a comparative study of lexical cohesive devices through some english and vietnamese fables = nghiên cứu so sánh các phương tiện liên kết từ vựng thông qua một số truyện ngụ ngôn anh và việ

……… BUI THUY ANH A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES THROUGH SOME ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FABLES NGHIÊN CỨU SO SÁNH CÁC PHƯƠNG TIỆN LIÊN KẾT TỪ VỰNG THÔNG QUA MỘT SỐ TRUYỆN N

………

BUI THUY ANH

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES THROUGH SOME ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FABLES (NGHIÊN CỨU SO SÁNH CÁC PHƯƠNG TIỆN LIÊN KẾT TỪ VỰNG THÔNG QUA MỘT SỐ TRUYỆN NGỤ NGÔN ANH VÀ VIỆT)

MINOR PROGRAM THESIS Field : English liguistics

Code: 602215

COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES POST-GRADUATE DEPARTMENT

………

BUI THUY ANH

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES THROUGH SOME ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FABLES (NGHIÊN CỨU SO SÁNH CÁC PHƯƠNG TIỆN LIÊN KẾT TỪ VỰNG THÔNG QUA MỘT SỐ TRUYỆN NGỤ NGÔN ANH VÀ VIỆT)

MINOR PROGRAM THESIS Field : English liguistics

Code: 602215

Supervisor : TRẦN XUÂN ĐIỆP (Ph.D)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

PART I : INTRODUCTION……… 1

1 Rational……….1

2 Aims of the study……… 2

3 Scope of the study……….2

4 Methods of the study……….2

5 Design of the study……… 3

PART II: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1 : Literature Review and Theoreretical background 1.1 Literature Review………4

1.2 Theoretical background 1.2.1 Discourse and discourse analysis……….6

1.2.1.1 The concept of discourse……… ………6

1.2.1.2 Discourse and text……….……… 7

1.2.1.3 Discourse analysis……… ……….7

1.2.2 Theories of genres………8

1.2.2.1 Definition of genre………8

1.2.2.2 Genre versus register……… 10

1.2.2.3 Common discourse genre………13

1.2.3 Fables as a genre of discourse………15

1.2.3.1 Definitions of Fables……… 15

1.2.3.2 General characteristics of fables……….16

1.2.4 Cohesion and coherence………16

1.2.4.1 Cohesion versus coherence……….16

1.2.4.2 Cohesion and discourse structure………16

1.2.4.3 Types of cohesion……… 17

1.2.4.3.1 Grammatical cohesion……….18

1.2.4.3.2 Lexical cohesion……… 19

English and Vietnamese fables

2.1 Lexical reiteration……….…… … 22

2.1.1 Repetition……….…22

2.1.2 Synonymy………27

2.1.3 Antonymy……….…………29

2.1.4 Superordinate and general word……….……… 29

2.2 Collocation……….……… 30

2.3 Concluding remarks on lexical cohesion……….32

PART III: CONCLUSION 1 Recapitulation of major ideas……….……36

2 Implications………36

3 Suggestions for further studies……… ……….37

REFERENCES……… ………38 APPENDIX

Part I: INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

It is clear that acquiring a language is not only limited to knowing about its grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary Producing a grammatically correct sentence is not sufficient to use a language to communicate successfully with other people It is very important for language learners to know how to use our linguistic competence in a larger unit of communication, i.e language in use, or in other words, a discourse, in order to convey our ideas to learners as well as to obtain others

Several linguists such as Brown and Yule (1983), Halliday and Hasan (1976), Hatim and Mason (1990), Cook (1989), Swales (1990), etc… have been interested

in the concepts of discourse and discourse analysis In their view of points,

discourse can be shown through different genres, which are shown in terms of a set

of features which we perceive as being appropriate to a given social occasion

(Hatim and Mason, 1990) Each genre of discourse possesses its own discourse features

