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INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE Edited by Stephen S. Young and Steven E. Silvern International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change Edited by Stephen S. Young and Steven E. Silvern Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Anja Filipovic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published January, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change, Edited by Stephen S. Young and Steven E. Silvern p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-815-1 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Part 1 Climate Change 1 Two Cultures, Multiple Theoretical Perspectives: Chapter 1 The Problem of Integration of Natural and Social Sciences in Earth System Research 3 Diógenes S. Alves History and Prediction of the Asian Monsoon Chapter 2 and Glacial Terminations, Based on Records from the South China Sea 25 Hong Ao and Guoqiao Xiao Climate Change and Health Effects 35 Chapter 3 Rajan R. Patil Agricultural Technological and Institutional Chapter 4 Innovations for Enhanced Adaptation to Environmental Change in North Africa 57 Ali Nefzaoui, Habib Ketata and Mohammed El Mourid Possible Evolutionary Response to Global Change – Chapter 5 Evolutionary Rescue? 85 Lars A. Bach and Cino Pertoldi Part 2 Historical Environmental Change 105 How Did Past Environmental Change Affect Chapter 6 Carnivore Diversity and Home-Range-Size in Spain? 107 María T. Alberdi, José L. Prado, Esperanza Cerdeño and Beatriz Azanza VI Contents Response of Biogenic Silica Production in Chapter 7 Lake Baikal and Uranium Weathering Intensity in the Catchment Area to Global Climate Changes 121 Takuma Murakami, Nagayoshi Katsuta, Takejiro Takamatsu, Masao Takano, Koshi Yamamoto, Toshio Nakamura and Takayoshi Kawai Continental Erosion/Weathering Changes Chapter 8 in Central Asia Recorded in the Holocene Sediment from Lake Hovsgol, Northwest Mongolia, by Synchrotron μ-XRF Mapping Analyses 137 Nagayoshi Katsuta, Takuma Murakami, Yuko Wada, Masao Takano, Theoretical Perspectives on Global Stratification Theoretical Perspectives on Global Stratification Bởi: OpenStaxCollege As with any social issue, global or otherwise, there are a variety of theories that scholars develop to study the topic The two most widely applied perspectives on global stratification are modernization theory and dependency theory Modernization Theory According to modernization theory, low-income countries are affected by their lack of industrialization and can improve their global economic standing through: an adjustment of cultural values and attitudes to work industrialization and other forms of economic growth (Armer and Katsillis 2010) Critics point out the inherent ethnocentric bias of this theory It supposes all countries have the same resources and are capable of following the same path In addition, it assumes that the goal of all countries is to be as “developed” as possible There is no room within this theory for the possibility that industrialization and technology are not the best goals There is, of course, some basis for this assumption Data show that core nations tend to have lower maternal and child mortality rates, longer life spans, and less absolute poverty It is also true that in the poorest countries, millions of people die from the lack of clean drinking water and sanitation facilities, which are benefits most of us take for granted At the same time, the issue is more complex than the numbers might suggest Cultural equality, history, community, and local traditions are all at risk as modernization pushes into peripheral countries The challenge, then, is to allow the benefits of modernization while maintaining a cultural sensitivity to what already exists 1/5 Theoretical Perspectives on Global Stratification Dependency Theory Dependency theory was created in part as a response to the western-centric mindset of modernization theory It states that global inequality is primarily caused by core nations (or high-income nations) exploiting semi-peripheral and peripheral nations (or middleincome and low-income nations), creating a cycle of dependence (Hendricks 2010) As long as peripheral nations are dependent on core nations for economic stimulus and access to a larger piece of the global economy, they will never achieve stable and consistent economic growth Further, the theory states that since core nations, as well as the World Bank, choose which countries to make loans to, and for what they will loan funds, they are creating highly segmented labor markets that are built to benefit the dominant market countries At first glance, it seems this theory ignores the formerly low-income nations that are now considered middle-income nations and are on their way to becoming high-income nations and major players in the global economy, such as China But some dependency theorists would state that it is in the best interests of core nations to ensure the longterm usefulness of their peripheral and semi-peripheral partners Following that theory, sociologists have found that entities are more likely to outsource a significant portion of a company’s work if they are the dominant player in the equation; in other words, companies want to see their partner countries healthy enough to provide work, but not so healthy as to establish a threat (Caniels and Roeleveld 2009) Factory Girls We’ve examined functionalist and conflict theorist perspectives on global inequality, as well as modernization and dependency theories How might a symbolic interactionist approach this topic? The book Factory Girls: From Village to City in Changing China, by Leslie T Chang, provides this opportunity Chang follows two young women (Min and Chunming) employed at a handbag plant They help manufacture coveted purses and bags for the global market As part of the growing population of young people who are leaving behind the homesteads and farms of rural China, these female factory workers are ready to enter the urban fray and pursue an ambitious income Although Chang’s study is based in a town many have never heard of (Dongguan), this city produces one-third of all shoes on the planet (Nike and Reebok are major manufacturers here) and 30 percent of the world’s computer disk drives, in addition to a plethora of apparel (Chang 2008) But Chang’s focus is less centered on this global phenomenon on a large scale, and more concerned with how it affects these two women As a symbolic interactionist would do, 2/5 Theoretical Perspectives on Global Stratification Chang examines the daily lives and interactions of Min and Chunming—their workplace friendships, family relations, gadgets and goods—in this evolving global space where young women can leave tradition behind and fashion their own futures Their story is one that all people, not just scholars, can learn from as we contemplate sociological issues like global economies, cultural traditions and innovations, and opportunities for women in the workforce Summary Modernization ...Two Cultures, Multiple Theoretical Perspectives: The Problem of Integration of Natural and Social Sciences in Earth System Research 19 Cardoso, F.H. (1972). Dependency and Development in Latin America. New Left Review, pp. 83-95 Comte, A. (1830-1842). Cours de Philosophie Positive. 1re et 2e leçons. Retrieved from. http://www.uqac.uquebec.ca/zone30/Classiques_des_sciences_sociales/index.ht ml de Alvarenga, A.T.; Philippi Jr., A. ; Sommerman, A.; Alvarez, A.M.S. & Fernandes, W. (2011). Histórico, fundamentos filosóficos e teórico-metodológicos da interdisciplinaridade, In: Interdisciplinaridade em ciência, tecnologia & inovação, A. Philippi Jr & A.J. Silva Neto (Eds.), 3-68, Manole, ISBN 978-85-204-3046-0, Barueri, Brazil Domingues, J.M. (1999). Sociologia da cultura, memória e criatividade social. Dados [online], Vol. 42. Retrieved from: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0011- 52581999000200004&lng=en&nrm=iso Domingues, J.M. (1998). Modernidade, tradição e reflexividade no Brasil contemporâneo. Tempo Social, Vol. 10, pp. 209-234. Retrieved from: http://www.fflch.usp.br/sociologia/temposocial/site/images/stories/edicoes/v1 02/modernidade.pdf Durkheim, E. (1893). De la division du travail social. Retrieved from http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Durkheim_emile/division_du_travail/divisi on_travail.html Durkheim, E. (1894). Les règles de la méthode sociologique. Retrieved from http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Durkheim_emile/regles_methode/regles_m ethode.html Durkheim, E. (1897). Le Suicide, Retrieved from http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Durkheim_emile/suicide/suicide.html Floriani, D.; Brandenburg, A.; Ferreira, A.D.D.; Teixeira, C.; Mendonça, F.A.; Lima, J.E.S.; Andriguetto Filho, J.M.; Knechtel, M.R. & Lana, P.C (2011). Construção interdisciplinar do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento da UFPR, In : Interdisciplinaridade em ciência, tecnologia & inovação, A. Philippi Jr & A.J. Silva Neto (Eds.), 342-425, Manole, ISBN 978-85-204-3046-0, Barueri, Brazil Forster, P.; V. Ramaswamy, V.; Artaxo, P.; Berntsen, T.; Betts, R. ; Fahey, D.W. ; Haywood, J.; Lean, J.; Lowe, D.C.; Myhre, G. ; Nganga, J.; Prinn, R.; Raga, G.; Schulz, M.; & Van Dorland, R. (2007): Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, S.D. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor & H.L. Miller (Eds.), 129-234, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521705967, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA Furtado, C. (1998) O mito do desenvolvimento econômico, (2nd Edn), Paz e Terra, ISBN 9788521902133, São Paulo Gell-Mann, M. (1994). Complex Adaptive Systems, In : Complexity : Metaphors, Models, and Reality, G. Gowan, D. Pines & D. Meltzer (Eds.), 17-29, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, USA International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change 20 Geoghegan, J; Pritchard Jr., L; Ogneva-Himmelberger, Y.; Chowdhury, R.R.; Sanderson, S. & Turner II, B.L. (1998). «Socializing the Pixel» and « Pixelizing the Social » in Land- Use and Land-Cover Change, In : People and Pixels, Linking Remote Sensing and Social Science, D. Liverman, E.F. Moran, R.R. Rindfuss & P.C. Stern, (Eds.), 51-69, National Academy Press, ISBN 0-309-06408-2, Washington, D.C., USA Giddens, A. (2001). Em defesa da Sociologia, UNESP, ISBN: 9788571393639, São Paulo, Brazil Grimm, V.; Revilla, E.; Berger, U.; Jeltsch, F.; Mooij, W.M.; Railsback, S.F.; Thulke, H-H.; Weiner, J.; Wiegand, T. & DeAngelis, D.L. (2005). Pattern-Oriented Modeling of Agent-Based Complex Systems: Lessons from Ecology, Science, Vol. 310, pp. 987- 991 Habermas, J. (2000). La technique et la Climate Change and Health Effects 49 borne illness and food insecurity, both likely outcomes of climate change, may lead to malnutrition. While adult humans exposed to mild famine usually recover quite well when food again becomes plentiful, nutritional reductions to a fetus in the womb appear to have lasting effects throughout life. Climate change effects on food availability and nutritional content could have a marked, multigenerational effect on human development. Certain commercial chemicals present in storage sites or hazardous waste sites can alter human development. Flooding from extreme weather events and sea-level rise are likely to result in the release of some of these chemicals and heavy metals, most likely affecting drinking and recreational waters. Some of these, including mercury and lead, have known negative developmental effects (IWGCCH, u.d). 8. Cancer Since last 30 years there has been concern that anthropogenic damage to the earth's stratospheric ozone layer will lead to an increase of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching the earth's surface, with a consequent adverse impact on human health, especially to the skin. More recently, there has been an increased awareness of the interactions between ozone depletion and climate change (global warming), which could also impact on human exposure to terrestrial UV. The most serious effect of changing UV exposure of human skin is the potential rise in incidence of skin cancers. Climate change, which is predicted to lead to an increased frequency of extreme temperature events and high summer temperatures. This could impact on human UV exposure by encouraging people to spend more time in the sun. While future social trends remain uncertain, it is likely that over this century behavior associated with climate change, rather than ozone depletion, will be the largest determinant of sun exposure, and consequent impact on skin cancer (Diffey, 2004). 9. Mental health Climate change has potential to influence mental health and behavior. It is observed that those with lower socioeconomic standing are more likely to choose to relocate permanently following a devastating event, often due to limited resources to rebuild property and restore livelihood. In addition, people will continue to experience place-based distress caused by the effects of climate change due to involuntary migration or the loss of connection to one’s home environment, a phenomenon called “Solastalgia”. (IWGCCH) Climatic changes may have a significant impact on various dimensions of mental health and well-being. India has been witnessing high incidence of for cotton farmers’ deaths/suicides since 1998. The socioeconomic-political factors emerge as very strong determinants of deaths, given the occupational work environment. Also there is decreasing yield of cotton over the years resulting in loss of revenue for the farmers leading them to mental distress. (Patil, 2002) Violent crime may be exacerbated during heat waves because more stress hormones are released when people are exposed to excessive heat (simister & Cooper, 2004). More alcohol and drugs may be consumed during heat waves, and more people may seek help for their psychiatric problems during these periods (Bulbena et al, 2006). Drought appears to contribute to a variety of mental health effects, including more stress, grief, and hopelessness as well a sense of solastalgia, which describes a palpable sense of dislocation and loss people feel when they perceive changes to their local environment are pervasively harmful (Sartore et al, 2007).Conflict among people may be one of the hallmarks of climate International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change 50 change’s severe weather, which can displace thousands or millions and lead to those people How Did Past Environmental Change Affect Carnivore Diversity and Home-Range-Size in Spain? 109 Fig. 1. Geographical distribution of the selected localities from Spain. Van Valkenburgh (1985, 1988, 1989) confined large terrestrial carnivore guilds to predators weighting 7 kg or more (jackal size and larger), proposing this size threshold because of the evidence in extant species for strong competitive interactions among carnivores larger than 7 kg, being weaker among smaller carnivores; in addition, the representation of large carnivores in the fossil record is better. On the other hand, because larger predators achieve a higher net gain rate by concentrating on large prey, Carbone et al. (2007) predicted the threshold of 14.5 kg, where predators switch from small to large prey. We follow this criterion, and restrict our study to species of the three families that include top terrestrial predators: Canidae, Felidae and Hyaenidae. Ursidae are excluded due to their omnivorous feeding behaviour that rarely includes meat. For each species, we compiled data of its presence in fossil sites, body-size, diet and preferred habitat. We used a taxon-free characterization by means of two ecological criteria of classification. According to the feeding behavior, species were classified in two trophic categories: (1) Carnivore (C): hypercarnivores with a diet that consists of 70% or more flesh meat, bone-eaters, bone-crushers and scavenging bone-crackers; and (2) Carnivore- Omnivore (OM): including flesh-eaters (with less than 10% flesh in their diet), taxa feeding on invertebrates, and occasionally on fruit. Concerning the preferred habitat, three major ecological categories were considered: (1) Forest dwellers (FH): taxa inhabiting forest, closed woodland, bushland, Mediterranean “macchia”, open woodland, and miscellaneous woodland; (2) Ubiquitous (MXH): including more flexible taxa, inhabitants of shrubland or woodland, as well as open landscape, or at the edge of both; and (3) Open landscape dwellers (OH): including taxa inhabiting grassland, steppe or savanna (Figure 2). International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change 110 Fig. 2. Biochronological framework. Carnivoran standing diversity, habitat preferences over the Plio-Pleistocene and climatic trend. The HR-size of fossil species was estimated using the regression for each family, habitat preference and trophic categories. The relationship between HR-size and body size (or body weight, BW) has been stated by McNab (1963) using the allometric equation HR = a BW b . This author considered two categories: hunters and croppers, the former having a greater allometric coefficient (a), a fact he attributed to the relatively low density of their preferred food items. Posterior studies, such us that by Gittleman & Harvey (1982), have established that carnivorous species had larger HR-size than herbivorous species of similar body mass, and that the distribution of food resources is more homogeneous for herbivores than for carnivores. However, other studies (Kelt & Van Vuren, 1999) defend that scaling relations of How Did Past Environmental Change Affect Carnivore Diversity and Home-Range-Size in Spain? 111 HR-size are not statistically different between carnivorous and herbivorous or omnivorous species. Among terrestrial mammals, carnivore guilds have the broadest range of HR-sizes. Some of the variation in the HR-size of Carnivora can be explained by diet. Paleobiodiversity refers to the richness of species, measured as the total number of taxa in a time interval. To avoid over estimation of taxa, we use the ‘‘Estimated mean standing Diversity’’ (N sd ), following the methodology developed by Foote (2000). The N sd has been calculated for each time interval using both the initial data base and the data base resulting RESEARC H Open AccessIraqi health system in kurdistan region: medicalprofessionals’ perspectives on challenges andpriorities for improvementNazar P Shabila1*, Namir G Al-Tawil1, Rebaz Tahir2, Falah H Shwani2, Abubakir M Saleh1, Tariq S Al-Hadithi1AbstractBackground: The views of medical professionals on efficiency of health system and needs for any changes arevery critical and constitute a cornerstone for any health system improvement. This is particularly relevant to IraqiKurdistan case as the events of the last few decades have significantly devastated the national Iraqi health systemwhile the necessity for adopting a new health care system is increasingly recognized since 2004. This study aims toexamine the regional health system in Iraqi Kurdistan from medical professionals’ perspectives and try to define itsproblems and priorities for improvement.Methods: A survey questionnaire was developed and administered to a convenience sample of 250 medicalprofessionals in Erbil governorate. The questionnaire included four items; rating of the quality of services andavailability of resources in the health institutions, view on different aspects of the health system, the perceivedpriority needs for health system improvement and gender and professional characteristics of the respondents.Results: The response rate to the survey was 83.6%. A high proportion of respondents rated the different aspectsof services and resources in the health institutions as weak or very weak including the availability of the requiredquantity and quality of medicines (68.7%), the availability of sufficient medical equipment and investigation tools(68.7%), and the quality of offered services (65.3%). Around 72% of respondents had a rather negative view on theoverall health system. The weak role of medical research, the weak role of professional associations in controllingthe system and the inefficient health education were identified as important problems in the current health system(87.9%, 87.1% and 84.9%, respectively). The priority needs of health system improvement included adoption ofsocial insurance for medical care of the poor (82%), enhancing the role of family medicine (77.2%), adopting healthinsurance system (76.1%) and periodic scientific evaluation of physicians and other health staff (69.8%).Conclusion: Medical professionals were generally unsatisfied with the different aspects of the health system inIraqi Kurdistan region. A number of problems and different priority needs for health system improvement havebeen recognized that require to be studied in more details.BackgroundThe major objective of a country’s health system is toassure the health of the general public through offeringgood quality and prompt services according to theneeds of the population [1]. The health system needs togo through a process of continuous changes andimprovement in order to be able to cope with differentchanges in the health and population environments andto appropriately respond to different challenges andneeds [2].The history of formal health care system in Iraq beganin early 1920s, but the Iraqi Ministry of Health (MoH)was established in 1952 and its organizational structurewas formalized in 1959. This organizational structurehas changed little since its establishment [3,4]. Thehealth care Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Basketball is one of the highest-paying professional sports There is stratification even among teams For example, the Minnesota Timberwolves hand out the lowest annual payroll, while the Los Angeles Lakers reportedly pay the highest Kobe Bryant, a Lakers shooting guard, is one of the highest paid athletes in the NBA, earning around $25 million a year (Basketballreference.com 2011) Even within specific fields, layers are stratified and members ... centered on this global phenomenon on a large scale, and more concerned with how it affects these two women As a symbolic interactionist would do, 2/5 Theoretical Perspectives on Global Stratification. . .Theoretical Perspectives on Global Stratification Dependency Theory Dependency theory was created in part as a response to the western-centric mindset of modernization theory It states that global. .. interactionist Answer B Dependency theorists explain global inequality and global stratification by focusing on the way that: core nations and peripheral nations exploit semi-peripheral nations semi-peripheral