The History of Sociology

The History of Sociology tài liệu, giáo án, bài giảng , luận văn, luận án, đồ án, bài tập lớn về tất cả các lĩnh vực kin...

P1: RNK0521864381pre CUNY780B-African 978 0 521 68297 8 May 15, 2007 19:34iiThis page intentionally left blank P1: RNK0521864381pre CUNY780B-African 978 0 521 68297 8 May 15, 2007 19:34africans, second editionInavast and all-embracing studyof Africa, from the origins of mankind to the AIDSepidemic, John Iliffe refocuses its history on the peopling of an environmentallyhostile continent.Africanshavebeenpioneersstrugglingagainstdiseaseandnature,and their social, economic, and political institutions have been designed to ensuretheir survival. In the context of medical progress and other twentieth-centuryinnovations, however, the same institutions have bred the most rapid populationgrowth the world has ever seen. The history of the continent is thus a single storybinding living Africans to their earliest human ancestors.John Iliffe was Professor of African History at the University of Cambridge and is aFellow of St. John’s College. He is the author of several books on Africa, includingAmodern history of Tanganyika and The African poor: A history,which was awardedthe Herskovits Prize of the African Studies Association of the United States. Bothbooks were published by Cambridge University Press.i P1: RNK0521864381pre CUNY780B-African 978 0 521 68297 8 May 15, 2007 19:34ii P1: RNK0521864381pre CUNY780B-African 978 0 521 68297 8 May 15, 2007 19:34african studiesThe African Studies Series,founded in 1968 in collaboration with the African StudiesCentre of the University of Cambridge, is a prestigious series of monographs andgeneral studies on Africa covering history, anthropology, economics, sociology,and political science.editorial boardDr. David Anderson, St. Antony’s College, OxfordProfessor Carolyn Brown, Department of History, Rutgers UniversityProfessor Christopher Clapham, Centre of African Studies, Cambridge UniversityProfessor Michael Gomez, Department of History, New York UniversityProfessor David Robinson, Department of History, Michigan State UniversityProfessor Leonardo A. Villalon, Center for African Studies, University of FloridaA list of books in this series will be found at the end of this volume.iii P1: RNK0521864381pre CUNY780B-African 978 0 521 68297 8 May 15, 2007 19:34iv P1: RNK0521864381pre CUNY780B-African 978 0 521 68297 8 May 15, 2007 19:34AfricansTHE HISTORY OF ACONTINENTSecond Editionjohn iliffeFellow of St. John’s College, Cambridgev CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSCambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São PauloCambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UKFirst published in print formatISBN-13 978-0-521-86438-1ISBN-13 978-0-511-34916-4© John Iliffe 1995, 20072007Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521864381This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.ISBN-10 0-511-34916-5ISBN-10 0-521-86438-0Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University The History of Sociology The History of Sociology Bởi: OpenStaxCollege 1/9 The History of Sociology People have been thinking like sociologists long before sociology became a separate academic discipline: Plato and Aristotle, Confucius, Khaldun, and Voltaire all set the stage for modern sociology (Photos (a),(b),(d) courtesy of Wikimedia Commons; Photo (c) courtesy of Moumou82/Wikimedia Commons) Since ancient times, people have been fascinated by the relationship between individuals and the societies to which they belong Many of the topics that are central to modern sociological scholarship were studied by ancient philosophers Many of these earlier thinkers were motivated by their desire to describe an ideal society In the 13th century, Ma Tuan-Lin, a Chinese historian, first recognized social dynamics as an underlying component of historical development in his seminal encyclopedia, General Study of Literary Remains The next century saw the emergence of the historian some consider to be the world’s first sociologist: Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) of Tunisia He wrote about many topics of interest today, setting a foundation for both modern sociology and economics, including a theory of social conflict, a comparison of nomadic and sedentary life, a description of political economy, and a study connecting a tribe’s social cohesion to its capacity for power (Hannoum 2003) In the 18th century, Age of Enlightenment philosophers developed general principles that could be used to explain social life Thinkers such as John Locke, Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, and Thomas Hobbes responded to what they saw as social ills by writing on topics that they hoped would lead to social reform The early 19th century saw great changes with the Industrial Revolution, increased mobility, and new kinds of employment It was also a time of great social and political upheaval with the rise of empires that exposed many people—for the first time—to societies and cultures other than their own Millions of people were moving into cities and many people were turning away from their traditional religious beliefs 2/9 The History of Sociology The Father of Sociology Auguste Comte is considered by many to be the father of sociology (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons) The term sociology was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748–1836) in an unpublished manuscript (Fauré et al 1999) In 1838, the term was reinvented by Auguste Comte (1798–1857) Comte originally studied to be an engineer, but later became a pupil of social philosopher Claude Henri de Rouvroy Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825) They both thought that society could be studied using the same scientific methods utilized in natural sciences Comte also believed in the potential of social scientists to work toward the betterment of society He held that once scholars identified the laws that governed society, sociologists could address problems such as poor education and poverty (Abercrombie et al 2000) Comte named the scientific study of social patterns positivism He described his philosophy in a series of books called The Course in Positive Philosophy (1830–1842) and A General View of Positivism (1848) He believed that using scientific methods to reveal the laws by which societies and individuals interact would usher in a new “positivist” age of history While the field and its terminology have grown, sociologists still believe in the positive impact of their work 3/9 The History of Sociology Karl Marx Karl Marx was one of the founders of sociology His ideas about social conflict are still relevant today (Photo courtesy of John Mayall/Wikimedia Commons) Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher and economist In 1848 he and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) coauthored the Communist Manifesto This book is one of the most influential political manuscripts in history It also presents Marx's theory of society, which differed from what Comte proposed Marx rejected Comte's positivism He believed that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of different social classes over the means of production At the time he was developing his theories, the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism led to great disparities in wealth between the owners of the factories and workers Capitalism, an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of goods and the means to produce them, grew in many nations Marx predicted that inequalities of capitalism would become so extreme that workers would eventually revolt This would lead to the collapse of capitalism, which would be replaced by communism Communism is an economic system under which there is no private or corporate ownership: everything is owned communally and distributed as needed Marx believed that communism was a more equitable system than capitalism While his economic predictions may not have come true in the time frame he predicted, Marx’s idea that social conflict leads to change in society is ... Advances in Biochemical Engineering/ Biotechnology,Vol. 70 Managing Editor: Th. Scheper © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2000 A View of the History of Biochemical Engineering Raphael Katzen 1 ,George T.Tsao 2 1 9220 Bonita Beach Road, Suite 200 Bonita Springs, Florida 34135, USA 2 School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA The authors present a view of biochemical engineering by describing their personal interests and experience over the years involving mostly conversion of lignocellulosics into fuels and chemicals and the associated engineering subjects. Keywords. Biomass conversion, Biochemical engineering, Fuels, Chemicals, History. 1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2 Early Development of Biochemical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3 Early Development on Conversion of Lignocellulosics . . . . . . . . 80 3.1 Concentrated Acids and Solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3.2 Dilute Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.3 Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4 Renewed and Expanded Efforts on Biomass Conversion . . . . . . . 82 5 Further Advances in Biochemical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 6 Further Advances in Biomass Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 1 Introduction Biochemical engineering has grown into a very broad subject field. The scope of this article is limited mostly to technology for conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into fuels and chemicals, and the associated biochemical engineering topics. The content reflects the interests or personal experience of the authors. It offers a limited view of the history of biochemical engineering. History, as always, has to be told from many different viewpoints, to achieve an objective and complete exposition. The phrase, “biochemical engineering”, first appeared in the late 1940s and early 1950s. That was the time shortly after aerobic submerged culture was launched as a way of increasing the production capacity of penicillin, used to cure battle wounds of World War II (Shuler and Kargi 1992). Fungal mycelia grow naturally on the surface of moist substrates. When mycelia are submerged in liquid nutrients, an adequate supply of oxygen, often in the form of finely dispersed air bubbles to support aerobic biological activities, has become an important requirement. Gas-liquid interfacial mass transfer of oxygen in reaction vessels has since become a challenge to those trained in chemical engineering. An article by Hixon and Gaden (1950) on oxygen transfer in bioprocesses initiated a wave of activities that has often been credited as the first recognition of “biochemical engineering” as an engineering subject requiring systematic studies to understand its governing principles and for acquisition of skills for good design and performance. Commercial scale biological processing of biomass materials