A fable is ― a traditional short story that teaches a moral lesson, especially one with animals as characters‖ ( Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary) Although fables are short and simple, they own their typical features distinguished from other genres of discourse such as an article or a speech But in fact, English fables are not still paid attention to despite the fact that they represent great potentials for teaching language to learners With all the reasons above, the author would like to choose ― Analysis of lexical cohesive devices in English and Vietnamese Fables as the topic of this study I do hope that the results of this study are of practical value

2 Aims of the study

The main aims of the thesis are as follows:

 To identify lexical cohesive devices used in English and Vietnamese Fables

 To compare lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese

Fables

3 Scope of the study:

This study will firstly deal with theoretical background of discourse especially coherence, cohesion and cohesive devices The attention of the study will be secondly paid to considering study of lexical cohesive devices through some English fables and their equivalents in Vietnamese Fables Our efforts are to collect data in both English and Vietnamese to see the frequencies and differences and similarities of each device and sub-device of lexical cohesive devices in the discourse in both languages

4 Methods of the study

To attain the aims of the study, the research will conduct the following activities:

 Firstly, data including relevant theories and fables for analysis will be collected Relevant theories will be extracted from various linguistic books written by several linguists, such as Cook (1989), Hatim and Mason (1990), Swales (1990), Simpson (1997), Toolan (1998), ect English fables and Vietnamese fables which are unavailable in printed books in Viet Nam, will

be collected from Internet Sources

 Secondly, relevant theories will be presented on the ground of several linguists, viewpoints

 Then, 30 selected fables (15 English fables and 15 Vietnamese Fables) will

be comprehensively investigated for lexical cohesive devices so as to find out the most typical cohesive devices used in English and Vietnamese Fables

 After all, based on the results of the analysis, some concluding remarks can

be generalized and some implications for teaching and learning English fables can be proposed

Three successive methods chosen for the best results are descriptive, analytical and comparative

5 Design of the study

Within the scope mentioned above, the study consists of three main parts: introduction, development and conclusion

Part 2 is divided into three chapters In the first chapter, Literature Review, theoretical knowledge of lexical cohesive devices and English Fables are presented The second chapter , also the main one of the study, deals with the study of lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese fables in the last chapter,

we attempt to present some findings and implications

Part II: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This chapter deals with literature review and theoretical topics such as concepts of discourse, cohesion & coherence, cohesive devices, register and genre, fables which are

relevant to the purpose of the study

1.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

As a genre of discourse in traditional literature, fables are brief stories which take abstract ideas of good and bad, wisdom and foolishness Because of their relative simple structure and moralizing characters, fables have become popular not only adults but also children They can be used as a means of education by entertainment and as a convenient disguise for manifestation of political and social convictions English fables, however, have not received attentions, despite the fact that they represent great potentials for teaching language to learners, especially learners at the elementary level Actually, they have not been studied systematically There have not been many considerable researchers carrying out the study of English Fables The first research was an M.A thesis named ― Some Discourse Features Of English Fables‖ by Nguyen Thi Thao ( 2005) After examining 45 selected fables, Thao comes to the following conclusions:

The structure of fables is relatively simple, consisting of normally three components: the Orientation, the Event Chain and the Coda The development of the story is illustrated as one-way track as follows:

Orientation Event Chain Coda

If all the three components are available, they are likely to be arranged in supposed order, hardly ever can we see two of them exchange positions with each other It means that the Event Chain never precedes the Orientation, or the Coda never appears before the Event Chain

An ideal fable realizes all these components However, it is proved from the analysis that the first and the final components are optional ones, which may or may not exist in English fables Frequently, a fable lacks either or event both of the two components, so that the

story commences from Initiating Events, the Sequent Event and destinates at the Final Event

In terms grammatical cohesion, Reference and especially Personal Reference, account for the highest frequencies of use This can be explained by the fact that fables, are, at least, stories in which characters interact with one another This raises the need of the use of personal reference to refer to these animals

Lexical cohesion such as repetition, collocation, synonyms,antonyms, general word and superordinate play an indispensable part in fables Among these lexical cohesive devices, repetition contributes the biggest proportion in English Fables

With respect to conjunctions, addictive relation serves the most active role to describe sequence of the events

In summary, it is noticeable that several studies on cohesive devices and particularly lexical cohesive devices have been carried out in many discourses and genres, while there

is only one researcher showing her interest in English fables She gave a detailed analysis

to how some discourse features of English fables A study of lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese fables has not been paid attention For these reasons, this study is carried with the hope that the result of the study is helpful for the application of English fables to teach English to Vietnamese fables

1.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1.2.1 Discourse and Discourse analysis

1.2.1.1 The concept of discourse

The Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (1998) defines discourse as follows: ―Discourse is a general term for example of language use, i.e language has been produced as the result of an act of communication‖ Sharing the same concern, many other linguists have so far given definitions of discouse Crystal( 1992:25) claims that discourse is ― a continuous stretch of ( especially spoken) language than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit, such as a sermon, an argument, a joke or a narrative.‖ Widdowson (1979) states: ―Discourse is a use of sentences to perform acts of communication Cook (1989) says that discourse is ― stretches of language perceived to be meaningful, unified and purposeful‖ In his point of view, discourse may be composed of one or more well-formed grammatical sentences- and indeed it often is- but it does not have to be There can be some grammatical mistakes in a discourse, which do not affect the overall structure and meaning of the discourse Discourse treats the rules of grammar as a resource, conforming to them when it needs to, but departing from them when it does not Discourse can be anything from a conversation to a great novel or a legal case Cook also argues that ― What matters is not its conformity to rules, but he facts that it communicates and is recognized by its receivers as coherent.‖ Discourse is supposed to be meaningful and thus to be used to communicate with one person in a way that another person does not have the necessary knowledge to make sense of

According to Hatim and Mason (1990), discourse is ― a matter of expression of attitude‖ and is ― a mode of speaking and writing which involves the participant in adopting a particular on certain areas of socio-cultural activity: racial discourse, scientific discourse, domestic discourse‖ Discourse, therefore, are not independent of language, though they

reflect non-linguistic phenomena They also confirm that certain syntactic and (far more commonly) semantic features correlate with certain discourses

To sum up, the majority of linguists seem to have the same view when defining the concept of discourse Their definitions, though expressed in different ways, all emphasize the two most important aspects of a discourse:

- The structure of a discourse: a discourse is a well-formed organization above the level of a sentence;

- The function of a discourse : a discourse serves as a means of communication

1.2.1.2 Discourse and Text

Linguists have paid much attention to the distinction between a discourse and a text since confusion of these two terms may result in the failures of discourse analysis Even though that the distinction is not always clear and the two terms are used interchangeably by some linguists As in the definition of discourse by Halliday and Hasan, ―text‖ is employed to refer to ―discourse‖; they see ―text‖ as a ―semantic unit‖ characterized by cohesion The two authors state: ―A text is a passage of discourse which coherent in these two regards: it

is coherent with respect to itself , and therefore consistent in register; and it is coherent with respect to itself, and therefore cohesive‖ (1976: 23) For some other linguists, ―text‖ is used for writing and ―discourse‘ for speech The third group of linguists like Brown & Yule, Nunan, Widdowson, and Cook see discourse as a process and text as a product Brown & Yule argue that text is the representation of discourse and the verbal record of a communication act

There is disagreement about the meanings of the two terms discourse and text However, all linguistics agree that both text and discourse need to be defined in terms of meaning and that coherent text/ pieces of discourse are those that form a meaningful whole Easily, discourse is a general tem to refer to all acts of verbal communication, whereas a text is simply a verbal record of the whole communicative process (that is discourse) in which many situational factors are involved; it can be written and spoken, and there is no limit to the size of a text Thus, the text is a purely linguistic, formal object, while discourse has both linguistic and non-linguistic properties

1.2.1.3 Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and the context in which it is used This has been developed from the works of different disciplines in the 1960s, including linguistics, semiotics, psychology, anthropology and

sociology Discourse analysis study language in use: written texts and spoken data of all kinds under the approach different from those old grammarians There have been numerous interpretation to what is meant by Discourse analysis

