, 143, 146, 148 Leroux, Pierre, 28 Levi, Paul, 250 Le´vy-Hass, Hanna, 232–33 liberal constitutionalism, 5, 39, 80 liberalism, 30–31, 67 Liebknecht, Wilhelm, 42, 88, 154, 166, 168, 258 Linz Program, 213, 262 Lis, Ladislav, 493–94 Litvinov, Maxim, 278 Livingstone, Ken, 338, 461 localism, 173 local workers’ associations, 25, 36, 67 Loebl, Eugen, 310 Longuet, Jean, 179 Loos, Alfred, 497 Loăwenthal, Richard, 422 LSI See Labor and Socialist International Luka´cs, Georg, 207, 208, 258–59, 362 Lunacharsky, Anatoly, 204–5, 206 Luxemburg, Rosa, 90, 91, 98, 114, 154, 168 Lyon Theses, 254 MacDonald, Ramsay, 244 MacGregor, Ian, 466 Ma´chova´, Karla, 106 Macleod, Iain, 388 Madeysker, Sonia, 233 Madrid (Spain), 272–73, 274 Makarios, Archbishop, 335 Malatesta, Errico, 95 Malenkov, Georgii, 329 Mann, Tom, 97 Mansfield, Michael, 480 Mansfeld-Halle region (Ger.), 119 manufacturing, 385, 399 Manuilski, Dimitri, 263, 278, 284 March Action, 120 Marchais, Georges, 413–14 Marcuse, Herbert, 259 Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 203 marketization, 44954 Marosan, Gyoărgy, 306, 332 Marshall, George C., 294 Marshall Plan, 300, 302–4, 307, 315 Marx, Eleanor, 30, 42 Marx, Karl, 25, 27, 33–45, 49, 62, 94 Marxism, 27, 41–46, 93, 94, 255–56, 258–60, 362–63, 384 Maslow, Arkadi, 251 mass production, 51 Mass Strike, Party and Trade Unions (Luxemburg), 98 Masur, Kurt, 444 materialism, 38, 40 maternalism See motherhood Matignon Agreement, 269 Maximalism, 171–72 May, Ernst, 497 in d e x 693 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 449 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 111 McGahey, Mick, 466 McMillan, Margaret, 102 Meciar, Vladimir, 449 Mediterranean area, 64 Mellish, Bob, 337 Mende`s-France, Pierre, 348–49 Menshevism, 129, 142–45 Merrheim, Albert, 127 Meyer, Ernst, 250, 251, 252 Meynell, Alix, 496–97 Meynell, Francis, 497 Miaja, Jose´, 273 Michnik, Adam, 434, 447–48 Mihailovic, Dragoljub-Draza, 286 Mikardo, Ian, 295 Millerand, Alexandre, 69, 87, 89 Millerand Affair, 87–88, 90 mineworkers, 76–77, 80–82, 119, 391, 465–66, 467 Mitchell, Juliet, 368 Mitterrand, Francois, 348, 413–14, 458, 487 modernism, 202 Mollet, Guy, 335 Molotov, Viacheslav Mikhailovich, 279 Monnet, Jean, 291 Moore, Bill, 281 Moro, Aldo, 412, 459 Morris, William, 115 motherhood, 186, 187, 188, 194, 195, 197, 313, 325, 326 movies, 207, 215, 216–17 Mullan, Mary Kay, 381 Muănzenberg, Willi, 253 Mussolini, Benito, 280, 284, 293 mutualism, 29, 53 Nagy, Imre, 330, 331, 332, 334, 444 Naphtali, Fritz, 237, 238 national fronts, 284 nationalism, 123, 127–28 nationalization, 295–96 nation-states, 220–29, 408 Nazism, 231–32, 262, 278, 284, 288, 289, 304–5, 492 Nazi-Soviet Pact, 279–83 Negrı´n, Juan, 274 Netherlands, 128, 154, 156 New Harmony (Ind.), 28, 29 Nicholas II (Tsar of Russia), 139 Nineteen fifty-six, 329–36 Nineteen sixty-eight, 341–65 Norway, 67, 380, 483 Novotny, Antonin, 342, 357 694 index Occhetto, Achille, 487–88 Ochab, Edward, 331 O’Connor, Paul, 479 oil crisis (1973–74), 406 Origins of the Family, Property and the State (Engels), 100 Orwell, George, 200 Owen, David, 463 Owen, Robert, 27–28, 29, 30, 36 Pankhurst, Christabel, 103, 104, 105 Pankhurst, Emmeline, 103 Pankhurst, Sylvia, 104, 323 Pannekoek, Anton, 114 Paris Commune, 26, 29, 35, 36, 40, 43, 69, 85, 87, 95, 268 parliamentary government, 66–69, 88, 241–45 Paul, Cedar, 190 Paul, Maurice Eden, 190 peace movements, 419–20, 461, 464–65, 466–67 Pelikan, Jiri, 493 Pelletier, Madeleine, 197 Pelloux, Luigi, 88 Peoples Front, 265 perestroika, 438, 440 Petoăfi Circle, 33132 Pinochet, Augusto, 482 Plaăttner, Karl, 120 Poland Communism in, 331, 499 economy, 450, 451 labor in, 431–37, 447 post-Communist, 444 political class movement, 39 political parties, 24–27, 117 Communist, 176–84, 407, 452–53 independent mass party of labor, 39 invention of modern, 113 organizationally united but ideologically diverse, 85 See also socialist parties; specific parties and countries politics and class, 395 counterculture, 459–60 Eastern European, 305, 439, 492–93 of identity, 472–76 new (1970–90), 405–28 of refusal, 460–62 and socialism, 79–82 working-class, 56–60, 384–404 See also political parties; specific countries Pollitt, Harry, 280, 329 polycentrism, 333 Pompidou, Georges, 345, 346–47, 350 popular culture See entertainment Popular Front, 263–77, 279, 284 Populism, 94 post-materialist values, 470–71 postwar boom, 406 Poszgay, Imre, 451 Prague Spring, 342, 357–60, 363, 455, 493, 499 Prieto, Indalecio, 272 primitive accumulation, 49 private property, 21 Prodi, Romano, 488 productivism, 162 progressivism, 392–94 Proletkult, 204–5, 206 protelarianization, 48, 49 Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 29, 31, 36, 39, 95 PSI See Italian Socialist Party public sector unions, 392–94 race, 473 radical democracy, 18–19, 111, 295–98 radicalism, 116, 117, 131–35, 181, 341, 355, 363, 457, 472, 499 radical planism, 240, 241 radio, 215, 216 Rajk, La´szlo´, 309, 310, 331, 332 Ra´kosi, Ma´tya´s, 306, 309, 330, 331, 332 Rakovsky, Christian, 91, 129 Rakowski, Mieczyslaw, 451 Raspe, Jan-Carl, 420 Rathbone, Eleanor, 195, 196, 197 Ravera, Camilla, 189 Reagan, Ronald, 439 Red Vienna (Aus.), 212–13, 222, 237 reform economic, 236 social, 87–88, 89 versus revolution, 295 Western European, 311–13 Remscheid (Ger.), 56–57, 59 Resistance movements, 287–88, 289, 296, 297 revolution circumstances for in Europe, 120–21, 153–60 post-Communist of 1989, 443–49 rethinking meanings of, 236–39 versus reform, 295 Right, 17, 116, 186 Rimbaud, Penny, 478, 479 Rivera, Primo de, 272 Rocard, Michel, 413, 458, 487 Rodgers, William, 463 Roăger, Sigrid, 367 Rokossovski, Marshall Konstantin, 331 Roman, Petre, 446 Romania, 446 Roudy, Yvette, 379 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 111 Rowbotham, Sheila, 368, 461 Royden, Maude, 195 Ruhr (Ger.) coal miners, 76–77 rural areas, 93–95, 111, 385 Russia cultural revolution, 203–7, 210 dual power, 139–42 extremism and opportunities for Left, 152 Populism, 94 See also Russian Revolution; Soviet Union Russian Revolution, 118, 121, 123, 139– 52, 236, 249 and arts, 203–4 Bolshevism, 145–50 from dual power to dictatorship of proletariat, 150–51 Menshevism, 142–45 radicalizing effects, 97 See also Bolshevism Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de, 27, 28, 29 Salengro, Roger, 270 Sander, Helke, 367 Sauvageot, Jacques, 345 Sawyer, Tom, 393 Scandinavia, 64, 106, 245, 246, 247, 317– 19 Scargill, Arthur, 465 Scheidemann, Philipp, 165, 176 Schleyer, Hanns Martin, 420, 459 Schmidt, Helmut, 418 Schuătte-Lihotsky, Margarete, 49798 Schwimmer, Rosika, 1078 SDF See British Social Democratic Federation Second Comintern Congress, 155, 177, 189 Second International, 86–93, 96, 97, 114, 124–27, 177, 178, 182, 384 Second World War, 278–98, 320, 323, 324, 495, 498 Segal, Lynne, 461 Se´guy, Georges, 346, 348 Sembat, Marcel, 127 Serbia, 124–25 Serrati, Giacinto, 135, 179 service industries, 386–87 in d e x 695 sexuality, 198–99, 214, 322, 327 Simon, Bohumil, 357, 359 skilled workers, 19, 52–54 Slansky, Rudolf, 309, 311 Slavı´k, Va´clav, 357 Sling, Otto, 309 Smeral, Bohumir, 254 Smrkovsky, Josef, 