is an activity as old as human civilization. In more recent years, utilization of lignocellulosic biomass has become an actively pursued subject, because of the concerns of future exhaustion of non-renewable fossil fuels. One of the authors of this article, Raphael Katzen, had his Microsoft Word 10.0.6612; Reading Our Lips: The History of Lipstick Regulation in Western Seats of Power Sarah Schaffer Class of 2006 May 19, 2006 This paper is submitted in satisfaction of the Food & Drug Law course requirement in conjunction with the third-year written work requirement. Abstract This paper traces the history of lipstick’s social and legal regulation in Western seats of power, from Ur circa 3,500 B.C. to the present-day United States. Sliced in this manner, lipstick’s history emerges as heavily cyclical across the Egyptian, Grecian, Roman, Western European, English, and American reigns of power. Examination of both the informal social and formal legal regulation of lipstick throughout these eras reveals that lipstick’s fluctuating signification concerning wearers’ class and gender has always largely determined the extent and types of lipstick regulations that Western societies put in place. Medical and scientific knowledge, however, has also played an important secondary role in lipstick’s regulatory scheme. 1 Thus, lipstick status laws, primarily intended to protect men, long predated laws concerning lipstick safety. Safety laws, in turn, long focused solely on human safety before very recently also branching out into environmental and animal safety. In the future, Western societies should expect to see a continuation of lipstick status regulations, albeit probably informal social ones, as well as increasingly comprehensive lipstick safety regulations regarding human, environmental, and animal well-being. Ur and Egypt Historically, one was relatively less likely to die from lipstick than from most other cosmetics products. This does not mean, however, that lipstick has a past lacking in either danger or fascination. Lipstick’s appropri- ately colorful history began with Queen Schub-ad of ancient Ur. 1 Circa 3,500 B.C., 2 this Sumerian queen used lip colorant made with a base of white lead and crushed red rocks. 3 The Sumerian people apparently adopted the practice with gusto, as Sir Leonard Woolley’s excavation of Ur’s ‘Royal Cemetery’ revealed that those who could afford to do so had themselves buried with their lip paints stored in cockleshells. 4 Neighboring Assyrians, both women and men, likewise began painting their lips red. 5 1 To situate Ur for modern Western readers: Ur stood a major city in Sumer, one of Mesopotamia’s four distinct civilizations that also included Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia. We now know the entire region as Iraq. Sally Pointer, The Artifice of Beauty: A History and Practical Guide to Perfumes and Cosmetics 11 (2005). 2 See, e.g., Fenj a Gunn, The Artificial Face: A History of Cosmetics 35 (1973). But see, Pointer, supra note 1, at 11 (suggesting the date of first lipstick use closer to 2,500 B.C.). 3 See, Gunn, supra note 2, at 35 (stating tha t this original lip color contained white lead). See also, Meg Cohen Ragas & Karen Kozlowski, Read My Lips: A Cultural History of Lipstick 13 (1998) (stating that this original lip color contained crushed red rocks). Such information about ancient lipsticks’ components has recently become available through gas chromatography, which allows for identification of minute residues extracted from old containers. Pointer, supra note 1, at x. The ingredient identification remains imperfect, however, b e cause : some ingredient comp o unds have altered or disappeared over time, cosmetics containers often served multiple uses and so contain residues from THE HISTORY OF THE RISE, PROGRESS, AND ACCOMPLISHMENT OF THE ABOLITION OF THE SLAVE-TRADE, BY THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT By THOMAS CLARKSON, M.A. 1839 Figure 1. Thomas Clarkson TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE WILLIAM, LORD GRENVILLE, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE CHARLES, EARL GREY, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE FRANCIS, EARL MOIRA, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE GEORGE JOHN, EARL SPENCER, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE HENRY RICHARD, LORD HOLLAND, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THOMAS, LORD ERSKINE, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE EDWARD, LORD ELLENBOROUGH, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD HENRY PETTY, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THOMAS GRENVILLE, NINE OUT OF TWELVE OF HIS MAJESTY'S LATE CABINET MINISTERS, TO WHOSE WISE AND VIRTUOUS ADMINISTRATION BELONGS THE UNPARALLELED AND ETERNAL GLORY OF THE ANNIHILATION, AS FAR AS THEIR POWER EXTENDED, OF ONE OF THE GREATEST SOURCES OF CRIMES AND SUFFERINGS, EVER RECORDED IN THE ANNALS OF MANKIND; AND TO THE MEMORIES OF THE RIGHT HONOURABLE WILLIAM PITT, AND OF THE RIGHT HONOURABLE CHARLES JAMES FOX, UNDER WHOSE FOSTERING INFLUENCE THE GREAT WORK WAS BEGUN AND PROMOTED; THIS HISTORY OF THE RISE, PROGRESS, AND ACCOMPLISHMENT OF THE ABOLITION OF THE SLAVE TRADE, IS RESPECTFULLY AND GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED. CONTENTS 1. PREFATORY REMARKS ON THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 2. CHAPTER I Introduction.—Estimate of the evil of the Slave Trade; and of the blessing of the Abolition of it.