British discourse analysis was mainly influenced by M.A.K Haliday‘s functions approach

to language Haliday‘s framework emphasized the social function of language and the thematic and informational structure of speech and writing De Beaugrande (1980) Haliday and Hasan (1976) as well as Prague School of linguistics in pointing out the link between grammar and discourse

Yule (1996: 139) states: ―In the study of language, some of the most interesting question arise in conection with the way language is ‗used‘, rather than what its components are (…) We ware, in effect, asking how it is that language-users interpret what other language users intend to convey When we carry this investigation further and ask how it is that we ,

as language-users, make sense of what we read in texts, understand what speakers mean despite what they say, recognize connected as opposed to jumbled or incoherent discourse and successfully take part in that complex activity called conversation, we are undertaking what is known as discourse analysis.‖

As can be noticed clearly, the term ―discourse analysis‖ is very ambiguous For the sake of

research, we would like to take the definition from Hoa‘s (2000) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis as the base of our study: Discourse analysis is considered ―as a study

of how and for what purposes language is used in a certain context of situation and the linguistic mean to carry out these purposes‖

1.2.2.Theories of genres

1.2.2.1 Definition of genre:

The term genre has been used for many years to refer to different styles of literary

discourse, such as sonnets, tragedies and romances It highlights the fact that different styles of discourse can be identified by their overall shape of generic structure In recent times, the term has been adapted by functional linguists to refer to different types of communicative events (Martin, 1984; Swales, 1990) A communicative event is defined as

―a piece of oral or written interaction, which contains a complete message; the event itself

may involve oral language (for example, a sermon, a casual conversation), or written language (for example, a poem, a newspaper headlines)‖ (Nunan, 1993:117) The functional linguists argue that language exists to fulfill certain functions, and that these structure emerges as people communicate with one another-that is, it will have certain predictable stages The communicative purpose will also be reflected in the basic building blocks of the discourse-that is, the words and grammatical structures themselves In other words, different types of communicative events result in different types of discourse, and each of these will have its own distinctive characteristics Some events result in sermon, others in political speech and casual conversation will be different, each discourse type will share certain characteristics which will set it apart from other discourse types

According to Webster‘s Third New International Dictionary genre is a ―distinctive type or category of literary composition” Linguists hold different views about the definition of

genre Martin (1985:250), cited in Swales (1990), offers a relatively simple definition with

illustrations about genre:”Genres are how things get done, when language is used to accomplish them They range from literary to far from literary forms: poems, narratives, expositions, lectures, seminars, recipes, manuals, appointment making, service encounters, news broadcasts and so on The term genre is used here to embrace each of the linguistically realized activity types which comprise so much of our culture.” Martin‘s

definition, however, does not reveal much clearly the nature of genre, and how each genre differs from one another

According to Kress (1985:19), cited in Hatim and Mason (1990:69), genres are

“conventionalized forms of texts which reflect the functions and goats involved in particular social occasions as well as the purposes of the participants in them,” From a

socio-semiotic point of view, this particular use of language is best viewed in terms of norms which are internalized as part of the ability to communicate

Hatim and Mason (1990:140) claim that:”genres are viewed in terms of a set of features which we perceive as being appropriate to a given social occasion” In other words, the

conventions of the social occasion are the key factor in determining genres; and there is a

relationship between elements of lexis, grammar, etc and the social occasion associated which particular genres

Swale (1990) reviews, how genres are perceived from different perspectives, namely folklore, literary, linguistic and rhetoric In his point of view, the concept of genres appears

to be “a fuzzy concept, a somewhat loose term of art” He also discovers that, different as

the definitions by several linguists are, they also indicate something of a common stance, the components of which can be summarized as follows:

- A distrust of classification and of facile or premature prescriptivism

- A sense that genres are important for integrating past and present

- A recognition that genres are situated within discourse communities

- An emphasis on communicative purpose and social action

- An interest in generic structure

1.2.2.2 Genre versus Register:

The relationship between genre and the longer established register has paid much attention

to They are actually two related concepts, and it is not always easy to discriminate one from another

The concept of Register is regarded as ―a useful tool with which to make comparisons between different genre of language‖ (Simpson, 1997:10) Gains and Redman (1986) shares a completely the same definition and some illustrations about registers, such as the language of economics, of medicine, baking, law, etc

It is necessary to classify the difference between a register and a dialect A dialect is a linguistic variety that is indentified according to the user of language: it reveals important information about the characteristics of their speaker-their social and regional background Dialects are distinguished from one another by differences in grammar and lexis A register, on the other hand, is defined according to the use to which language is being put;

in other words, a register shows what a speaker or writer is doing with language at a given

moment In more formal term, a register is a fixed pattern of vocabulary and grammar which co-occurs with and is conventionally associated with a specific context

Registers are often discussed in term of three features of context known as field, tenor, and

mode Halliday (1978) states that ―there are three aspects in any situation that have

linguistic consequences: field, mode, and tenor of discourse”:

- Field (or reference to ―what is going on‖): is the kind of language use which reflects the purposive role, or the social function of the text Field equals the setting and purpose of the interaction

- Mode: refers to the medium of the language activity or the channel chosen

to communicate, i.e whether it is spoken or written It is the manifestation

of the nature of language code being used

- Tenor: relays the relationship between the addresser and the addressee; this may be analyzed in terms of basic distinctions of formality on a scale of categories, which range from formal to informal, such as : polite-colloquial-intimate

With reference to the mutual relation between genre and register, Martin (1985), cited in Swales (1990:40), suggests the three-way distinction: genres are realized through registers, and registers in turn are realized through language He argues that genres constrain the ways in which register variables of field, tenor and more can be combined in a particular society Genres also comprise a system for accomplishing social purposes by verbal means Couture (1968), cited in Swales (1990:41) explains that registers impose constraints at the linguistic levels of vocabulary and syntax, whereas genre constraints operate at the level of discourse structure For Couture the two concepts need to be kept apart: genres (research report, explanation, business report, etc.) are completable structured text, while registers (language of scientific reporting, language of newspaper reporting, bureaucratic language, etc.) represent more generalizable stylistic choices

The relationship between genre and register can be best revealed through Halliday‘s model

of discourse analysis, which is cited in Munday (2001:90):

Sociocultural environment

Genre

Register (field, tenor,mode)

Discourse semantics ( ideational, interpersonal, textual )

Lexicogrammar

( transitivity, modality, theme-rhyme, cohesion)

Figure 1: Halliday’s model of discourse analysis

Halliday‘s model represents a close interrelation relation between the surface-level realizations of the linguistic functions and the sociocultural framework The rows in the figure show the direction of influence The genre ( the conventional text type that is associated with a specific communicative function) is conditioned by the sociocultural environment and itself has an direct influence on the other elements in the framework The first of these is register concluding three variable elements ( field, tenor,and mode ) Each

of these variables is associated with a strand of meaning These trands, which together form the discourse semantics of a text, are the three metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal and textual The metafunctions are realized by the lexicogrammar, that is the choice of wording and structure

 Field: associated with ideational meaning, which is realized via transitivity patterns ( verb types, active/passive structures, participants in the process, ect)

 Tenor: associated with interpersonal meaning, which is realized via patterns of modality

 Mode: associated with textual meaning, which is realized via the thematic and information structure ( mainly the order and structuring of elements in a clause) and cohesion ( the way the texts hangs together lexically, including the use of ellipses, collocations, repetitions, ect.)

Generally, it is no doubt that context influences the choice of register, and certain registers are appropriate only on to a certain context Genres have ― complementary‖

register, and communicative success with the text may require ― an appropriate relationship to systems of genre and register‖ ( Couture, 1986: 86)

1.2.2.3 Common discourse genres:

It is supposed that discourse is divided into two main categories: spoken ( or oral) genre and written genre The tradition division of language into the spoken and the written is clearly and sensibly based on a difference in production and reception: we use our mouths and ears for one, and our hands and eyes for the other

With reference to oral discourse, the sub-division of this broad category may result in a variety of text-types, some of which are: oral narrative, jokes, unrehearsed conversation, oral poetry, speeches, lectures, songs, ect Spoken discourse is regarded as less planned and orderly, but more open to intervention by the receiver There are some kinds of spoken discourse, however- like lessons, lectures, interviews, trials, ect ; which have significantly features in common with written discourse

In the case of written discourse, Hevey and Higgins (1992), cited in Lien ( 2003) , states that ― there are so many different varieties‖, which they suggest as follows:

 Theoretical/ religious genres, of which the subject matter implies the existence of a ― spiritual world‖, which has its own external realities and unsharable truths

 Theoretical/ philosophical genres, having as their subject matter a ― world‖

of ideas, which are understood to exist independently of the individual minds that think them; and it is reasoning but not fictional imaginination or spiritual faith that helps realize these genres

 Empirical/ descriptive genres: genres of this category purport to treat of the real objective world as it is experienced by observers

 Persuasive/ prescriptive genres, aiming at influencing readers to behave in

 textually prescribed ways; this aim can be pursued through various means: explicit and helpful instructions, orders, rules, ect

 Literary/ fictional genres, whose text must be about ― fictive‖, imaginary world of events and characters created autonomousely in and through the text themselves, and beyond the physical world‘s control outside

It is clear that literary genres differ from the other genres in linguistic and imaginative qualities: literary genres are built on imaginative thinking, symbolic language while other genres focus attention on logical thinking and logical language

Simpson (1997:13) states that although certain communicative contexts regularly predict certain registers, a notable exception is literacy communication Literature is simply not a register of language It is a typical feature of literary discourse to shake itself free of the structures imposed by register Moreover, literary discourse has the capacity to assimilate and absorb different registers and this results in complex and multilayered patterns of communication Bakhtin ( 1986: 62), cited in Simpson ( 1997), introduces the concept of

secondary genres and claims that : “ Secondary ( complex) speech genres – novels, dramas, ect arise in more complex and comparatively highly developed and organized cultural communication ( primarily written) that is artistic, scientific, sociopolitical, and so

on During the process of their formation, they absorb and digest various primary ( simple) genres that have taken form in unmediated speech communion.”

1.2.3 Fables as a genre of discourse

1.2.3.1 Definition of fables:

A fable is ― a brief allegorical narrative, in verse or prose, which illustrates a moral thesis

or satirizing human beings; the characters of a fable are usually animals who talk and act

like people while retaining their animal traits‖.( The Columbia Electronics Encyclopedia)

According to Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, a fable is ― a traditional short story that teaches a moral lesson, especially one with animals as characters‖

Fables are short stories which takes abstract ideas of good and bad, wisdom and foolishness and make them concrete Fables have some characteristics Characters in fables are usually animals, or sometimes inanimate objects which behave as human-beings

Characters are flat, and stand for one human trait Plot is very brief with one incident The story teaches a moral lesson, which may or may not be expressed in a proverb or maxim

The varying corpus denoted Aesopica or Aesop's Fables includes most of the best-known western fables, which are attributed to the legendaryAesop, supposed to have been a slave

in ancient Greece around 550 BC Many familiar fables of Aesop include ―The Crow and the Pitcher,‖ ―The Hare and the Tortoise,‖ and ―The Lion and the Mouse.‖

Hundreds of fables were composed in ancient India during the first millennium BC, often

as stories within frame stories These included Vishnu Sarma's Panchatantra, the

Hitopadesha, Vikram and The Vampire, and Syntipas' Seven Wise Masters, which were collections of fables that were later influential throughout the Old World The most famous fables from the Middle East were the One Thousand and One Nights, also known

as the Arabian Nights

Fables had a further long tradition through the Middle Ages, and became part of European high literature During the 17th century, the French fabulist Jean de La Fontaine (1621–1695) saw the soul of the fable in the moral — a rule of behavior Starting with the Aesopian pattern, La Fontaine set out to satirize the court, the church, the rising bourgeoisie, indeed the entire human scene of his time La Fontaine's model was subsequently emulated by Poland's Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801),Russia's Ivan Krylov(1769–1844) and Spain's Félix María de Samaniego (1745-1801)

In modern times, the fable has been trivialized in children's books Yet it has also been fully adapted to modern adult literature For instance, James Thurber used the ancient style

in his books, Fables for Our Time and The Beast in Me and Other Animals In England, the

tradition of the fable was continued in the 17th and 28th century by John Dryden and John Gay The use of the fable in the 20th century can be seen in James Thurber‘s “ Fables of our times” (1940) and in George Orwell‘s political allegory, ― Animal Farm‖ (1945) In

the United States, the American poet Marianne Moore wrote poems quiet similar to fables

in their use of animals and animal traits to comment on human experience; she also

published an excellent translation of ― The fables of La Fontaine” ( 1954) And there are

plenty of other well-known fabulists

Fables become worldwide due to their simple structure and moralizing characters, fables have gained enormous popularity They are also seen as a means of education by entertainment and as convenient disguise for manifestations of political and social convictions

1.2.3.2 General characteristics of fables:

Fables, as a genre of discourse in traditional literature, brief stories which take abstract ideas of good and bad, wisdom and foolishness and make them concrete Fables own the following characteristics:

- Characters are animals, inanimate objects behaving like human-beings

- Characters are flat and stand for one human trait

- Plot is very brief, with one incident

- The story is a lesson which may or may not be expresses in a proverb or maxim

1.2.4 Cohesion and coherence

1.2.4.1 Cohesion vs Coherence

Cohesion, a term used by Halliday and Hasan (1997), refers to the various linguistic means – the grammatical, lexical, phonological relationship between different elements of a text Thus, this relationship may be between different parts of a sentence of different sentences

in other words, they ― stick together‖ to make up a sentence or into larger units of paragraphs or chapters or discourse

Coherence refers to the relationship in which various elements in a text mesh together properly into a coherent whole In other words, as Nunan (1993) coherence is ― the feeling that sequences of sentences or utterances seems to hang together and make sense‖

In fact, cohesion and coherence have a close relationship in making a perfectly communicative text To be more exact, cohesion contributes to the successful coherence of

a text and coherence is something created by the reader in the act of reading the text In short, although coherence and cohesion, in essence, is difference from each other they are closely link with one another They present the very essential elements that make coherent

text or discourse different from random sentences or utterance Coherence is embodied by

a system of cohesion devices and cohesion is mainly used to embody coherence

1.2.4.2 Types of Cohesion

According to Halliday and Hasan ( 1976), the classification of cohesion is based on the linguistic form The type of cohesion depends either on semantics relation in the linguistic system or on lexico – grammatical relations In other words, the cohesive relation can be interpreted as being either lexicogrammatical in nature and semantic It can be made clearer in the following description

Nature of cohesive relation Types of cohesion

Figure 2: Type of cohesion

( Sourse: Halliday and Hasan, 1976:304)

Reference, substitution and ellipsis are clearly grammatical; lexical cohesion, as the name implies, lexical Conjunction is on the borderline of the grammatical and the lexical; the set

of conjunctive element can probably be interpreted grammatical in terms of systems, and some conjunctive expressions involve lexical selection However, it is better to put it in the group of grammatical cohesion as it is mainly grammatical with a lexical component inside Consequently, we can refer to grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion as follows

Grammatical cohesion Lexical cohesion

 Synonym/ near synonyms

and cataphoric

Substitution

Substitution is a relation in the wording rather than in the meaning and within the text It is the use of substitute word or phrase to avoid repetition Most of the substitutes are pro-forms within sentences, which can be used across sentences There are three types of substitution: norminal, verbal and clausal substitution

Ellipsis