357, 358, 359 Soares, Ma´rio, 415 social citizenship, 312, 313 social class See class social democracy and anarchism, 95 and capitalism, 316–17 and Communism, 225–29, 499 constitutionalizing of, 226, 239–41 and gendering of citizenship, 192–95 and Left, 85, 110–11 making of, 21–22 postwar, 314–19 progress before 1914, 66 of Russian Empire, 92 Scandinavian, 317–19 and working class, 93, 403 socialism and capitalism, 238 contemporary, 483, 490, 501 in context, 503 and culture, 210–19 culture of, 113–15 deepening crisis of, 115–18 divisions of international, 177–79 early, 21, 85–108 and First World War, 123, 125, 127– 28 in France, 29, 64 geography of, 64–65 in Great Britain, 13–15, 99, 319–20 in Italy, 45, 65 and Left, 6–9, 407 limits of, 110–13 models of goals, 89 moderate, 121 national politics and everyday life, 79– 82 for neo-liberal times, 481–83 and parliamentary government, 66–69 remaking, 405–28 and skilled workers, 52–54 in Soviet Union, 249–60 in Spain, 422–28 split with Communism, 121, 124 strengths, 109–10 utopian, 27–30, 114–15 and women, 100, 103, 112–13 See also socialist parties Socialism (Engels), 27 696 index socialist constitutionalism, 27, 31, 62 socialist parties as agents of class formation, 400 and decentralization, 110 early, 85, 86 first nationally organized, 63 foundations of, 65 in governing role, 467 and mass strike tactic, 91–92 obstacles to, 115 and parliamentary government, 67 as torchbearers of democracy, 5–6, 109 Solidarity (trade union), 433–37 Sorbonne University, 344, 345, 347, 349, 352 Sorel, Georges, 98, 211 Sossi, Mario, 409 Soviet Union from Bolshevization to Third Period, 250–54 Churchill on, 299 Cold War, 288, 298, 301–4, 307, 311, 313, 315, 327, 329 Communism in, 249–53, 430 de-Stalinization, 330–32, 361 and Eastern Europe, 306–11 economy, 438, 441 Gorbachev, 437–43, 500 invasion of Czechoslovakia, 358–63, 408, 431, 435 invasion of Hungary, 333, 334, 335, 362 Nazi invasion of, 282–83 in Second World War, 284 socialism in, 249–60 Stalinism, 255, 281, 282, 298, 307–11, 329 women in, 188 Spacek, Josef, 357, 359 Spain anarchists in, 26, 64, 65 and Eurocommunism, 411, 413, 415 labor in, 424 Left in, 423, 425 Popular Front, 271–76 socialism in, 422–28 women in, 320 Spanish Civil War, 271–76 SPD See German Social Democratic Party stabilization patterns, 244–48 Stalin, Joseph, 275, 279, 283, 284, 300, 307, 308, 329–31, 333 Stalinism, 255, 281, 282, 298, 307–11, 329, 429–31, 492 Steinhardt, Karl, 180 Strachey, Pippa, 196 student movements, 342–53, 355, 364 Stuttgart resolution, 92 Suarez, Adolfo, 422, 423 Suddick, Ann, 466 Suez Crisis, 332, 335, 336 suffrage See voting; women’s suffrage Sukhanov, Nikolai, 150 Svoboda, Ludvı´k, 359 Sweden, 67, 98, 317–19, 325 Switzerland, 128, 377 syndicalism, 97–98 Szabo´, Ervin, 208 Szasz, Bela, 307 Tasca, Angelo, 252 Tatchell, Peter, 337–38, 474 Taut, Bruno, 210 Taylor, Barbara, 30 Taylor, Frederick, 199 Taylor, Paul, 480 terrorism, 420, 459 Testa, Teresa, 323 textile industry, 101 Thaălmann, Ernst, 251 Thatcher, Margaret, 386, 39091, 392, 466 theater, 207, 208 Theunis, Georges, 240 Third International See Communist International Thomas, Albert, 176 Thorez, Maurice, 264, 266, 282, 292, 333 Tito, 286, 308–10 Togliatti, Palmiro, 252, 254, 267, 280, 281, 284, 29193, 321, 33334, 489, 494 Toăkes, La´szlo´, 446 Tolstoy, Leo, 46 Touraine, Alaine, 403 trade unions, 69–76, 117 and class, 401–2 and corporatism, 316, 387–90, 396 in Germany, 167 in Great Britain, 390–94 in Italy, 163 public sector, 392–94 and syndicalism, 98 and women, 100–101 Troelstra, Pieter, 