Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification

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RESEARC H Open AccessIraqi health system in kurdistan region: medicalprofessionals’ perspectives on challenges andpriorities for improvementNazar P Shabila1*, Namir G Al-Tawil1, Rebaz Tahir2, Falah H Shwani2, Abubakir M Saleh1, Tariq S Al-Hadithi1AbstractBackground: The views of medical professionals on efficiency of health system and needs for any changes arevery critical and constitute a cornerstone for any health system improvement. This is particularly relevant to IraqiKurdistan case as the events of the last few decades have significantly devastated the national Iraqi health systemwhile the necessity for adopting a new health care system is increasingly recognized since 2004. This study aims toexamine the regional health system in Iraqi Kurdistan from medical professionals’ perspectives and try to define itsproblems and priorities for improvement.Methods: A survey questionnaire was developed and administered to a convenience sample of 250 medicalprofessionals in Erbil governorate. The questionnaire included four items; rating of the quality of services andavailability of resources in the health institutions, view on different aspects of the health system, the perceivedpriority needs for health system improvement and gender and professional characteristics of the respondents.Results: The response rate to the survey was 83.6%. A high proportion of respondents rated the different aspectsof services and resources in the health institutions as weak or very weak including the availability of the requiredquantity and quality of medicines (68.7%), the availability of sufficient medical equipment and investigation tools(68.7%), and the quality of offered services (65.3%). Around 72% of respondents had a rather negative view on theoverall health system. The weak role of medical research, the weak role of professional associations in controllingthe system and the inefficient health education were identified as important problems in the current health system(87.9%, 87.1% and 84.9%, respectively). The priority needs of health system improvement included adoption ofsocial insurance for medical care of the poor (82%), enhancing the role of family medicine (77.2%), adopting healthinsurance system (76.1%) and periodic scientific evaluation of physicians and other health staff (69.8%).Conclusion: Medical professionals were generally unsatisfied with the different aspects of the health system inIraqi Kurdistan region. A number of problems and different priority needs for health system improvement havebeen recognized that require to be studied in more details.BackgroundThe major objective of a country’s health system is toassure the health of the general public through offeringgood quality and prompt services according to theneeds of the population [1]. The health system needs togo through a process of continuous changes andimprovement in order to be able to cope with differentchanges in the health and population environments andto appropriately respond to different challenges andneeds [2].The history of formal health care system in Iraq beganin early 1920s, but the Iraqi Ministry of Health (MoH)was established in 1952 and its organizational structurewas formalized in 1959. This organizational structurehas changed little since its establishment [3,4]. Thehealth care Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Basketball is one of the highest-paying professional sports There is stratification even among teams For example, the Minnesota Timberwolves hand out the lowest annual payroll, while the Los Angeles Lakers reportedly pay the highest Kobe Bryant, a Lakers shooting guard, is one of the highest paid athletes in the NBA, earning around $25 million a year (Basketballreference.com 2011) Even within specific fields, layers are stratified and members are ranked In sociology, even an issue such as NBA salaries can be seen from various points of view Functionalists will examine the purpose of such high salaries, while conflict theorists will study the exorbitant salaries as an unfair distribution of money Social stratification takes on new meanings when it is examined from different sociological perspectives—functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism Functionalism In sociology, the functionalist perspective examines how society’s parts operate According to functionalism, different aspects of society exist because they serve a needed purpose What is the function of social stratification? In 1945, sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore published the Davis-Moore thesis, which argued that the greater the functional importance of a social role, the greater must be the reward The theory posits that social stratification represents the inherently unequal value of different work Certain tasks in society are more valuable than others Qualified people who fill those positions must be rewarded more than others According to Davis and Moore, a firefighter’s job is more important than, for instance, a grocery store cashier’s The cashier position does not require the same skill and training level as firefighting Without the incentive of higher pay and better benefits, why would someone be willing to rush into burning buildings? If pay levels were the same, the firefighter might as well work as a grocery store cashier Davis and Moore believed 1/6 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification that rewarding more important work with higher levels of income, prestige, and power encourages people to work harder and longer Davis and Moore stated that, in most cases, the degree of skill required for a job determines that job’s importance They also stated that the more skill required for a job, the fewer qualified people there would be to that job Certain jobs, such as cleaning hallways or answering phones, not require much skill The employees don’t need a college degree Other work, like designing a highway system or delivering a baby, requires immense skill In 1953, Melvin Tumin countered the Davis-Moore thesis in “Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical Analysis.” Tumin questioned what determined a job’s degree of importance The Davis-Moore thesis does not explain, he argued, why a media personality with little education, skill, or talent becomes famous and rich on a reality show or a campaign trail The thesis also does not explain inequalities in the education system, or inequalities due to race or gender Tumin believed social stratification prevented qualified people from attempting to fill roles (Tumin 1953) For example, an underprivileged youth has less chance of becoming a scientist, no matter how smart she is, because of the relative lack of opportunity available to her The Davis-Moore thesis, though open for debate, was an early attempt to explain why stratification exists The thesis states that social stratification is necessary to promote excellence, productivity, and efficiency, thus giving people something to strive for Davis and Moore believed that the system serves society as a whole because it allows everyone to benefit to a certain extent Conflict Theory These people are protesting a decision made by Tennessee Technological University in Cookeville, Tennessee, to lay off custodians and outsource the jobs to a private firm to avoid paying employee benefits Private job agencies often pay lower hourly wages Is it fair? (Photo courtesy of Brian Stansberry/Wikimedia Commons) 2/6 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification Conflict theorists are deeply critical of social stratification, asserting that it benefits only some people, not all of society For instance, to a conflict theorist, it seems wrong that a basketball player is paid millions for an annual contract while a public school teacher earns $35,000 a year Stratification, conflict theorists believe, perpetuates inequality Conflict theorists try to bring awareness to inequalities, such as how a rich society can have so many poor members Many conflict theorists draw on the work of Karl Marx During the 19th-century era of industrialization, Marx believed social stratification resulted from people’s relationship to production People were divided by a single line: they either owned factories or worked in them In ... LOCAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF SHRIMP FARMING IN TAM GIANG LAGOON, VIETNAM. TUONG PHI LAI A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Science (Management of Natural Resources and Sustainable Agriculture) Submitted to: Norwegian University of Life Sciences Department of International Environment and Development Studies June, 2005 ii The Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB). Eight departments, associated research institutions and the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric’s contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments. The Noragric Master theses are the final theses submitted by students in order to fulfil the requirements under the Noragric Master programme “Management of Natural Resources and Sustainable Agriculture” (MNRSA), “Development Studies” and other Master programmes. The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the views of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric. © Tuong Phi Lai, June 2005 E-mail: tuongphilai@yahoo.com Noragric Department of International Environment and Development Studies P.O. Box 5003 N-1432 Ås Norway Tel.: +47 64 96 52 00 Fax: +47 64 96 52 01 Internet: http://www.umb.no/noragric Formatted: French (France) Formatted: English (U.S.) iii DECLARATION I, Tuong Phi Lai, do hereby declare to the Senate of the Norwegian University of Life Sciences, that this dissertation is entirely the product of my own original research work, unless where it is acknowledged, and that it has not been submitted to any other University or academic institution for award of any degree. ------------------------- ------------------ While the core principles of governance are the same throughout the world, the Asian model places particular emphasis on trust and relationships. This paper discusses the key differences between the western and Asian approaches to help business leaders explore the best aspects of both. Global perspectives on governance: lessons from east and west Conclusions 1. The corporate governance model that’s familiar in Asia, Africa and most developing nations places strong emphasis on trust and relationships. This can be beneficial for stakeholders: the typical pattern of ownership in businesses means that there can be a longer-term view of an organisation’s success compared with that in a western company. But the system is potentially vulnerable to corruption and cronyism. It can also be difficult to implement basic control procedures. 2. The prestige of what can be broadly termed the western governance model has diminished in the aftermath of the financial crisis. This model has driven globalisation and has emphasised a combination of legislation and standards as well as transparency, with a focus on developing appropriate structures, processes and frameworks. This is widely understood and helps to create a level playing field. But major financial failures over the past two years, such as that of Lehman Brothers, have shown that there are limits to what can be done to tighten checks and balances. A new emphasis on the behavioural aspects of governance is overdue. 3. Both models have their strengths and it is important to understand the benefits and drawbacks of each. CIMA’s model of boardroom leadership is useful in illustrating the importance of both behavioural and structural issues in achieving good governance. One particular area where both western and Asian models remain unduly weak is in creating a culture that allows people in authority to be challenged constructively. 4. The key indicator of good governance in an organisation is that it’s sustainable in the long-term. There should be confidence that the business model will deliver this, using appropriate risk mitigation, and that performance indicators and incentives will reinforce the desired culture and behaviour. 5. Management information that’s relevant, accurate and up-to-date is a crucial success factor for all organisations worldwide. Professionally qualified management accountants, bound by a code of ethics, have a vital role in providing and demonstrating the long-term strategic value of high-quality management information. Contents Introduction 1 The significance of individual relationships in Asia 2 Benefits of trust 5 Balancing the two models 6 1. Case study: Satyam Computer Services 8 2. Case study: Banyan Tree Holdings 9 3. Case study: Toyota 9 4. Case study: Tata Group 10 References and other relevant CIMA publications 11 About CIMA CIMA, the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, founded in 1919, is the world’s leading and largest professional body of management accountants, with 172,000 members and students operating in 168 countries, working at the heart of business. CIMA members and students work in industry, commerce and not-for-profit organisations. CIMA works closely with employers and sponsors leading-edge research, constantly updating its qualification, professional experience requirements and continuing professional development to ensure that it remains the employers’ choice when recruiting financially trained business leaders. About the authors Victor Smart is CIMA’s head of profile and communications and Gillian Lees is CIMA’s enterprise governance specialist. Other CIMA contributors include Naomi Smith (London), Larry Zhang (Shanghai) and Damian Yip (Hong Kong). We also thank the [...]... permits the systematic gathering of information and the profiling of functions and policy in respect of Australia and New Zealand, the United States, Singapore and Canada Part IV, the final section, reflects on the findings of Part III and considers the implications arising for the future relationship between legal functions and social policy as they relate to charity Entitled ‘Re-configuring the Social Policy. .. relation to particular configurations of social policy and charity law The five chapters comprising this Part together provide an analysis of the main legal functions relating to charity and charitable activity Chapter 3 considers the jurisprudence underpinning the functional approach to the law, giving particular attention to the more salient principles and their contemporary impact The legal functions. .. Social Policy explores contemporary law, policy and practice in a range of modern common law nations It does so from the perspective of how this has evolved in the UK As progenitor of a system bequeathed to its colonies and after centuries of leadership in developing the core principles, policies and precedents, the jurisdiction of England & Wales has been and remains central to charity law as a common law. .. activity The Parties Charity in the common law rests on a transaction that involves the interests of donor, charitable organisation, recipient and the State in an amalgam of private and public law concerns Arbitration on any conflict arising between the interests of these parties has traditionally been left to the courts but in England & Wales that responsibility has now largely passed to the Charity. .. Outcome of the Charity Law Reform Process and Implications for the Future of the Support Function and Social Policy Institutional Change and the Support Function The Inland Revenue and the Charity Commission Strengthening the Support Capacity of the Charity Commission New Legal Structures for Charities Increasing Public Confidence... it relates to charity and charitable activity Their origins, in initiatives by government and judiciary, are traced and their effectiveness and policy significance are considered Part III, International Perspectives , provides case studies depicting use of the legal functions, as they apply to type of need and thereby give effect to policy, in each of the selected common law jurisdictions The Charitable... strands is a prerequisite BioMed Central Page 1 of 7 (page number not for citation purposes) Health and Quality of Life Outcomes Open Access Research In spite of good intentions: patients' perspectives on problematic social support interactions Carla Boutin-Foster* Address: Division of General Internal Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 525 E. 68 th Street, Box 46- Baker Tower 14, New York, New York 10021, USA Email: Carla Boutin-Foster* - Cboutin@med.cornell.edu * Corresponding author Qualitative studySocial supportSocial networksCoronary artery disease Abstract Background: In the setting of an acute coronary syndrome, the natural inclination of friends and family members is to provide social support. However, their efforts may be perceived as being problematic or unhelpful. The objective of this study was to identify the characteristics of problematic social support interactions from the perspectives of patients. Methods: This was a qualitative study among a purposive sample of 59 patients who had been hospitalized for an acute coronary syndrome. Patients were asked: "Can you describe the types of things that your family members, close friends, and health care providers did during this period to try to be helpful or supportive but you felt was unhelpful or felt that it caused you more stress." Responses were analyzed using qualitative techniques and reviewed by two independent corroborators. Results: The types of behaviors performed by social network members that were perceived as being unhelpful were grouped under 5 themes: (1) excessive telephone contact, (2) high expression of emotions, (3) unsolicited advice, (4) information without means for implementation, and (5) taking over. Conclusion: Patients in this study described actions of their social network members that were intended to be supportive but instead were perceived as problematic because they were in excess of what was needed, they were incongruous with what was desired, or they contributed to negative feelings. Helping social networks to understand the potential problematic aspects of social support can aid in tailoring effective social support interventions. Background Acute coronary syndromes such as unstable angina or myocardial infarction account for approximately 2.5 mil- lion hospitalizations in the United States annually [1,2]. The period surrounding an acute coronary syndrome is often marked by fear, anxiety, and uncertainty about the resumption of activities such as work or sexual activity [3- 5]. Under these circumstances, social support is often mobilized as a resource to help patients cope with their illness. Social support is a set of interactive and dynamic Published: 05 September 2005 Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 2005, 3:52 doi:10.1186/1477-7525-3-52 Received: 12 April 2005 Accepted: 05 September 2005 This article is available from: http://www.hqlo.com/content/3/1/52 © 2005 Boutin-Foster; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 2005, 3:52 http://www.hqlo.com/content/3/1/52 Page 2 of 7 (page number not for citation purposes) processes in which particular actions or behaviors are directed at an individual to positively effect his or her social, psychological, or physical well-being [6]. Social ... Stansberry/Wikimedia Commons) 2/6 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification Conflict theorists are deeply critical of social stratification, asserting that it benefits only some people, not... transportation indicate social status, as hairstyles, taste in accessories, and personal style 3/6 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification (a) A group of construction workers on the job site,... workers: must labor alone, without companionship not feel connected to their work 5/6 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification move from one geographical location to another have to