The economic history of nuclear energy in spain governance, business and finance

PALGRAVE STUDIES IN ECONOMIC HISTORY THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF NUCLEAR ENERGY IN SPAIN Governance, Business and Finance Edited by M.d.Mar Rubio-Varas and Joseba De la Torre Palgrave Studies in Economic History Series editor Kent Deng London School of Economics London, United Kingdom Palgrave Studies in Economic History is designed to illuminate and enrich our understanding of economies and economic phenomena of the past The series covers a vast range of topics including financial history, labour history, development economics, commercialisation, urbanisation, industrialisation, modernisation, globalisation, and changes in world economic orders More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/series/14632 M.d.Mar Rubio-Varas  •  Joseba De la Torre Editors The Economic History of Nuclear Energy in Spain Governance, Business and Finance Editors M.d.Mar Rubio-Varas Department of Economics Universidad Pública de Navarra Pamplona, Spain Joseba De la Torre Department of Economics Universidad Pública de Navarra Pamplona, Spain Palgrave Studies in Economic History ISBN 978-3-319-59866-6    ISBN 978-3-319-59867-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59867-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017954913 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Cover illustration: Cultura Creative (RF) / Alamy Stock Photo Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface While writing this book some countries have announced the launch of a nuclear power plant construction program and others are preparing to so in the coming years According to data from the Nuclear News Agency NUCNET, at the beginning of 2017, 59 new reactors are being built in the world and another 143 are planned for the next three decades In terms of electricity production, these new reactors would add 211,000 MWe of installed nuclear capacity, equivalent to 54% of all the power currently installed in the 448 nuclear power plants operating on our planet Each nuclear project continues to pose technological, economic and security challenges of enormous dimensions, with environmental, social and political effects that prompt action from international organizations, governments, companies and society The promoters of the atom argue that, assuring safety, nuclear development is necessary as a base-load energy to combat climate change, the volatility of oil prices and a guarantee for electricity supply However, recalling the accidents at Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011), the debate over the extension of the licenses to continue the operation nuclear power plants beyond the 40 years originally granted, and finding permanent storage solutions for spent fuel and irradiated materials provoke the distrust sections of the population (with large variation across countries in scale and scope) One of the many paradoxes of this scenario is that, within the European Union, while Germany plans to phase v vi  Preface nuclear power by 2022, the UK, France, Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria have decided to develop new atomic plants Far from being a controversial subject of the past, nuclear power is still on the front page in the present and will remain so in the future The arguments of current energy officials in countries as diverse as Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Bangladesh, Sudan and Ghana are reminiscent of those used by pioneers of nuclear power in the 1960s and 1970s Governments, agencies and companies back then proclaimed that nuclear programs would provide safe and cheap electricity, boost industrialization and reduce energy dependency There is hardly any information on how and who will pay for such projects in Africa and Asia, or whether the technological, business and financial capacities have been considered The International Atomic Energy Agency oversee these projects and the implied governments have negotiated with China and Russia, who seem willing to provide the know-how and the massive financial support that building a nuclear power plant requires In this sense, the nuclear history of Spain that we present in this volume can be paradigmatic to understand the present, the expectations and the foreseeable successes and mistakes that these emerging economies may face in the coming years Most of the history of nuclear energy written to this day has focused on the study of the industrial countries that pioneered all relevant aspects this source of electricity The US first, immediately followed by the Soviet Union, the UK, Canada, France and West Germany were innovators of this new technological challenge, diffusers of their industrial, health and alimentary applications, which promised eternal prosperity for humanity, but also posed known and unknown risks In that first phase of nuclear history, there were other countries with economic potentials a priori insufficient to sustain a project of the scale required to deploy this expensive and complex technology Spain was one of them but its history has gone quite unnoticed In the middle of the twentieth century Spain decided to promote a program of nuclear power plants that, at the time of its maximum splendor, sought to install reactors in forecasted amounts that surpassed those planned by economic powers such as West Germany or Japan Other developing countries that pursued nuclear power at the time, such as India, Pakistan, Argentina and Brazil, did so with proposals more modest than the Spanish one  Preface     vii Perhaps South Korea and Taiwan are examples of greater similarity to Spain The three countries shared strategic economic objectives and authoritarian political regimes In fact, Spain was the only country of the Western Bloc that successfully propelled an atomic program, while at the same time abominating liberal democracy From a modest start, and with the full support of part of the regime leaders, private utilities and foreign aid, Spain emerged as an early adopter and champion importer of commercial nuclear equipment In fact, by the mid-1970s, Spain became the largest customer of the US—the world’s largest provider of nuclear technology At its maximum, the utilities formally applied to install reactors with a combined capacity of nearly 35,000 MWe The government preauthorized the installation of over 15,000 MWe Yet, a combination of economic, political and social factors led the curtailment of the Spanish nuclear program to just ten reactors connected to the grid by 1988, just over 7,500 MWe The seven reactors in operation in 2017 provide about 20% of electric power This book aims at solving some of the paradoxes that arise from this story, which chronology runs from 1950 to 1985 We seek to explain how Spain, one of the least developed economies of the southern European periphery, with a scant initial technological and industrial level, with companies barely subject to international competition and, moreover, governed by a dictatorship, could successfully insert itself among the pioneers of the world’s nuclear energy The economic and industrial take-off of Spain between 1960 and 1975 served to leave behind the autarkic economic policy and to deploy the atomic project However, the nuclear excitement failed to reach all its objectives It was possible to build power plants with foreign technology (mostly North American but also French and German), and gradually increase the local technological content, innovating and competing internationally But at the end, just a fraction of the forecasted plants achieved operation, and the manufacture of a Spanish reactor fueled by domestically enriched uranium never happened The nuclear industry narrative justifies this partially frustrated success by holding the Socialist government accountable for paralyzing the nuclear program decreeing a nuclear moratorium in 1984 On the contrary, the antinuclear movements allege they forced the moratorium with their protests As historians, we intertwine a mass of qualitative and viii  Preface quantitative evidence for explaining how a young democracy assimilated the dictatorship’s nuclear legacy within a context of a crude economic and financial recession, the raise of social demands and the threats to democratic consolidation Each of the eight chapters of this volume analyze and solve some specific elements of the institutional, economic, financial, business, technological and social architecture that configure the essence of that history The book presents a case study, that of the economic history of nuclear power in Spain, yet it does so in permanent contact with an international context nourished from multiple historiographical sources The subtitle Governance, Business and Finance seeks to identify the processes of interaction and decision-making among the actors involved in the atomic project Those interactions lead to the creation and management of new laws, rules and institutions, administered by an authoritarian political regime What the Spanish example shows is that the relations between the state and the market under a dictatorship facilitated the collaboration between government and companies to undertake this megaproject, in the absence of checks and balances to supervise the decisions made Chapter offers a global overview synthetizing the macro-economic and political developments on which the nuclear programs rooted around the world, from the golden age and until after the two oil crises This approach serves to contextualize the Spanish case within these worldwide dynamics, offering the key elements to build a comparative history, and some initial indications about the true dimensions of the Spanish nuclear program In the next step, in Chap 2, we identify and dissect the main actors involved in the Spanish atomic project Experts, scientist, military, policymakers, promoters, engineers, consultants and energy consumers articulated a project forced to evolve with the changes in the political economy of the dictatorship and in the technological model finally followed After 40 years, the transition to democracy changed many things in Spain, but in our context two issues stand out First, voicing critical arguments from antinuclear movements became legally possible and socially noticeable Second, the new institutional framework replaced most of the actors involved, except a crucial stakeholder: the directors of the electric companies, who would have to negotiate the atomic halt of 1984  Preface     ix Chapter explains the origins and the behavior of the electro-nuclear lobby during the decisive decision-making phase about who would own the nuclear business in Spain, the state or the market Or rather how the costs and benefits of an energy that everyone understood as strategic for the country’s development and economic well-being would be shared The developmentalist economic policy and the influence of the promoters tilt the balance in favor of the lobby Thus, the private companies led the development of nuclear power in Spain However, as Spain could not develop a nuclear program on its own, the collaboration of the technological leaders came about In fact, the Spanish scientific and industrial system had been establishing contacts with French and German experts and entrepreneurs since the 1950s, which came to fruition years later As shown in Chap 4, the contacts of JEN—the Spanish nuclear agency— physicists with German, French and American laboratories led to a swift supply of the highly specialized human capital required for the development of a thermonuclear civil program The private sector could afford to take bold nuclear investment decisions because it counted on the state backup Chapter reveals it In a very short time Spain became the “billion-dollar client” of the Exim Bank due to the purchases of US nuclear equipment and enriched fuel The breakdown of dollar borrowing by company—until now unknown in its magnitude—confirms the level of indebtedness that the electric sector incurred to build thermonuclear plants The debasement of the exchange rate and increase of the price of money, between the end of the Carter administration and the arrival of Reagan to the White House, trapped the promoters in a spiral of negative cash flows This explains why the state came to the rescue of companies and that, in return, they accept the nationalization of the electricity grid In the meantime, the export of the North American technological model to a selective club of the nuclear countries played an essential role in maximizing the huge investments made in the US since the 1950s The American multinationals had been supported by US economic diplomacy and the abundant financing from their public and private banking It was very difficult for third parties to compete and win international nuclear contracts under these conditions Only the industry of France and West Germany managed to 282  Index Civil War, 38, 80, 98, 99, 104, 107, 155 Climate change, v, 10 Coal, 6, 25n18, 53, 74, 77, 194, 223, 227, 230, 233, 235, 237 Cofrentes NPP, 133 Cold War, x, 3, 9, 12, 50, 72, 156, 159 Colin, Claude, 163 Colino, Antonio, 90n27 Columbia, 89n16, 232 Combustion Engineering (CE), 131, 209n18 Comité franco-espagnol d’Échanges Techniques, 163 Commissariat l'Energie Atomique (CEA), 13, 29n56, 158–164, 166, 168–172, 175, 177n9 Compagnie de Constructions Mécaniques Procédés Sulzer, 181n38 Compagnie d’Entreprises Électriques Mécaniques et de Travaux Publics, 181n38 Compagnie Electro-Mécanique, 181n38 Compagnie Générale d’Electricité, 158, 181n38 Compagnie Générale des Matières Nucléaires (COGEMA), 172 Compagnie Générale de Télégraphie Sans Fil, 181n38 Compagnie Industrielle de Travaux, 181n38 Confederation of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (CEPYME), 54 Congo, 101 Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (CERN), 107, 111, 112, 114, 190 Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 72, 89n13, 98, 99, 104, 106, 112 Conservative governments, 50 Construcciones Nucleares SA (CONUSA), 40 Constructora Pirenaica (COPISA), 165 Consultancies, 39, 40 Controls, 38 Coral I reactor, 171 Costa Morata, Pedro, 51, 63n62 Cowles Foundation report, 223 Crédit National, 167 Cuba, Czech Republic, 12 D De la Torre, Joseba, 1, 29n57, 29n58, 29n60, 30n61, 30n63, 32n72, 33–57, 69, 87n1, 88n3, 88–89n6, 89n9, 91n30, 92n46, 119–152, 207n3, 213n57, 220, 244n17, 247n51 Degrémont, 165 Degussa, 191, 192, 194–196 Demag AG, 192 Democracy, transition period, viii, 49, 51, 52, 157, 173, 207 Denmark, 89n16 Developmentalism, 40–45, 53, 197, 229 Development Plan, 20, 45, 60n28, 201  Index     Development Plan, the Fifth, 167 Diplomatic services, 196 See also Economic diplomacy Dirección General de Energía Nuclear (General-Directorate of Nuclear Energy), 222 Dollar appreciation, 140 devaluation, 8, 10 devaluation of the Peseta, 174 exchange rate of, 5, 140 suspension of the convertibility, 135 DON project, 111 Douro, river, 52 Dragados y Construcciones SA, 79 Duran Farell, Pere, 164 Düsseldorf, 191, 209n19 E Eastern Europe, 9, 10, 27n31, 123 East Germany, 12, 20, 121 Ebasco, 47 Ebro river, 44, 52, 125 Economic assistance programme, 73 Economic crises, 8, 125, 138, 139 Economic diplomacy, ix, 48, 125–138 Economies of scale, 13 Edison Electric Institute, 131 EEC Memorandum (European Economic Community Memorandum), 206 Egypt, vi, Eisenhower, Dwight D., 1, 19, 23n1, 37, 71, 89n11 Eléctrica del Viesgo, 39 Eléctricas Reunidas de Zaragoza, S.A (ERZ), 134, 206, 215n79 283 Electric utilities electrical-banking oligopoly, 67 electrical-banks, 80 electrical companies, 73–76, 132 electrical engineering, 197 electrical networks, 13 electric lobby, 69, 70, 77, 224 electro-nuclear lobby, ix, 57 lobbying electricity, 19 Électricité de France (EDF), 158 Electricity electrical restrictions, 38, 78 electricity demand, 6, 12, 14, 17, 53, 217, 218, 222, 224, 242 electricity interconnection lines, 87 electricity utilities, privatization, electrification, 4, 227 El Páramo project, 133 Eltwiller Program (the first five-year nuclear programme), 191 Empresa Nacional de Electricidad SA (ENDESA), 78, 90n19, 95n87, 133, 134, 145, 152n91, 172 Empresa Nacional de Residuos Radiactivos SA (ENRESA), 166 Empresa Nacional del Uranio SA (ENUSA), 21, 46, 47, 49, 55, 172, 202, 213n61, 231, 233 Empresa Nacional Hidroeléctrica del Ribagorzana (ENHER), 134, 162, 164, 167, 180n26, 181n33, 185n74 Empresarios Agrupados S.A., 21, 47, 171, 205 Energía e Industria Aragonesas, S.A (EIASA), 195, 206 284  Index Energy dependency of fossil fuels, 6, 7, 221 crisis, 10, 53, 56, 224 energy growth, 4, 229 energy industry, 26n26, 68, 224 energy mix, 22, 218, 234, 236, 237, 245n21 energy planning, 4, 13, 217–247 energy policy, 3, 8, 22, 34, 35, 39, 49, 53, 56, 68, 229, 236, 237 energy supply, 224 external energy dependence, 218, 227, 229, 230, 234, 242 primary consumption, 5, 225, 228, 229 See also Oil crisis England, 41, 75, 81, 93n62 Entrecanales y Tavora, 165 Entrepas, Buendía and Bolarque, 201 Entrepose, 165 Environment and Development, United Nations Conference, 10 Environmentalism, Eptisa, 47, 199, 205 Equipamientos Nucleares SA, 47 Equipos Nucleares S.A (ENSA), xvi, 21, 46, 47, 95n90, 171, 202, 206, 233 Erice, José Sebastián, 91n33 Escatron thermal plant, 132, 133, 136 Escombreras, thermal plant, 92n40 Essen, 202 Euratom, 5, 45, 77, 127, 171, 190 Eurochemic project, 190 Eurodif, 55, 172, 173, 213n61 Eurokopter, 203 Europe, 6, 9, 27n29, 44, 51, 52, 100, 101, 114, 123, 128, 168, 172, 198, 205 European Association of Nuclear Scientists, 37 European Atomic Energy Society (EAES), 190, 200 European Atomic Forum (Foratom), 190 European Economic Community (EEC), 157, 168, 206 European Nuclear Energy Agency (ENEA), 5, 29n56, 190 European Treaty of Rome, European Union (EU), v, 5, Euskadi ta Askatuna (ETA), xiv, xxvii, 53, 138, 157 Experimental reactor, xiii, 40, 83, 158 Experts, viii, ix, 3, 16, 33, 34, 38, 45, 48, 50, 60n26, 63n65, 78, 94n73, 111, 163, 171, 173 Export Credit Agreements (ECAs), 17 Export-Import Bank (Eximbank), ix, xiii, 9, 37, 48, 49, 68, 120, 124, 126–129, 132, 136–138, 140–144, 164, 167, 201, 202, 205, 232, 233 Exporting nuclear facilities, 124 Extremadura, 52 F Failure, 14, 55, 157, 161, 193, 203, 224 See also Breakdown Federal Ministry for Scientific Research (West Germany), 189, 199 Fessenheim NPP, 159, 160, 179n16  Index     Fierro Group, 171 Financial and military agreements of 1953, 125 Financial Protocol, French-Spanish, 163 Financial rescue, xiv, 57, 144 Financing amortizations, 138, 141, 143 costs, external, 17, 124, 141–143 credit terms, 59n22, 124, 140 financing agreements, 188 financial assistance, 113, 136, 195, 201, 203 financial conditions, 164, 167, 201 financial credit, 17, 33, 129, 143, 144, 201, 233 financial facilities, 17, 68, 120–124 financial limitations, 42, 69, 141, 195 financing agreements, 80, 125 financing of nuclear power plants, financing of nuclear power projects, 17 nuclear budgets, 55, 189, 190 repayment, 129, 138–145 subsidized loans, Finland, 8, 12, 124 Fives-Cail-Babcock, 171 Fives-Lille-Cail, 158 Fluido Eléctrcio SA, 79 Ford, Gerald, 48, 231 Foreign capital, 38, 41, 126, 156 Foreign currency, 40, 41, 59n22, 80, 202, 223 Foreign technology, vii, 41, 44 Forges et Ateliers du Creusot, 181n38 285 Foro Atomico Espanol (FAE), 40, 59n14, 64n75, 86 Framatome Proyectos Industriales S.A., 171 Franc devaluation, 174 France, vi, ix, x, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 26n20, 37, 48, 61n34, 62n52, 100, 145n5, 146n9, 189, 190, 198, 231, 238, 243 Franco-Américaine de Constructions Atomiques (Framatome), 160 Franco, Francisco, 78, 184n61 Franco’s dictatorship, xiii, 146n15, 184n68, 202 Franco-Américaine de Constructions Atomiques (Framatome), 160 Francoism, 38, 49 Francoist policy, 73 French National Assembly, 161 French Nuclear Programme, 103, 104 French Technological Exposition, 163 French Treasury, 167 Frewer, Hans, 187, 188 Friedman, Milton, Fuel imports, 73 Fuel production cycle, 202 See also Integral fuel production cycle Fuentes Quintana, Enrique, 54, 63n66 Fuerzas Eléctricas de Cataluña (FECSA), 133, 134, 162, 164, 165, 167, 180n26 Fuerzas Eléctricas del Noroeste SA (FENOSA), 134, 135 Fuerzas Eléctricas del Segre S.A., 180n26 Fukushima, accident, v 286  Index G Galicia, 52 Gallego Málaga, Martín, 56, 57, 64n80, 65n82, 80, 138, 139, 151n76, 151n78, 151n85, 152n91 García Vinuesa, A., 90n27 Garnica Echevarría, Pablo, 93n61 Gara, Santa María de NPP, xiv, 43, 44, 47, 48, 128, 129, 133, 162, 164, 166, 167, 182n42, 197, 222, 247n50 Gas, 6, 25n18, 25–26n20, 159, 227, 237 Gaulle, Charles de, 156, 158, 159, 166, 190, 192, 193 Gaviría, Mario, 51, 63n62 Gaztelu, José María, 86 Gelsenberg AG, 193 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 5, 146n16 General Electric Company, 37 General Electric Technical Services (Getsco), 129 General Eléctrica Española, 83 Generations of nuclear power, 43, 45, 132 Geneva, 29n56, 39, 70, 71 Geological and Mining Institute of Spain, 193 German Atomic Commission, 191 German consortium, 137 Germany, v, vi, ix, x, 6, 13, 15, 21, 48, 61n34, 62n52, 68, 100, 129, 157, 171, 173, 174, 185n77, 187, 231, 233 German Institute for Reactor Safety, 204 Gesellschaft zur Wiederaufarbeitung von Kernbrennstoffen mbH (GWK), 193 Ghesa, 47, 205 Gibbs& Hill Inc., 47, 128, 205 Goded, F., 90n27 Golden age, viii, 5–8, 10 Goldschmidt, Bertrand, 90n22, 177n9 Gómez-Mendoza, Antonio, 69, 89n7 Gortázar, Manuel, 83, 90n27, 95n90 Gösgen-Däniken NPP, 205 Göttingen, 104, 106, 190, 193 Graphitwerk Kropfmühl AG, 194 Great Depression, 5, Greece, 231 Groupement Atomique Alsacienne-­ Atlantique (GAAA), 158, 181n38 Groupement pour les Neutrons Rapides, 171 Grundremmingen NPP, 197 Grupo Interuniversitario de Física Trica (GIFT), 108, 111, 112, 114 Guipúzcoa, 221, 222 Gutiérrez-Cortines, Manuel, 41, 42, 92n42, 222, 223 Gutiérrez Jodrá, Luis, 71, 90n18, 106 H Harrisburg, accident, 3, 55 Harwell, NPP, 73, 75 Hayek, Friedrich, Heisenberg, Werner Karl, 104, 105, 191  Index     Herfindahl–Hirschman Index, The, 236, 237 Hernández Rubio, Julio, 199, 202, 205, 206 Hetch, Gabrielle, HIC, 134, 135 Hidroeléctrica de Cataluña S.A (HECSA), 162 Hidroeléctrica del Chorro, 82 Hidroeléctrica Española (Hidrola), 39, 52, 82, 83, 130, 197, 221 Hidro-Nitro SA, 90n19 High-voltage grid, 54 Hiroshima, 100, 114n1 Hispanic-German meeting on nuclear safety, 203 Hispano-Francesa de Energía Nuclear S.A (HIFRENSA), 164, 165, 184n64 Hoechst, 191, 193 Hoechst AG, 193, 208n12 Holland, 205 Horowitz, Jules, 159 Huesca, 195 Human capital, training, 103–109, 112, 113 See also Learning by doing Hungary, vi, 12 Hydro-electrical resources, 73 Hydrological production, 180n28 I Iberdrola, 89n7, 172 Iberduero SA, 30n66, 39, 45, 72, 81–85, 90n20, 95n87, 129, 131, 133, 134, 138, 148n33, 148n47, 149n59, 210n30, 221 287 Ibernuclear SA, 199, 200 IMI for SELNI, 127 Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI), 13, 37 Indatom, 158, 181n38 India, vi, 12, 14, 15, 29n57, 49, 145n5, 147n23 Industrial Atomic Institution, 83 Industrial engineers, 36, 39 INI Economic Studies Service, 56 Installing nuclear reactors (localization), 51 Institute for Reactor Safety (West Germany), 204 Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO), 10 Instituto de Crédito a Medio y Largo Plazo, 167 Instituto de Física Trica de Altas Energías, FTAE, 110 Instituto Energía Nuclear (IEN), 107, 108 Instituto Español de Moneda Extranjera (Foreing Currency Institute, IEM), 59n14 Instituto Nacional de Industria (National Institute of Industry (INI), 101, 172 Interatom (Internationale Atomreaktorbau GmbH), 192, 195, 203, 205, 210n29 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), vi, 5, 23n2, 108, 182n45, 190 International banks, 142, 144 International General Electric Co., 92n47 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 5, 125, 146n16 288  Index Iran, 12, 48, 146n9, 185n77, 205, 231 Iron Curtain, 2, 8, 124 Irta NPP, xiii, 44, 52, 130, 135, 198 Islero, Project, 114n1, 116n31, 184n62 Israel, 12, 89n16 Italy, 27n36, 37, 89n16, 103, 104, 115n3, 121, 141, 145n5, 146n9, 157, 178n10, 185n77, 198, 231 Karlsruhe, 210n25 Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Centre (Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe, KFK), 187, 191 KECO, 127 Kindelan, Juan Manuel, 65n82 Kissinger, Henry, 136 Know-how, vi, 192, 207, 239, 243 Kraftwerk Union AG (KWU AG), 187 Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW), 201, 206 J Japan, vi, 2, 9, 12, 13, 16, 18, 29n55, 37, 50, 62n52, 100–102, 113, 121, 122, 129, 145n5, 178n10, 198, 231, 236 JAPC, 127 JEN-1 reactor, 105 JEN-2 reactor, 105 Jeumont-Schneider, 181n38 Júcar-Turia project, 203 Jülich, 196 Jülich Research Centre (Kernforschungsanlage Jülich, KFA), 191 Junta de Energía Nuclear (Board of Nuclear energy, JEN), 40, 58n4, 103, 163, 189, 193, 210n23, 215n77 Junta para Ampliación de Estudios (JAE), 98, 99 Juzbado factory, 21, 233 K Kahl am Rhein NPP, 191, 197 Kansai Eletric Power Co., 127 L La Hague nuclear fuel reprocessing plan, 169 La Latina NPP, 178n10 Laboratorio de Investigaciones Físicas, 99 Latin America, 9, 13, 171 Learning by doing, 7, 126, 165, 239 learning curve, 44 learning effects, 14 learning process for technicians, 36, 47 process of globalization of knowledge-based services, 204 training course, 37, 107, 108 training programmes, 105 training school, 175 training staff and workforces, 137 training technicians, 72, 113, 194 Lebanon, 89n16 Lemoniz NPP, 45, 47, 53, 57, 130, 133, 137, 140, 148n47, 173, 201 Les Floristán, Alfredo, 202, 206 Les Verts Ecologist Party, 161  Index     Leybold, 194 Libya, Lithuania, 12 Load of fuel, 167 LOCA, 204 Local authorities, 54 Local opposition, 51, 170 Lodge, John Davis, 73 Loire River, 168 López Bravo, Gregorio, 34, 40, 42–45, 60n26, 163–165, 181n35, 196, 198, 211n42, 212n43 López de Letona, José María, 45 Lugano, 200 M Mac Veigh, Jaime, 41, 42, 59n22, 86, 219–221, 224, 225, 243n7 Madrid, xiii, xiv, 26n26, 43, 49, 51, 72, 86, 93n49, 99, 104, 105, 111, 112, 125, 136, 137, 148n36, 150n68, 150n70, 150n71, 171, 189, 193, 194, 196, 199, 203, 211n38, 212n43, 212n44, 214n64, 214n67, 221, 222, 231, 238, 242 Magaña, Luis, 56, 63n65 Magnox reactors, 121, 178n10 Manchester, 75 Mandel, Heinrich, 192, 208n12 Manhattan project, 1, 36, 100 Manzanares, incident, xiv, 51 See also Accidents Maquinista Terrestre y Marítima SA, 47 289 Marcoule nuclear complex, 158, 163, 169, 174, 179n17 Martín-Artajo, José Ignacio, 58n2, 102 Massachusets Institute of Technology (MIT), 107 Massip, José María, 90n21 Max Planck Institute for Physics (West Germany), 190 Mecánica de la Peña SA, 46 Mediterranean Sea, 44 Mendoza, Carlos, 85, 86 Merlin et Guerin, 181n38 Mertz & McLean, 47 Messmer Plan, 160 Mestre, Carmen, 56, 57, 64n80 Metallgesellschaft AG, 192 Mexico, 12, 65n83 Middle East, 171 Military uses learning curve, 44, 45, 128 learning effects, 14 learning process for technicians, 128 process of globalization of knowledge-based services, 204 training course, 104 training programmes, 104 training school, 105, 128 training staff and workforces, 137 training technicians, 37 Moderators, 25–26n20, 159, 191 Mol, 190 Moncloa facilities, xiii, 203 Moncloa Pacts, xxvi, 53, 54, 63n66 Monetary fluctuations, 202 Monopsony, 15 Moreno, Andrés, 93n49 Muguruza, Ignacio, 81 290  Index Multinationals, ix, 6, 41, 44–49, 165, 202 Municipalities, 51, 52, 162, 170, 205 Moz Grandes, Agustín, 184n61 Muñoz, Juan, 64n74, 70, 89n10, 225 Murcia, 52 MZFR, 197 N Nagasaki, 100, 114n1 Narcea coal plant, 232 National defence, 101 National Electricity Plan, The First, 130, 224 National electricity plans, xiv, 18, 60n28, 131, 200 National Energy Plans, 54, 224, 225, 246n42 Nationalization of the electric sector, 78 Nationalization of the high-voltage line, 54 Navarra, xiv Neutron economy, 189, 200 New York, 39, 131 New York Times, The, 93n49 Neyrpic, 163, 181n38 Niederaichbach NPP, 197 Niger, 157, 172 Nixon, Richard, 48 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 90n21, 160 North Korea, 12 Not in my backyard, 50 See also Antinuclear movements Not-perfectly-competitive-market, 15 NPP, xiii, xiv, 27n36, 136 NRG, 205 Nuclear business, ix, 67–96, 121 Nuclear ecosystem, 3, 189–193 Nuclear Energy Law, 43 Nuclear exceptionalism, Nuclear fuel reload market, 232 Nuclear industry, vii, xiii, 13, 14, 37, 43, 92n37, 108, 120, 150n64, 151n80, 156, 157, 161, 165, 190, 193–197, 207, 219, 240 Nuclear legislation (WG), 191 Nuclear management bidders, 128, 131 bidding process, 130, 136, 137, 171 bidding Trillo, 136 decision-making process, ix, 4, 5, 12, 17, 34, 206 delays, 14, 49, 55, 77, 132, 217, 218 domestic industrial participation, 132 engineering services, 33, 199, 239 marketing of plants, 203 nuclear cluster, 240–242 public nuclear budget, 3, 189 Nuclear moratorium, vii, xiv, 21, 22, 33, 55, 57, 76, 120, 144, 173, 226 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), xiv, 49, 169, 196, 207 Nuclear optimism, 219–227 Nuclear pessimism, Nuclear pioneering countries, 13 Nuclear Power Group of England, 128  Index     Nuclear programs, vi–x, xiii, 2, 6, 10, 13, 17–23, 29n60, 33, 65n83, 67–70, 75, 76, 86, 87, 89n6, 119–121, 125, 132, 135, 137, 140, 142, 189–191, 193–196, 198–200, 202, 218–221, 229, 239, 242, 243 Nuclear reactors boiling light water reactors (BWR or SWR), 26n20, 159, 192 boiling-water reactors, 121 gas-cooled reactors, 120, 128 heavy water reactor (HWR) (Schwerwassereaktor), 192, 196, 197 light water reactor, 7, 26n20, 43, 120, 121, 125, 169, 192 moderators for the reactors, 191 pressurized water reactors (PWR or DWR ), 159, 166, 171, 192 Rapsodie fast-breeder, 161 sodium cooled fast breeder, 198 swimming-pool reactor, 194 test reactor, 191, 194, 195 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 205–207, 214n75 Nuclear Research Society, 203 Nuclear Safety Council (Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear (CSN), xiv, 55 See also Spanish regulatory agency Nuclear Suppliers Group, 48–49 Nuclear technology, expansion of western countries, 120 Nuclear weapons, 12, 49, 91n35, 184n63 See also Military uses Nuclear-powered nations, 11, 12 291 NUCLENOR, 39, 44, 78, 84–86, 125, 128, 129 See also Centrales Nucleares del Norte Nucleocrats, 161 NUCNET, v Nukem, 192, 193, 195 O Oak Ridge, facilities, 37 Obninsk NPP, Obrigheim NPP, 197 Oil crisis, 202, 224, 227, 230, 235 Oil prices, v, 8, 135 Oliart, Alberto, 54, 63n65, 64n70 Oligopoly, 15, 16, 40, 55, 67 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 29n56, 190 Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), 5, 24n9, 29n56, 37 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Oriol y Urquijo, José Mª, 64n78 Orsay, research centre, 163 Ortiz Fornaguera, Ramón, 105, 106 Ostpolitik, 202 Otero y Navascués, José Mª, 31n67, 36, 58n3, 58n4, 102, 104–107, 110, 113, 115n15, 115n16, 115n17, 116n21, 116n22, 116n29, 163, 180–181n30, 193, 196, 210n23, 210n25, 210n29, 213n58 Outlier, 18 Oyster Creek, facilities (NJ), 7, 121 292  Index P Pacific ocean, 50 Pakistan, vi, 12, 14, 65n83, 202 Palewski, Gaston, 163, 182n48 Palomares, bombs, xiii, 51 See also Accidents Paris Treaty, 190 Participation of Spanish industry, 20, 77, 164, 165, 167 Pascual Martínez, Francisco, 206, 207 Patents, 16, 71, 160, 165, 172 Peacefull uses, agreements for co-operation in, 12, 19, 91n35 Péchiney, 158, 181n38 Píscola, 52 Pennsylvania, 44, 106 Petroleum, 26n26, 74, 139, 218, 227, 230, 234–237 Peyrefitte, Alain, 163, 181n34, 183n55 Phénix fast-breeder reactor, 161, 171 Philippines, 17 Pierrelatte isotope separation plant, 159 Pinay, Antoine, 163 Pioneers, vi, 18, 22, 35, 48 Pittsburgh, 37, 62n50 Planell, Joaquín, 36, 37, 42, 72, 73, 76–78 Plettner, Bernhard, 212n47 Plumer, Brad, 16, 28n46, 28n49 Plural Left coalition, 162 Poblat d’Hifrensa, 184n65 Poland, vi, Pompidou, Georges, 159 Portugal, 14, 131, 166, 231 Pre-authorized projects, vii, 18, 128, 130, 132, 133, 135 Pretsch, Joachim (Dr), 195 Private Funding Corporation (PEFCO), 150n65 Pro-market, Propaganda, 35, 50, 51, 190 Proyectos Industriales S.A., 171 Public opinion, 41, 49, 56, 162 Public opposition, 14, 139 Public trust, 138 Pueyo, Javier, 58n11, 69, 89n7, 210n30 Punta Endata NPP, 132, 140, 149n59 Pyrenees, 163, 172, 174 R Radioactive isotopes, 200 See also Civil uses Radioactive water, accident, xiv, 51 See also Manzanares, incident Ramón y Cajal, Santiago, 98, 99 Rapsodie experimental fast-breeder reactor, 161 Raw material, 26n26, 72, 76, 159 Reactor Safety Commission, 191 Reactors manufacturers, 15, 16, 20, 125, 128, 149n61 Reaktor-Brennelement Union (RBU), 205 Red Eléctrica de España, 163 Redonet, José Luis, 90n27 Regodola NPP, 137, 173 Regulations, xiv, 8, 14, 91n36, 189, 206, 233 Reloads, 182n47, 233 nuclear fuel reload market, 232 Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerks AG (RWE), 191, 192  Index     Rio de Janeiro, 10 Rio Tinto Zinc Co, 192 Rockefeller Foundation, 99 Rodríguez Sahagún, Agustin, 64n71 Romania, 12 Romero Ortiz de Villacián, José, 193, 210n26 Rotaeche, Jesús María, 83 Rubí–La Gaudière interconnection line, 169 Rubio, Ricardo, 72 Rubio-Varas, M.d Mar, 1–23, 25n12, 29n57, 29n58, 29n60, 30n61, 30n63, 32n72, 62n55, 69, 87n1, 88n3, 88n6, 89n9, 91n30, 92n46, 119, 217, 220, 244n17, 244n19, 246n41, 246n46, 247n51 S Saclay, research centre, 163 Safety, v, 40, 43, 48, 149n56, 162, 170, 197, 198, 200, 203, 204, 207, 242 radioactive waste, 160 radioactivty, 50, 101, 182n45 risks, 2, 55 waste issues, 16 Saint Gobain Nucléaire, 158 Saint Gobain Techniques Nouvelles, 172, 181n38 Saint Laurent des Eaux and 2, NPPs, 158, 168 Salamanca, 21, 233 Salomon Brothers Agency, 57 San Francisco, 131 Sánchez del Río, Carlos, 90n18, 105, 106, 193 293 Sánchez, Luis, 63n62, 69, 87n1, 88n4, 95n87, 95n88 Sánchez-Sánchez, Esther M., 30n66, 69, 89n8, 176n4, 176n5, 177n8, 180n27, 181n31, 181n32, 182n40, 185n80, 208n4 Santander, 105, 129 Santillan NPP, 136 Sayago NPP, 140 Scandone, Francesco, 102 Schimmelbusch, Heinz, 193–195, 210n25, 210n29, 213n58 Schneider group, 160 Schnell-Brüter-Kernkraftwerks Gesellschaft mbH (SBK), 202 Schnurr, Wahlter, 202 School of Industrial Engineering of Bilbao (EIIB), 78, 84, 94n73 Schwartz-Hautmont, 165 Scientific system, 2, 50, 98 Second World War, 36, 100, 113 Segura river, 201 Sener, 47, 65n83 Sercobe, 44, 47 Serrano, Ángel, 64n74, 70, 89n10, 225 Sevillana de Electricidad SA, 39, 90n19, 130, 149n52, 221 Seville, 80, 108 shippingport facilities, 6, 44 Siemens, 62n51, 188, 192, 197, 199, 201, 205, 213n55 Siemens Industria Eléctrica, 62n51, 188, 192, 197, 199, 201, 205, 213n55 Siemens, Peter von, 205 Siemens-AEG, 131, 188, 199 294  Index Siemens-Schuckerwerke AG (SSW), 212n47 Simons Ltd, 47 Slovakia, 12 Slovenia, 12 Smith & Barney C, 167 Socialist government, vii, 56, 144 Socialist Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español, PSOE), 50 Sociedad Ibérica de Construcciones Eléctricas, 82 Société d'Etudes et d'Entreprises Nucléaires (SEEN), 158 Société Hispano-Alsacienne, 181n38 Société Industrielle Delattre-Levivier, 181n38 Société Parisienne pour l’Industrie Electrique, 181n38 Société pour l'Industrie Atomique (SOCIA), 164, 165 Society for the Study of Physics (Physialische Studiengesellschaft, PSG), 191 SOFRELEC, 172 Solana, Javier, 62n56 Solchaga, Carlos, 56 Soria, 172 Sortir du Nucléaire, 180n24 See also Antinuclear movements South Africa, 12, 231 South Korea, vii, 12, 13, 15–18, 20, 29n60, 48, 122, 141, 231, 240 Soviet Bloc, 13 Soviet Union, vi, 1, 6, 8, 10, 12, 45, 100, 121, 158, 159, 174, 231 Spanish Atomic Forum (FAE), 40, 86, 95n88, 144 Spanish Banking Board, 80 Spanish Confederation of Entrepreneurs'Organizations (CEOE), 54, 152n88 Spanish reactors, vii, 21, 73, 126, 136, 179n17 Spanish regulatory agency (CSN), 234 Spanish-French Nuclear Conference, 163 Spent fuel, v, 126, 172, 174 Stabilization plan, 125 Standard Eléctrica, 93n55 Standardization, 14, 15, 17 State intervention, 6, 15, 38 State owned enterprises (SOE), Stein & Roubaix, 95n90, 158, 181n38 Stein & Roubaix Española SA, 47 Stoltenberg, Gerhard, 196, 198, 209n13, 211n42, 212n43 Strauss, Franz Josef, 191, 193 Suanzes, Juan Antonio, 36, 38, 58n6, 60n25, 77, 81, 83, 85, 89n13, 90n19 Suárez Candeira, Daniel, 86, 90n19 Sub-Saharan Africa, 171 Sudrià, Carles, 58n11, 69, 89n7, 210n30, 246–247n48 Superphénix fast-breeder reactor, 161, 171 sustainability, 10 Svedberg, Theodor, 89n13 Sweden, 12, 13, 15, 16, 37, 185n77, 236 Swimming pool reactor, xiii Switzerland, 12, 39, 89n16, 104, 122, 124, 205, 236  Index     T Tagus River, 201 Taipower, 127 Taiwan, vii, 12, 13, 48, 127, 231 Tarragona, 162 Technical assistance technological alternatives, 6, 189 technological learning, 14, 36 Technicatome, 185n74 Technological content, vii, 167 See also Technical assistance Technological equipment, 44 Technology transfer technological dependence, 80, 242 technological leaders, ix, 22, 129 transfer of nuclear technology, 17, 37, 53 Technopolitics, Tecnatom SA, xiii, 21, 40, 41, 48, 84, 86, 125, 128, 221, 240, 243n7 Técnicas Nucleares SA, 40 Técnicas Reunidas SA, 47 Tepco, 127 Thailand, 231 Thermal energy, 26n26, 73 Third Reich, 190 Third World, 159 Thomson-Houston, 158 Three Mile Island (TMI), accident, 2, 8, 10, 11, 161 See also Harrisburg, accident Tihange NPP, 160 TMI effect, Tokai NPP, 178n10 Torres, Manuel de, 90n18, 244n13 295 Torrontegui, Alejandro, 83, 85, 90n27, 93n54, 93n56, 93n59 Tricastin facilities, 172 Trillo (Guadalajara), 200 Trillo NPP, x, 21, 136, 187, 233, 234 Truman, Harry S., 89n12 Turnkey contracts, 44, 47, 125 Turnkey projects, xiii, 7, 16, 18, 20, 29n57, 121, 126, 147n23, 164, 240 U Ugine Kuhlmann, 181n38 Ukraine, 9, 12, 15 Ultracentrifuge Netherland N.V., 193 UNGG technology, 159, 160, 162, 165, 166, 175, 178n10 Unidad Eléctrica SA (UNESA), 38, 45, 54, 61n43, 77–81, 87, 92n38, 93n51, 130, 144, 162, 220, 223, 224, 228, 234 Unión Eléctrica Madrila S.A (UEM), 34, 45, 81, 85, 125, 126, 128, 130, 131, 133, 134, 193, 195, 199, 201, 202, 205–207, 221, 232, 233, 243n7 Uniquesa, 40 United Kingdom (UK), vi, 1, 6, 12, 16, 20, 26n20, 37, 41, 61n34, 62n52, 73, 100, 101, 121, 146n9, 156–158, 165, 178n10, 179n14, 185n77, 190, 191, 198, 231 296  Index United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA), 13, 38, 165, 189 United Nations (UN), 1, 10, 70, 156, 223 United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 70, 126, 205 United States of America (USA), vii, ix, xxvi, 1, 6–8, 12, 14–16, 20, 21, 27n36, 35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 46, 48, 52, 55, 68, 76, 120–122, 124–126, 132, 135–138, 188, 190, 191, 193, 195–198, 202, 206, 230–232 Uranit, 193 Uranium Andujar, mining, 30n64, 196 enriched uranium, xxv, 21, 25n20, 35, 37, 43, 46, 55, 83, 92n37, 121, 125, 126, 129, 159, 166, 167, 172, 173, 178n13, 189, 192, 196–198, 200, 202, 206, 230–234, 242 enriched uranium cycle, 126 enriched uranium, monopoly, 121, 202 enrichment plant, 76, 231 monopolistic supply of enriched uranium, 231 natural uranium, x, xiii, 21, 38, 76, 103, 159, 166, 167, 172, 174, 178n13, 192, 195–198, 200, 231 natural uranium moderated, 26n20, 195 ... explains the origins and the behavior of the electro -nuclear lobby during the decisive decision-making phase about who would own the nuclear business in Spain, the state or the market Or rather... filling these deficiencies by investigating the economic, financial, and business origins of nuclear energy in Spain and the multiple implications of its deployment, from a national as well as international... demanded institutional, business, financial, and technological capabilities from abroad The book analyzes the history of the nuclear program in Spain, from its inception in the 1950s to the nuclear