—Usefulness of the contemplation of this subject 3. CHAPTER II Those, who favoured the cause of the Africans previously to 1787, were so many necessary forerunners in it.—Cardinal Ximenes; and others 4. CHAPTER III Forerunners continued to 1787; divided now into four classes.— First consists of persons in England of various descriptions, Godwyn, Baxter, and others 5. CHAPTER IV Second, of the Quakers in England, George Fox, and his religious descendants 6. CHAPTER V Third, of the Quakers in America.—Union of these with individuals of other religious denominations in the same cause 7. CHAPTER VI Facility of junction between the members of these three different classes 8. CHAPTER VII Fourth, consists of Dr. Peckard; then of the Author.—Author wishes to embark in the cause; falls in with several of the members of these classes 9. CHAPTER VIII Fourth class continued; Langton, Baker, and others.—Author now embarks in the cause as a business of his life 10. CHAPTER IX Fourth class continued; Sheldon, Mackworth, and others.— Author seeks for further information on the subject; and visits Members of Parliament 11. CHAPTER X Fourth class continued.—Author enlarges his knowledge.— Meeting at Mr. Wilberforce's.—Remarkable junction of all the four classes, and a Committee formed out of them, in May, 1787, for the Abolition of the Slave Trade. 12. CHAPTER XI History of the preceding classes, and of their junction, shown by means of a map. 13. CHAPTER XII Author endeavours to do away the charge of ostentation in consequence of becoming so conspicuous in this work. 14. CHAPTER XIII Proceedings of the Committee; Emancipation declared to be no part of its object.—Wrongs of Africa by Mr. Roscoe. 15. CHAPTER XIV Author visits Bristol to collect information.—Ill-usage of seamen in the Slave AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE PART 1 BY JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY History is no easy science; its subject, human society, is infinitely complex. FUSTEL DE COULANGES GINN & COMPANY BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL COPYRIGHT, 1902, 1903 BY JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 612.1 The Athenæum Press GINN & COMPANY · PROPRIETORS · BOSTON · U.S.A. PREFACE IN introducing the student to the history of the development of European culture, the problem of proportion has seemed to me, throughout, the fundamental one. Consequently I have endeavored not only to state matters truly and clearly but also to bring the narrative into harmony with the most recent conceptions of the relative importance of past events and institutions. It has seemed best, in an elementary treatise upon so vast a theme, to omit the names of many personages and conflicts of secondary importance which have ordinarily found their way into our historical text- books. I have ventured also to neglect a considerable number of episodes and anecdotes which, while hallowed by assiduous repetition, appear to owe their place in our manuals rather to accident or mere tradition than to any profound meaning for the student of the subject. The space saved by these omissions has been used for three main purposes. Institutions under which Europe has lived for centuries, above all the Church, have been discussed with a good deal more fullness than is usual in similar manuals. The life and work of a few men of indubitably first-rate importance in the various fields of human endeavor—Gregory the Great, Charlemagne, Abelard, St. Francis, Petrarch, Luther, Erasmus, Voltaire, Napoleon, Bismarck—have been treated with care proportionate to their significance for the world. Lastly, the scope of the work has been broadened so that not only the political but also the economic, intellectual, and artistic achievements of the past form an integral part of the narrative. I have relied upon a great variety of sources belonging to the various orders in the hierarchy of historical literature; it is happily unnecessary to catalogue these. In some instances I have found other manuals, dealing with portions of my field, of value. In the earlier chapters, Emerton's admirable Introduction to the Middle Ages furnished many suggestions. For later periods, the same may be said of Henderson's careful Germany in the Middle Ages and Schwill's clear and well-proportionedHistory of Modern Europe. For the most recent period, I have made constant use of Andrews' scholarly Development of Modern Europe. For England, the manuals of Green and Gardiner have been used. The greater part of the work is, however, the outcome of study of a wide range of standard special treatises dealing with some short period or with a particular phase of European progress. As examples of these, I will mention only Lea's monumental contributions to our knowledge of the jurisprudence of the Church, Rashdall's History of the Universities in the Middle Ages, Richter's incomparable Annalen der Deutschen Geschichte im Mittelalter, the Histoire ... positive impact of their work 3/9 The History of Sociology Karl Marx Karl Marx was one of the founders of sociology His ideas about social conflict are still relevant today (Photo courtesy of John Mayall/Wikimedia... published The Study of Sociology, the first book with the term sociology in the title Spencer rejected much of Comte’s philosophy as well as Marx's theory of class struggle and his support of communism... changed as a result of the struggles of different social classes over the means of production At the time he was developing his theories, the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism led