Studies in the history of the english language

Studies in the History of the English Language ≥ Topics in English Linguistics 39 Editors Elizabeth Closs Traugott Bernd Kortmann Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York Studies in the History of the English Language A Millennial Perspective Edited by Donka Minkova Robert Stockwell Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York 2002 Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague) is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, Berlin ȍ Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines Ț of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication-Data Studies in the history of the English language : a millennial perspective / edited by Donka Minkova, Robert Stockwell p cm Ϫ (Topics in English linguistics ; 39) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 11 017368 English language Ϫ History English language Ϫ Grammar, Historical I Minkova, Donka, 1944Ϫ II Stockwell, Robert P III Series PE1075 S88 2002 4201.9Ϫdc21 2002067795 Die Deutsche Bibliothek Ϫ Cataloging-in-Publication-Data Studies in the history of the English language : a millennial perspective / ed by Donka Minkova ; Robert Stockwell Ϫ Berlin ; New York : Mouton de Gruyter, 2002 (Topics in English linguistics ; 39) ISBN 3-11-017368-9 ” Copyright 2002 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Cover design: Christopher Schneider, Berlin Printed in Germany Table of Contents Foreword Millennial perspectives From etymology to historical pragmatics Elizabeth Closs Traugott 19 Mixed-language texts as data and evidence in English historical linguistics Herbert Schendl 51 Dialectology and the history of the English language William A Kretzschmar, Jr 79 Origin unknown Anatoly Liberman 109 Issues for a new history of English prosody Thomas Cable 125 Chaucer: Folk poet or littérateur? Gilbert Youmans and Xingzhong Li 153 A rejoinder to Youmans and Li Thomas Cable 177 Phonology and metrics On the development of English r Blaine Erickson 183 Vowel variation in English rhyme Kristin Hanson 207 Lexical diffusion and competing analyses of sound change Betty S Phillips 231 vi Table of Contents Dating criteria for Old English poems Geoffrey Russom 245 How much shifting actually occurred in the historical English vowel shift? Robert Stockwell 267 Restoration of /a/ revisited David White 283 Morphosyntax/Semantics Pragmatic uses of SHALL future constructions in Early Modern English Maurizio Gotti 301 Explaining the creation of reflexive pronouns in English Edward L Keenan 325 Word order in Old English prose and poetry: The position of finite verb and adverbs Ans van Kemenade 355 The “have” perfect in Old English: How close was it to the Modern English perfect? Jeong-Hoon Lee 373 Reporting direct speech in Early Modern slander depositions Colette Moore 399 The emergence of the verb-verb compound in twentieth century English and twentieth century linguistics Benji Wald and Lawrence Besserman 417 Envoy A thousand years of the history of English Richard W Bailey 449 Name index Subject index 473 483 Foreword This collection contains papers selected from those presented at a conference at UCLA in the Spring of the year 2000 The conference was called Studies in the History of the English Language, abbreviated SHEL-1 It was intended to be the first in what we hope will become a regular biennial series at various sites in North America; SHEL-2 is being organized at the University of Washington as we are preparing this volume The intention of the series is to stimulate research and other scholarly activity in the field of historical English linguistics Our emphasis was deliberately on the history of English as a discipline: how healthy was it at the end of the millennium and what if anything needed to be done to maintain its scholarly energy and relevance? A comparable series of meetings in Europe, the International Conferences on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL), have proved to be very vigorous since the first conference, in 1979, at Durham The scholars who work in our field in non-English speaking countries have the advantage that English is a popular choice for foreign language study there and often there is generous government and public support for this kind of enterprise They have a steady student demand based on that fact In Britain, the 19th and 20th century dedication to historical English studies created a robust research tradition and a new generation of outstanding scholars in whose hands the field is thriving The tradition flourished in British and American universities in the 19th century and during the first half of the 20th century, but during the last two decades only in British universities has this kind of scholarship remained in the mainstream of academic life It has been apparent for some years that in America comparable vigor did not exist in this field In fact, the field has been declining as scholars unfamiliar with the linguistic history of English themselves fail to see the relevance of a traditional subject in a newly fashioned humanistic curriculum We believe this to be a misapprehension of the field and its present-day involvement with other disciplines Researching the cognitive and social conditions, causes, and consequences of language change should not be brushed aside as peripheral to the concerns of the new generation of humanists in this country We organized the first SHEL with the conviction that the study of the history of English is central to the interpretation of our cultural and literary heritage, and both the meeting, and the contributions to this volume, reaffirmed our conviction Foreword So the first motivation for us to convene this conference was to provide a forum for the presentation of research in English linguistics, specifically English historical linguistics, to serve as a stimulus for quality and a probe for what more needs to be done Measured by the quality and variety of the presentations and discussions, 35 speakers and over 80 participants, we happily report that energy and vigor continue to characterize our field A Workshop, organized by Anne Curzan (University of Washington), addressed various approaches to the teaching of the History of English The North American representation at SHEL-1 was greatly augmented by transatlantic scholars whose participation was deeply appreciated For the record, a list of paper presenters and session chairs appears at the end of the Foreword The second motivation was to provide, in as many areas as possible, a sort of millennial stock-taking The millennial focus is fully apparent in the envoy paper by Richard Bailey (University of Michigan); and in the field-survey papers by Elizabeth Traugott (Stanford University); Herbert Schendl (University of Vienna); William Kretzschmar (University of Georgia); Anatoly Liberman (University of Minnesota); Thomas Cable (University of Texas, Austin); and Gilbert Youmans and Xingzhong Li (University of Missouri and Central Washington University) The papers addressing individual issues fall into two natural groups: (1) Phonology and metrics – the papers by Blaine Erickson (Kanazawa Institute of Technology, Japan); Kristin Hanson (University of California, Berkeley); Betty Phillips (Indiana State University, Terre Haute); Geoffrey Russom (Brown University); Robert Stockwell (University of California, Los Angeles); and David White (University of Texas, Austin) (2) Morphosyntax/Semantics – the papers by Maurizio Gotti (University of Bergamo); Edward Keenan (University of California, Los Angeles); Ans van Kemenade (Katholieke Universiteit, Nijmegen); Jeong-Hoon Lee (University of Texas, Austin); Colette Moore (University of Michigan); and Benji Wald and Lawrence Besserman (Los Angeles and Hebrew University, Jerusalem) Foreword Millennial Perspective Elizabeth Traugott’s contribution is entitled “From etymology to historical pragmatics” As is well known, she was one of the principal scholars in the initiation of research into the historical process of grammaticalization, by means of which new grammatical formatives come into languages In introducing her survey of the field, she notes that many of the major themes of the early twentieth century, e.g the arbitrariness of the sign, the non-predictability of change, and distinctions between structure and use, were developed against the background of historical work primarily on Romance and Germanic languages Among many themes debated at the end of the century have been the extent to which change is predictable and non-arbitrary, this time against the background of synchronic work primarily on English, as well as many other languages She points out that throughout the twentieth century diachronic theory has lagged behind synchronic Though the seeds of many ideas about morphosyntactic change that dominated the end of the century are to be found in work at its beginning, the pragmatics, semantics and syntax were not sufficiently far advanced for those ideas to be developed in principled ways New possibilities for understanding language change have opened up with advances in the study of the relation between language and use, especially from the perspective of work on grammaticalization and historical pragmatics One area of intense debate arising from these new studies is what status in linguistic theory the widely attested unidirectionalities in semantic and morphosyntactic change should have On the one hand there has been an active research program seeking to identify unidirectionalities (e.g Traugott 1982, 1989, Heine, Claudi and Hünnemeyer 1991, Bybee, Pagliuca and Perkins 1994); this has recently been complemented by a research program seeking to formalize them (e.g Roberts 1993, Kemenade 1999) On the other it has been argued that since unidirectionalities are tendencies, not absolute universals, they are epiphenomena and not explanatory (e.g Roberts 1993, Newmeyer 1998 on the unidirectionalities identified in grammaticalization), and even that such searches are a hold-over from nineteenth century historicism (Lightfoot 1999) Her paper suggests some ways in which historical pragmatics can shed light on the unidirectionalities observed in grammaticalization, as the field moves toward an explanatory theory that can account for them 484 Subject index auditory effect, 196 Australia, 16, 38, 41, 455–456 Australian English, 199 auxiliary (verb) 27, 42, 133, 302, 358 back vowel, see vowel back-formation, see word-formation backness, see vowel base derivation, see word-formation Beat Addition, 144, 147 Bede, 336, 464, 468 Beowulf, 245–246, 248, 258, 261–262, 264–265, 331, 335–336, 355–361, 364–371, 390, 395, 449 bilingual(ism) 4, 52–56, 58–60, 64, 67–68, 71, 74, 77 Binding (Theory), 63, 331, 336–337, 342, 345- 346, 352 – local binding, 337, 345, 346, 349–350 – locally bound, 13, 325, 329–331, 347 Blake, William, 212 bleaching/bleached, see semantic change borrowing/borrowed, 5, 11, 29, 51, 67–70, 72, 86, 93, 110, 112–115, 119, 192, 200, 270, 275, 279, 327, 404 boundary, 154, 158, 170, 192–193, 200, 325, 404 – clause, 154 – dialect, 81, 87–88, 91, 93 – foot, 158, 170 – metrical, 154 – morpheme/morphological, 325, 427–428 – phonological, 170 – phrase, 144, 154–155 – sentence, 56, 154, 170 – syllable, 154, 193, 200, 290, 294, 299 – syntactic boundary, 158 – word, 154–155, 192, 200–201 breaking, 12, 283, 285–287, 290–294, 298, 438 British English, 196, 268, 351, 430, 454 Brosnahan Effect, 287, 291, 298 buccal, 11, 285 buffer code, 72 Byrhtferth, 8, 464–465, 469 Byron, 212, 227 caesura, 6, 7, 126, 141, 145, 181, 252–253 Canadian English, 87, 117, 469, 455, 459 Canadian raising, 11, 268–269, 459 Canterbury Tales, see Chaucer Caxton, William, 456 Celtic, 114, 116, 119, 466 center drift, 268–270 central vowel, see vowel centralizing/centralized, 211, 237, 268 chain shift, 98, 268, 270 Chancery, 402, 413, 456 Chaucer, 6–7, 76, 125–134, 146–151, 153–154, 156–171, 173–175, 177–179, 182, 214, 227, 327–328, 341, 350 – Canterbury Tales, 128, 131, 162, 167–168 – General Prologue, 128–129, 132–133, 162 Christian(s), 46, 246, 250, 342, 368, 449, 462, 464 – pre-Christian, 449 CI, see Constituency Interpretation clitic(ization), 7, 13, 44, 143, 171, 326, 333 – de-cliticization, 143 – proclisis, 326, 338 – proclitic, 360 – procliticization, 350, 369 Subject index – procliticized, 326, 328, 344, 358–359 – procliticizing, 348 closure, see Principle of Closure Cockney, 269, 285, 457–458 code-(switching), 4, 52–76, 78, 400–407, 412–413, 420 – supra-regional code, 69 cognates, 110–111, 115–117, 119, 121 cognitive linguistics, 29–30 coinage(s), 114, 428–430, 440–442 Common Germanic, see Germanic comparative method/reconstruction, 109, 115 compensatory lengthening, see lengthening Compositionality, 328 compound(s), 5, 96, 111, 113, 115, 245–246, 249, 253, 263, 417–418, 420, 422–423, 425–427, 429–434, 441, 442, 445 – bisyllabic compound(s), 263 – Compound Stress Rule, 247 – compound verbs, 15, 420–424, 426, 438, 440–443 – disguised compound(s), 113, 115 – nominal compound(s), 429- 430, 433, 435, 438, 442–443 – pseudo-compound(s), 418–419 – synthetic compound(s), 418 – verb-verb, also VV compound(s), 15, 417, 419–420, 422, 425, 443 – VN(s) 426–431, 433–440 – V1-ing compounding, 431, 434–435 connotative meaning, 64, 410 consonant, 11, 171, 181, 187–189, 192–193, 195, 197, 201, 205, 210, 222, 232, 234, 236–239, 284–285, 290, 295, 297, 450 constituent, 13, 62, 135, 141, 156, 178, 181, 194, 334, 338, 345, 361, 364, 368–369, 417–425, 430, 432, 434–435, 438 485 – Constituency Interpretation, 325, 328, 338, 347 – constituent bracketing, 7, 178 – constituent structure, 141, 359, 368 – morphological constituent, 417–425, 430, 432, 434–435, 438 – negative constituent, 13, 359, 361, 368 – prosodic constituent, 193 – switching of constituents, 62–63, 165 – syntactic constituent, 61, 63, 135, 137, 178, 248, 253, 262–263 – verse constituent, 153, 156, constraint(s), 6, 13, 61, 63, 73, 76, 135, 140, 155, 165, 169–170, 172, 203, 222, 240, 245, 252–253, 262–263, 379, 423 – activity constraint, 15, 422–425, 433, 442–443 – constraint on verb compounding, 15, 422 – Equivalence Constraint, 63 – Monosyllabic Word Constraint, 134, 136–138, 140, 144, 146, 155, 162–163, 172, 180 – phonotactic constraints, 203, 234, 240 – semantic constraints, 13, 325 – syntactic constraints, 52, 61, 63, 66, 72, 336 contrast interpretation, 337, 346–348 core, 86–88, 222, 326, see also periphery coronal, 8–9, 183–195, 197, 200–202 corpus/corpora, 14, 32, 40, 52, 55, 63, 65, 99 – Corpus of Early English Correspondence, 104 – Corpus of Early Middle English, 12, 428, 430 – Corpus of (Latin) sermons, 62 – Helsinki Corpus, 12, 14, 301, 319, 322–323 486 Subject index – Early Modern English corpus, 301, 304–8, 315–316, 319 – Old English poetic corpus, 13, 246 – Study of corpora, 14, 32, 40, 52, 55, 63, 65, 99 – Toronto text corpus, 364 court records, 14, 65, 72, 399–402, 410–416 Creole (English), 38, 198, 200 Cynewulf, 252, 255–258, 262, 264–265 Danelaw, 327 Danish, 114, 183–184, 204, 368 Dante, 80, 227 DARE, 119, 122 dating (criteria), 10, 13, 212, 245, 249–250, 256, 261, 264, 325, 355, 342, 361, 366–368, 432 decasyllabic (verse), 6, 156, 158, 160, 173 DECAY, 325–327, 346, 348 de-cliticization, see clitic defamation/defamatory, 14, 399–400, 402–4, 407, 410–413 denotative (meaning), 378, 383, 385, 392, 410 dental(s), 9, 185, 188–189, 191–192, 197, 201, 236–237, 239, 242, 297 deontic, see pragmatic value deposition, see text type dialect(s), 9, 38, 44, 79–81, 83–89, 91–93, 97–99, 104, 106, 114, 119, 183–184, 188–189, 195–196, 200–203, 209, 215–216, 218, 221, 268–269, 402, 450–451, 457, 459–460 – coherent dialect, 97 – dialect interference, 271 – dialectology, 4–5, 39, 78–79, 81, 84–85, 87–88, 92–94, 99–100, 104–105, 107–108, 204 dialogic form, 314 diaphones, 11, 268–270 Dickinson, 214 diglossia, 53, 55 diphthong(s), 11–12, 206, 211, 269–273, 275–276, 279, 283, 291, 457–458 – short diphthongs, 283–284, 290 diphthongization, 11, 233, 242, 267–273, 275–276, 279 dipodic verse, 125 direct speech, 14, 399–400, 402–406, 408–409, 411–413 directionality of change, 19–21, 25–26, 30, 35, 46 discourse, 19, 22, 24–25, 31–33, 37, 51, 54–55, 57, 59, 61, 64–67, 141, 214, 351, 384, 396, 400–401, 403, 409, 413–415, 449 – levels of discourse, 401, 409, 411 dissemination patterns, 87 dissimilation, 11–12, 283, 287, 289–291, 294, 298 disyllabic, 128, 130, 140, 144, 159–160, 166–167, 179, 325, 344 Donne, 125, 138–139, 142 doublets, 118, 166–168, 217–219, 326 Dunbar, 57, 73 Dutch, 114, 118–120, 183–184 dynamic, see pragmatic value -e, 7, 127, 129, 132–134, 148, 150, 159, 178, 293–294, 427–431 Early Modern English, 10, 12, 14, 47, 53, 62–63, 68, 71–73, 76–77, 115, 212, 214, 220, 231, 234, 236, 238, 240, 242–243, 280, 301, 323, 399, 400, 402, 406, 413, 415–416 elision, 127, 167 Emerson, 214 endocentric, see word-formation English Vowel Shift, see vowel shift Subject index epenthesis, 271, 273 epiphenomenon, 3, 7, 19–20, 25–26, 32 epistemic, 24, 31, 33, 39, 48, 322 epistolary, 65 Equivalence Constraint, see constraint ethnocentrism, 450 etymology, 3, 5–6, 19, 39, 48, 67, 85, 109–117, 119–123, 289, 300, 427, 459, 461, 464–465, 468, 470 Euro-spelling, 460 exaptive change, 350–351 existential, see pragmatic value Existential/experiential perfect, 374 extralinguistic, 53–54, 59, 61, 64, 66, 384 extrametrical, see meter Faroese, 183, 192, 203 First Fronting, 283–284, 286–287, 290, 295–297 flapping, 269, 297 foot/feet, 6–7, 10–11, 112, 129, 134, 136–140, 142, 146–147, 154–158, 164, 166–172, 178–179, 181, 231–233, 239, 247–248, 258, 264, 367, 421 – anapestic foot/anapests, 159–160, 179 – foot boundaries, see boundary – iamb(ic), 6, 136, 138, 155, 166 – inverted first foot, 128–129, 132–134, 138, 178–179 – ionic, 171 – isochronous foot, 178 – reversed foot, 139 – trisyllabic, 7, 142, 178–179 – trochee(s), 138, 157, 164–172, 179 – word-foot theory, 248, 258 French, 4, 11, 51–54, 56, 58, 61, 65, 68–73, 75, 76, 80, 84–85, 88, 90–91, 93, 112, 114–115, 120, 149, 154, 160, 173–174, 182, 184, 190, 211, 214, 487 225, 269–271, 274–275, 279, 326, 329, 401–402, 413, 455, 460, 463, 465–466 frequency, 5, 10, 13, 23, 55, 58, 62–63, 67–68, 95–96, 100, 102–103, 105, 160, 165, 178, 233, 239–240, 242, 245–250, 252–256, 263, 305, 355–356, 359, 363, 432, 436, 439 frequency hierarchy, see hierarchy front vowel(s), see vowel frontness, see vowel function words, 7, 72, 143, 178, 248–249, 252, 326, 350 functional category, 22, 27–28, 31, 33–35, 37 functional head, 27, 362, 364 functionalist, 19, 21, 41 functional-pragmatic, 61, 64 future tense, 12, 301–302, 304–305 FWP, see clitic, proclisis GAINFUL LEARNING, 329 geminate(s), 189, 284–285, 294–297, 299 General Prologue, see Chaucer Generalized Invited Inferences, see Invited Inferences generative metrics/prosody, 6–7, 125–127, 134–136, 140, 145–147, 172–173, 177–181 generative tradition/study, 20, 23, 40, 125, 149, 175, 179, 209, 218, 223, 418, genre(s), 12, 19, 31–32, 37, 55–57, 62–66, 71, 221, 301, 304–305, 319, 322, 413–414 Georgian, 350 German, 29, 72–73, 79, 88–89, 91, 112, 114, 116–117, 119–120, 149, 174, 182–184, 202, 204, 323, 348, 427, 460, 466 488 Subject index Germanic, 3, 8, 45, 110–111, 115–117, 149, 183–186, 189, 203–205, 228, 241–242, 246, 258, 262, 264–265, 270, 279, 286, 289, 296, 326, 361, 426–427, 447, 449, 462, 468 – Common Germanic, 5, 112, 116 – Indogermanic, 80 – Proto-Germanic, 185, 205, 427, 447 – West Germanic, 120 gerund, 423–425, 429–431, 434, 438, 442 GIINs, see Generalized Invited Inferences glide, 202, 234, 272–273, 435, 444, 457 glottal, 285 Gothic, 111, 116, 120, 359, 426, 446 Government, see binding Gower, 113, 126–127, 130, 181, 327, 341 grammaticalization, 3, 13, 19, 21–22, 24–31, 33–49, 325, 348, 351–354, 370–371, 396–397 – secondary grammaticalization, 27 graphic variants, see variant Great Vowel Shift, see vowel shift Greek, 80, 109, 116, 120 h, 11, 118, 284–289, 291, 293–294, 298–299, 454, 459 h-deletion, 454 Hawaii English, 198, 200 headedness, 419–420 headless line(s), 127, 129, 132, 134, 159, 169 Hebrew, 2, 17, 47, 109, 350 Helsinki Corpus, see corpus hemistich(s), 7, 154, 157–159, 168–170 hendecasyllable, 160 heterogloss(es), 87–88, 90, 93, 104 hiatus, 283, 287–294, 298 hiatus resolution, 283, 287 hierarchy – case hierarchy, 349 – frequency hierarchy, 62 – prosodic hierarchy, 134, 146, 149, 154–155, 156–158, 182 – syntactic hierarchy, 137 high vowel, see vowel Hindi, 192 historical pragmatics, see pragmatics Hoccleve, 126–127 hovering accent, 137 iamb, see foot Icelandic, 183, 206 ICEs, see Inherently Contrastive Expressions ictus, 7, 128, 134, 136, 138–139, 143–147, 177–178 non-ictus, 128, 142, 177 idiolect(s), 94, 209 IINs, see invited inference illocutionary, 301, 320 implication/implicature(s), 29, 32, 379, 384, 394 implosion, 268, 271, 279 indirect speech, 14, 401, 403, 406–407, 409 Indo-European, 5, 80, 112, 117, 184, 300, 426 Indogermanic, see Indo-European, also Germanic INERTIA, 325, 327–329, 336–340, 344–345 -ing(form), 68, 419, 423–425, 429–431, 431, 434–435, 438, 439, 441–442 Inherently Contrastive Expressions, 330, 334, 341–342, 345, 347, 350 innovation(s), 8, 15, 20–21, 23, 37, 73, 86, 175, 183–184, 210, 220, 223, 233, 263, 302, 322, 373, 450 Intention, see pragmatic value Subject index Interest, see metrical (variety) intersentential, 55, 61, 65 intrasentential, 55, 56, 59, 61, 65, 68 inverted first foot, see foot invited inference(s), 29, 35, 42 – Generalized Invited Inferences, 29, 33, 35 – Invited Inferencing Theory, 29 Ionic, see foot Irish English, 38, 60, 194, 459, see also Anglo-Irish isochrony, 178–180 isogloss, 87, 107 isomorphy, 147 Italian, 80, 110, 120, 160, 182, 323, 455 Japanese, 188–190, 196, 204, 206, 350 Jonson, Ben, 191, 451 King Alfred, see Alfredian labial, 201–203, 236 LAD, see language acquisition laminal, 189, 194 Langland, 57, 75, 148 language acquisition, 20–21, 23, 25, 37, 202, 204, 351 language change, 1, 3, 19–21, 23, 36–37, 45, 49, 79, 86, 92, 202, 250, 252, 351, 450, 456 et passim language contact, 51, 54, 71, 327 Language Custom/Sprachusus, 93–94, 98, 105 language shift, 70, 78 laterals, 237 Latin, 4, 24, 51, 53–54, 56–59, 61–63, 65, 67–70, 72, 74–77, 80, 84–85, 88, 114, 119–120, 173, 185, 275, 277, 289, 300, 326, 332, 359, 370, 400–407, 409, 411, 413, 460, 462, 464–466 489 Latinate, 433 laxing, 232, 236, 238–239 lengthening, 10, 226, 239, 271–272, 277–278, 281, 283, 288, 290, 294, 298 – compensatory lengthening, 283 – Open Syllable Lengthening, 10, 272, 277 lenition, 186, 188–189, 191, 195, 202 levels of discourse, see discourse lexical diffusion, 10, 83, 231–233, 238, 240, 242 lexical field, 29–30 lexical words, 7, 143, 144, 177–178 lexicalisation(s), 424–425 lexicography/ lexicographer(s), 67, 77, 109, 270, 452, 470 Linguistic Atlas, 83, 92, 94, 99–100, 105, 107, 279 link-vowel, see vowel loan words, 56, 404, see also borrowing local antecedent, 333, 336–337, 347 – non-local antecedence, 348 – non-local antecedent(s), 345, 347 local binding, see binding London English, 277, 327, 341 long vowel(s), see vowel Longfellow, 153, 160–161, 174 loss of unstressed vowels, see vowel Low German, 114 lowering, see vowel Lydgate, 126–127, 159 macaronic, 4, 51, 54, 56–57, 59–60, 62, 66, 68, 71–74, 76, 78 main verb(s), 263, 316, 326 manner adverbials, 14, 33, 382–383, 391, 392–393 Matrix Language Frame Model, 63, 69 Maxim of Extravagance, 36 merger(s), 11, 268, 271–272, 274–275, 277, 279, 427 490 Subject index meter/metrical, 6–8, 10, 13, 125–128, 130–131, 134–147, 149, 151, 154–159, 161–167, 169–173, 175, 177–182, 210–211, 213, 229, 245–249, 252–253, 255, 258–259, 262–264, 356, 360, 367, 370 – alternating meter, 134, 147, 171, 179 – extrametrical, 128, 159, 248, 250, 252–253, 263 – metrical anomaly, 253 – metrical boundary, see boundary – metrical complexity, 246–247, 253–254, 258, 262–263 – metrical considerations, 13, 355, 360, 367 – metrical evidence, 247 – metrical faults, 252–253, 263 – metrical norm, 10, 254, 258–259 – metrical pause, 126, 139–142, 145–146, 172, 180 – metrical refinements, 252–253 – metrical resolution, 262, 283, 287, 298 – metrical template, 127, 141, 146 – metrical variant, 355 – metricality, 7, 135–136, 145, 178, 181 metonymy, 28, 32 Middle English, 4, 8, 15, 47, 53, 60, 62, 68, 70–71, 73–77, 96, 109, 119, 125–126, 130, 146, 148–150, 175, 179, 232–235, 241, 271–272, 274, 277, 279, 281, 301, 323, 325–326, 328, 341, 342, 344–346, 348, 351, 353, 370, 376–377, 397, 414, 419, 428–432, 436–437, 442, 445, 461, 467, 470 Milton, 7, 126, 153–154, 156–157, 162–163, 169–170, 175, 211, 226–227 mixed-language texts, see text types modal verb(s), 31, 301, 321, 360, 366–367 – modal auxiliary, 12, 302 – modal categories, 12, 305 – modal functions, 305 modality, 12, 31, 302, 305–306, 321–322, 377, 396 Modern English, 12, 14, 23, 39, 44, 46, 63, 122–123, 129–130, 139, 179, 236, 275, 280–301, 323, 336–337, 343, 345, 373–378, 383–385, 387, 392–393, 445, 470 monolingual, 4, 38, 51, 54–56, 58, 64, 70, 72 monophthong(al), 269, 276, 457 monosyllabic, 127, 129–130, 137, 140, 165, 235, 326, 366–367, 433 Monosyllabic Word Constraint, see constraint Mopsey(s), 276–277 mora(ic), 204, 291, 294 morpheme, 27, 37, 236 morpheme boundaries, see boundary morphosyntax, 2–3, 12, 19, 23, 27–28, 32–35, 39, 44, 76 multilingual(ism), 4, 51, 53, 58, 64, 70–72, 75–76, 416 MWC, see Monosyllabic Word Constraint, constraint nasal(s), 204, 233, 283–284, 295 Necessity, see pragmatic value negation, 28, 43, 356–360, 362, 367–369 – negative constituents, see constituent – negative-initial (element), 13, 355–356, 358, 361, 366–369 – negator (sentential), 359, 362–363, 368 Neogrammarian, 4, 30, 80- 81, 83–87, 91–94, 98–99, 107, 178, 242 Subject index neutralization, 69, 72, 384–385 New Zealand, 38, 41, 456 nominal compound, see compound nominalisation, 426–427, 429–430, 437–438 non-ictus, see ictus non-local antecedent(s), see local antecedent non-standard, 10, 38, 246 non-theta, see theta, 331, 333, 337 Norman French, 327, see also AngloNorman Norman(s), 51, 73, 454 Northumbrian, 285 Norwegian, 183–184, 192, 203 Obligation, see pragmatic value ODEE, 109–111, 117, 119, 122 OED, 5, 15, 32, 110, 113, 122, 344, 404, 423, 432–436, 438, 440–447, 452, 456, 465, 468, 470 OED2, 420–421, 432–433, 435, 445 OEDAS, 421, 432, 435 Old English, 10–11, 13–14, 29, 112, 115, 117, 119, 131, 233, 242, 245–246, 248–250, 259, 264–265, 271, 273–275, 279, 283–289, 297–300, 325–326, 329, 331, 333, 336, 339, 342, 344–346, 348, 353, 355–356, 358–362, 364, 366–371, 373–374, 376–378, 382–383, 385, 387, 392–395, 397, 401, 416, 419, 426–430, 442, 444–445, 449, 460, 463, 466, 468 Old Icelandic, 116, 120 Old Norse, 114 Old Saxon, 116–117, 395, 427 onomatopoeia, 5, 112–115, 117 Open Syllable Lengthening, see lengthening Optimality Theory, 6, 61, 155, 169 optimization, 36, 271 491 Order, see pragmatic value Orm/Ormulum, 131–132 338–339 orthoepist(s), 232–233, 276 orthography, 145, 201, 270, 304, 429, 456 Orwell, George, 456 Oxford English Dictionary, see OED palatal(ization), 112, 201–203, 289, 292, 294 parameter(s), 19, 24, 44, 67, 238, 349, 397 – parameter resetting, 13, 325, 349–350 – parametric change, 24 participles, 129, 422–434 past perfect, see perfect tense PATTERN GENERALIZATION, 325, 339, 344 pejoration, 28, 30, 32–33 pentameter, 6–7, 125–127, 135–136, 140, 143, 146–148, 153–157, 159–160, 164, 168–173, 179, 181 perfect tense, 13–14, 373, 382–383, 394 – past perfect, 14, 373–374, 383–388, 391–395 – present-inclusive, 379–380, 382 – present perfect, 373–374, 376–378, 382–384, 392, 394, 396 – resultative perfect, 375, 392 – universal perfect(s), 375, 377–378, 380–383, 387, 389–390, 392–393 performance, 140, 144, 177–178 performative, 28, 31 periphery, 86–88, 95–96, 222, see also core Permission, see pragmatic value Personal pronoun subject(s), 361, 363–365 philology, 8, 12, 228, 449, 452, 454 Philological Society, 8, 370, 452, 454, 457–458, 460, 463, 467, 470 492 Subject index phonology, 2, 8, 150, 174, 182, 203–206, 241–242, 280–281, 295, 353, 454, 470 – phonological boundaries, see boundary – phonological/phonetic reduction, 25–27, 34, 233–234, 240, 290, 297, 325, 344, 359, 368–369 phonotactic constraints, see constraint phrase boundary, see boundary Piers Plowman, 56–57, 62–63, 65–66, 72–75, 77 Pinsky, Robert, 207, 222, 227–228 pleonastic (pronouns), 331, 347 polysemy, 29, 33, 394 pragmatic polysemy, 33 polysyllabic, 140, 166, 170, 172, 211, 433 Pope, 126, 137, 141, 208–209, 211–213, 223–224, 227, 229, 369 possessors, 330, 337, 340, 345 pragmatic(s), 3–4, 12, 19, 21–22, 24, 28–29, 31, 33–36, 39–40, 42–43, 47–49, 52, 61, 63–66, 71, 74, 87, 301–305, 311, 316, 318, 321–323, 375, 396, 399–400, 413–414 – historical pragmatics, 3, 19, 22, 29 – pragmatic-semantic, 19, 24, 28, 34–35 pragmatic value, 304 – Advice, 310, 313 – Assurance, 318–319 – deontic, 12, 31, 39, 304–305 308–309, 311–312, 315, 321–322 – dynamic, 12, 304–305, 316, 321–322 – existential, 14, 374–379, 380, 382–383, 387–388, 392–393 – Intention, 307–308 – Necessity, 306, 321 – Obligation, 306, 310- 311, 321 – Order, see pragmatic value, 310–311 – Permission, 306, 315 – Prediction, 306, 316, 318 – Prohibition, 310, 312 – Promise, 307, 309 – Prophecy, 318–319 – Proposal, 310, 313 – Threat, 307–308 pre-Christian, see Christian Prediction, see pragmatic value preposition(s), 13, 62–63, 72, 130–132, 171, 325, 328, 345–346, 419 present perfect, see perfect tense present-inclusive, see perfect tense Principle of Closure, 248, 255 proclisis, see clitic Pro-Drop, 341, 349 Prohibition, see pragmatic value Promise, see pragmatic value pronominal (subject/object), 341, 345, 347–348, 350, 361–365, 370, 403, 406–407, 409, 414 Prophecy, see pragmatic value Proposal, see pragmatic value prosodic/prosody, 6, 125, 127, 131–132, 134–135, 146–151, 173–175, 179, 182, 193–194, 225–227, 360, 366 – prosodic constituent, see constituent – prosodic word, 135 pseudo-compound(s), see compound punctuation, 141, 262, 402, 408–409 quatrain, 174, 216 reanalysis, 22, 25, 32, 34, 45, 420–422, 424–427, 431, 443 Received Pronunciation/RP, 198–199, 457–458 reflexive(s) pronouns, 12–13, 325, 337, 348, 350–352 Subject index register(s), 37, 55, 216, 301, 399, 401–402, 404, 413 reported speech, 14, 400–401, 405, 408–409, 411 resolution, see metrical resolution resultative, 14, 373–380, 382–383, 385, 387–388, 391–393 resultative perfect, see perfect tense retro?ex(ion), 8–9, 183–185, 188–198, 200–203 reversed foot, see foot rhotic/rhoticity, 183, 185, 188–189, 192, 196–197, 201–203 rhyme(s), 9, 113, 154, 160, 166–167, 207–225, 228–229 – eye rhyme, 155, 210, 217–220 – full rhyme, 9, 210, 212–214, 219, 224 – near rhyme, 155 – off rhyme, 155, see also slant rhyme – partial rhyme, 209–215, 220, 223, 228 – perfect rhymes, 222 – rhyme riche, 155 – rock rhyme, 221 – sight-rhyme, see eye-rhyme – slant rhyme, 155, 210, 222 – traditional rhyme, 218, 220–221, 224 rhythm, 7, 125, 127, 174, 178, 182 Rhythm Rule, 130 rhythmical prose, 262 Romance languages, 85, 106, 120, 466 root clauses, 13, 356–359, 363–364, 367–368 RP, see Received Pronunciation R-Vocalization, 197–199 Saxon(s), 331, 369, 395, 454, 460, 462–464, 467, 469 Scandinavian, 11, 114, 119, 203–204, 271–272, 274, 279, 327, 368 493 scansion, 10, 129–130, 157–158, 166, 247–248, 251, 257, 259, 263–264 schwa, 100, 132, 171, 197–199, 235 schwa loss, 235, see also -e scientific texts, see text types Scots (English), 38, 65, 74, 188, 195, 279, 458, 460 scribe/sribal, 51, 55–56, 404–405, 407–412 S-curve, 5, 103, 346 Second Consonant Shift, 112 secondary grammaticalization, see grammaticalization Semantic(s), 2, 12, 40, 42, 45, 396, 445 – semantic change, 22, 25–26, 28–33, 37, 39, 42, 45–46, 48–49 – amelioration, 28, 32 – bleaching/bleached, 25, 27, 348 – specialization, 28, 32 – semantic constraints, see constraint – semantic meanings, 375–376 – semantic shift, 421 – semantic targets, 91, 96 – semantic universals, 328 sentence boundaries, see boundary sermon(s), see text types Shakespeare, 6–7, 9, 118, 126, 130, 134, 138–140, 142, 144, 154, 156–157, 159, 162–164, 169–171, 173, 177, 179–180, 207–209, 211–212, 215–218, 220–224, 226–227, 229, 232, 239, 242, 349, 461 – Sonnets, 9, 162, 208–209, 215–217, 219–220, 223 – The Merchant of Venice, 136 Shaw, 460 Shelley, 134–136 short diphthongs, see diphthong short vowel, see vowel shortening, 120, 231–237, 239, 242, 278 Sidney, 134, 147, 214, 446 494 Subject index Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, 126 Skelton, 57, 73, 349 slander depositions, see text types SMP, see stress, Stress Maximum Principle sociolinguistic(s), 4, 37, 52–53, 61, 66, 71, 78, 104, 108, 399 sociolinguistic factors, 66 sociolinguistic variables, 104, 399 sociophysical meanings, 33 Sonnets, see Shakespeare sonorant, 190–191, 196, 294–297 sound change, 4–5, 9–11, 81, 83, 85, 88, 92–94, 96–100, 102, 104–105, 195, 231, 233, 238–242, 268, 274, 283, 296, 298, 455, 458 sound symbolism, 112 South African English, 199, 202 Specialization, see semantic change speech act/event, 31–32, 301–302, 311, 314, 320, 415 speech communities, 86, 93–94, 104, 400 speech-based texts, see text types spelling reform, 454–456, 459 spelling variation, 327, see also variant spellings Spenser, 134, 147, 214, 221, 227 Standard English, 72, 96, 106, 111, 114, 277, 325–326, 328–329, 336–338, 340, 343–347, 350, 450–451, 470 standardization, 38 stress – alternating stress, 126, 134, 173 – Compound Stress Rule, 247 – stress "doublets", 167 – Stress Maximum Principle, 134–136, 155, 162–163, 166–167, 172 – stress maximum/minimum, 134–136, 155, 162 – stress shift, 126, 128, 130–132, 141, 180–181, 234, 242 – stressed syllable, see syllable – stressed vowel, see vowel – stressers, 125, 145, 177, see also timers – stress-promotion convention, 167 – subordinate stress, 258, 264 – variable stress, 127, 147, 177 subjectification, 28, 32–33, 39, 45, 48 subordinate stress, see stress sulcal(ity), 9, 185, 189–192, 198–199 supra-regional code, see code Swedish, 183–184, 192–193, 197, 199, 203 Swinburne, 156, 227 syllable, 7, 10, 126–136, 139–140, 142–146, 154, 159–160, 170–172, 179, 181, 183, 193–195, 197, 200–202, 219, 232–235, 241, 249, 264, 271, 287, 290, 294, 299, 344, 369 – stressed syllable, 156, 172, 180, 272 – syllable coda, 183, 185–186, 191, 193, 195, 197, 202–203, 272–273 – unstressed syllable(s) 7, 135–136, 144, 159–160, 162, 171–172, 178–179, 325, 457 synaesthesia, 30 syncopation, 129, 132, 134, 143, 167, 170 synonyms, 111, 112, 118, 329, 347 synonymy, see ANTI-SYNONYMY syntax, 3, 22, 24, 27, 133, 141, 149–150, 165, 174, 181, 255, 258, 352, 361, 397, 407, 415, 431, 442, 451 – archaic syntax, 255, 258 – syntactic boundary, see boundary – syntactic break, 139–141, 145–146 – syntactic constraints, see constraint Subject index 495 – syntactic inversion, 161–162, 165, 170, 361 synthetic compound, see compound trochaic, 7, 155, 160, 164, 166, 168–170, 247–248, 252, 262 trochee(s), see foot/feet tap(ping), 143, 177, 183, 185–192, 195, 201, 203 – dental tap, 201 – Tap Retroflexion, 190–191 telic interpretation, 331, 394 tension, 6–7, 136, 145, 155, 178, 181 tetrameter, 125, 155, 159 text types, 4, 12, 37, 55–56, 58, 62, 63, 65–66, 70–71, 301, 304–305, 309, 312, 314–316, 319, 321–322, 399 – deposition, 55, 400, 402, 406, 409 – legal English, 404 – mixed-language texts, 4, 51–52, 54–56, 58, 60, 67, 70–72 – scientific texts, 65, 72 – sermon(s), 54–56, 58–60, 62–63, 65–66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 301, 304–305, 313–314, 317, 319, 322, 413 – slander depositions, 14, 399, 402, 412 – speech-based texts, 301, 399, 401 theta (role), 331–334, 337–338, 340–342, 346–348 – non-theta, 331, 333, 337 Threat, see pragmatic value tilt(ing), 7, 126–127, 146, 160, 167–169, 172, 177 timers, 125, 145–146, 177, see also stress, stressers Topic Drop, 341 topicalization transformation, 165 Toronto text corpus, see corpus trigger (experience), 20, 23, 36, 366 trilingual, 58, 76 trill, 9, 183–190, 192, 195, 202 Trill Lenition, 187–188 trimeter, 126 umlaut, 292–293, 295 unidirectionality, 3, 21, 23, 25–28, 30–32, 36 uniformity, 34 universal perfect(s), see perfect tense unstressed syllables, see syllable unstressed vowel, see vowel uvular r, 183–184, 204 V1-ing compounding, see compound variable stress, see stress variables, 53–54, 59, 61, 64, 66, 104, 165 sociolinguistic variables, 37–38, 104, 399, 466 variable vowel loss, 427, 429 variant(s), 9, 87, 91, 96, 100, 155, 158, 167, 219, 221, 246, 248–250, 252–256, 263–264, 268–269, 283, 322 – graphic variants, 304 – variant spellings, 217, 454–455 variation, 5, 7, 9, 37, 46, 61, 69, 79–80, 85–86, 93–94, 96, 104–106, 128, 187, 192, 195, 197, 209–211, 213, 215, 218–219, 221–222, 235, 303, 353, 429–431 verb placement, 13, 142, 161, 355, 360–361, 366 – sentence-internal, 362–366 – variable, 363–364, 366 – verb-final, 355, 360, 366–367 – verb-fronting, 356, 360, 366–367 – verb-movement, 358–359 – verb-second, 361 verb-verb compound, see compound 496 Subject index vernacular(ization), 53, 70, 76–77, 84, 323, 463 verse norms, 247, 253 VN(s), see compound vocalization, 197–199, 271, 273 vowel, 9–11, 96, 98–100, 149, 189, 197–199, 208–214, 217–221, 224, 231–237, 239–240, 242, 264, 267, 269–272, 274, 279, 284–285, 287, 291, 293–294, 297, 358–359, 368–369, 428, 430, 450, 453, 457, 467 – back vowel, 11, 237, 271, 279, 285, 287–290, 294–296, 298 – backness, 100–101, 288 – central vowel, 237, 283, 457 – front vowel(s), 237, 271, 283, 285–287, 290–292, 294, 298 – frontness, 100–101, 288 – high vowel, 267 – link-vowel, 427, 429–430 – long vowel(s), 10, 218, 235, 272, 275, 278, 284, 288–298 – loss of (unstressed) vowels, 283, 427 – lowering, 199, 267–268, 270–271, 278, 459 – short vowel, 218, 235, 271–272, 275, 278, 294 – stressed vowel, 288, 291 – unstressed vowel, 233, 288, 290, 293 – vowel alternations, 209, 221, 224 – vowel height, 99, 100 – vowel quality, 231–232 – vowel reduction, 233, 325, 369 – vowel variation, 207, 212 vowel shift, 11, 108, 243, 267–268, 270, 281, 458 – Great Vowel Shift, 239, 267, 280–281, 459 VV, see compound Welsh English, 198–199 West Germanic, see Germanic West Saxon, 283, 288, 294, 395 word boundary, see boundary word formation, 113, 117, 417–418, 422, 433, 438, 442–443, see also compound – back-formation, 418, 420, 425–426 – base derivation, 442 – direct formation, 418, 442 – endocentric, 15, 417–419, 433, 437 word frequency, 231–233 word order, 13, 23, 28, 42, 161, 166, 253–254, 320, 355–356, 358–361, 363–364, 366–367 word-foot theory, see foot Wordsworth, 126 Wycliff(ites), 343, 456 Yiddish, 120, 183, 205 Zero, 22 – Zero-derivation, 419–420, 431 – Zero-nominal, 424–425, 428, 431, 433, 435 Topics in English Linguistics Edited by Bernd Kortmann and Elizabeth Closs Traugott Mouton de Gruyter · Berlin · New York Niels Davidsen-Nielsen, Tense and Mood in English A Comparison with Danish 1990 Historical English Syntax Edited by Dieter Kastovsky 1991 English Computer Corpora Selected Papers and Research Guide Edited by Stig Johansson and Anna-Brita Stenström 1991 Donka Minkova, The History of Final Vowels in English The Sound of Muting 1991 Lia Korrel, Duration in English A Basic Choice, Illustrated in Comparison with Dutch 1991 Andreas H Jucker, Social Stylistics Syntactic Variation in British Newspapers 1992 Ken-ichi Takami, Preposition Stranding From Syntactic to Functional Analyses 1992 Bas Aarts, Small Clauses in English The Nonverbal Types 1992 New Directions in English Language Corpora Methodology, Results, Software Developments Edited by Gerhard Leitner 1992 10 History of Englishes New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics Edited by Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen and Irma Taavitsainen 1992 11 Early English in the Computer Age Explorations through the Helsinki Corpus Edited by Matti Rissanen, Merja Kytö and Minna Palander-Collin 1993 12 Towards a Standard English: 1600–1800 Edited by Dieter Stein and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade 1993 13 Studies in Early Modern English Edited by Dieter Kastovsky 1994 14 Ronald Geluykens, The Pragmatics of Discourse Anaphora in English Evidence from Conversational Repair 1994 15 Traute Ewers, The Origin of American Black English Be-Forms in the HOODOO Texts 1996 16 Ilse Depraetere, The Tense System in English Relative Clauses A CorpusBased Analysis 1996 17 Michiko Ogura, Verbs in Medieval English Differences in Verb Choice in Verse and Prose 1996 18 Spanish Loanwords in the English Language A Tendency towards Hegemony Reversal Edited by Félix Rodríguez Gonzáles 1996 19 Laurel J Brinton, Pragmatic Markers in English Grammaticalization and Discourse Functions 1996 20 Christiane Dalton-Puffer, The French Influence on Middle English Morphology A Corpus-Based Study on Derivation 1996 21 Johan Elsness, The Perfect and the Preterite in Contemporary and Earlier English 1997 22 Carl Bache and Niels Davidsen-Nielsen, Mastering English An Advanced Grammar for Non-native and Native Speakers 1997 23 English in Transition Corpus-based Studies in Linguistic Variation and Genre Styles Edited by Matti Rissanen, Merja Kytö and Kirsi Heikkonen 1997 24 Grammaticalization at Work Studies of Long-term Developments in English Edited by Matti Rissanen, Merja Kytö and Kirsi Heikkonen 1997 25 Axel Hübler, The Expressivity of Grammar Grammatical Devices Expressing Emotion across Time 1998 26 Negation in the History of English Edited by Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Gunnel Tottie and Wim van der Wurff 1998 27 Martina Häcker, Adverbial Clauses in Scots: A Semantic-Syntactic Study 1998 28 Ingo Plag, Morphological Productivity Structural Constraints in English Derivation 1999 29 Gustav Muthmann, Reverse English Dictionary Based on Phonological and Morphological Principles 1999 30 Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads A Cognitive Perspective Edited by Antonio Barcelona 2000 31 Generative Theory and Corpus Studies A Dialogue from 10 ICEHL Edited by Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, David Denison, Richard M Hogg and C B McCully 2000 32 Manfred G Krug, Emerging English Modals A Corpus-Based Study of Grammaticalization 2000 33 Cause – Condition – Concession – Contrast Cognitive and Discourse Perspectives Edited by Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen and Bernd Kortmann 2000 34 Hans-Jörg Schmid, English Abstract Nouns as Conceptual Shells From Corpus to Cognition 2000 35 Placing Middle English in Context Edited by Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen 2000 36 Michael G Getty, A Constraint-based Approach to the Metre of Beowulf Forthcoming 37 Renaat Declerck and Susan Reed, Conditionals A Comprehensive Empirical Analysis 2001 38 Alexander Kautzsch, The Historical Evolution of Earlier African American English An Empirical Comparison of Early Sources 2002 .. .Studies in the History of the English Language ≥ Topics in English Linguistics 39 Editors Elizabeth Closs Traugott Bernd Kortmann Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York Studies in the History of. .. shall in an Early Modern English corpus; the texts examined are those included in the third section of the Early Modern English part of The Helsinki Corpus of English Texts The results of this... one of the principal scholars in the initiation of research into the historical process of grammaticalization, by means of which new grammatical formatives come into languages In introducing