128, 154 Trotsky, Leon, 147, 149, 182, 236, 249, 255 Trotskyism, 458 Truman, Harry, 300 Truman Doctrine, 300, 307 tsarism, 91, 142, 143 Turati, Filippo, 88–89, 90, 114, 170 Twentieth Congress (Communist Party of the Soviet Union), 330–31 Two-and-a-Half International See Vienna Union unions See trade unions United Kingdom See Great Britain urban radicalism, 472 USSR See Soviet Union utopian socialism, 27–30, 114–15 Vaculı´k, Ludvı´k, 358 Vaillant, Edouard, 87, 88, 89, 92 vanguardism, 26, 37 Vidali, Vittorio, 330 Vienna Union, 178–79, 183 Vietnam War, 341 Vikova´-Kuneticka´, Bozena, 106 Vilna (Lith.), 231–32 Viviani, Luciana, 323 Vogeler, Heinrich, 209, 210, 211 voting, 85, 315, 401 See also women’s suffrage Wainwright, Hilary, 461 Waldeck-Rousseau, Rene´, 87 Walesa, Lech, 432, 433, 436 Weber, Henri, 346 Weiss, Peter, 452 welfare state, 312–13, 318–19 Western Europe, 499 consumerism in, 353 patterns of reform, 311–13 student movements, 342, 363 women in, 312, 324 working class in, 385 See also specific countries West Germany, 417–22 “German Autumn,” 420 Green movement, 421–22 immigration into, 444 peace movement, 419–20 What Is to Be Done? (Lenin), 143, 146, 148 Wheeldon, Alice, 107 white-collar workers, 398 Widgery, David, 356 Wilde, Oscar, 14 Wilkinson, Ellen, 195 Williams, Shirley, 463 Witenberg, Itzhak, 231–32, 233 Woman under Socialism (Bebel), 99, 115 women in Austria, 198 and democracy, 4, 22–24 emancipation of, 99–107, 198–200 and First World War, 186, 192–93 in d e x 697 women (continued ) in France, 190, 321, 379 gendered traditions, 55–56 in Germany, 99, 190–92, 193 in Great Britain, 13–15, 54, 101–2, 189–90, 192, 194–95, 323, 368–75 in Hungary, 107–8 and industrialization, 54–56 in Italy, 321–22, 378, 379 and labor, 22–23, 100–102, 324–25 and Left, 185–200, 378–81 between Popular Front and Cold War, 320–26 post-Second World War, 322, 324, 326– 28 in Second World War, 320, 323, 324 and social democracy, 192–95 and socialism, 100, 103 in Spain, 320 in Sweden, 325 and utopian socialism, 29–30 in Western Europe, 312, 324 See also feminism; women’s suffrage Women’s Liberation Movement See feminism Women’s Peace Camp (Greenham Common, Great Britain), 464–65 women’s suffrage, 116 in Austria, 106 and Chartism, 22 early opposition, 22, 23 in France, 321 698 index in Great Britain, 103–5, 107, 323 in Western Europe, 312 workers’ councils, 160–64 working class decline of, 385–87, 397–99, 402–4 “historic,” 400 and industrialization, 47–61 Marxist definition, 49 miners, 76–77, 80–82, 119, 391, 465– 66, 467 in Poland, 431–37 politics of formation, 56–60 politics of labor, 384–404 socialist definition, 394 in Spain, 424 See also labor World War I See First World War World War II See Second World War Xoxe, Koc¸i, 309 Yaguăe, Juan de, 276 Yeltsin, Boris, 442, 443, 455 Yugoslavia, 286, 291, 308, 342 Zetkin, Clara, 30, 189 Zhdanov, Andrei Alexandrovich, 300 Zhivkov, Todor, 445 Zimmerwald movement, 128–30, 136, 148, 176, 177, 178, 266 Zinoviev, Grigory, 146, 177, 182, 249, 280 ... both the achievements and the foreshortenings of the old remain vital to the shaping of the new Although the century after the 1860s claims the larger share of the book, accordingly, the lines of. .. during the 1980s not only compelled the rethinking of the boundaries and meanings of the Left, the needs of democracy, and the very nature of politics itself but also forced historians into taking.. .FORGING DEMOCRACY FORGING DEMOCRACY The History of the Left in Europe, 1850 2000 Geoff Eley 2002 Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires