A comparative study of lexical cohesive devices through some english and vietnamese fables

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES POST-GRADUATE DEPARTMENT ………………………………… BUI THUY ANH A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES THROUGH SOME ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FABLES (NGHIÊN CỨU SO SÁNH CÁC PHƯƠNG TIỆN LIÊN KẾT TỪ VỰNG THÔNG QUA MỘT SỐ TRUYỆN NGỤ NGÔN ANH VÀ VIỆT) MINOR PROGRAM THESIS Field : English liguistics Code: 602215 Hanoi, April, 2009 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES POST-GRADUATE DEPARTMENT ………………………………… BUI THUY ANH A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES THROUGH SOME ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FABLES (NGHIÊN CỨU SO SÁNH CÁC PHƯƠNG TIỆN LIÊN KẾT TỪ VỰNG THÔNG QUA MỘT SỐ TRUYỆN NGỤ NGÔN ANH VÀ VIỆT) MINOR PROGRAM THESIS Field : English liguistics Code: 602215 Supervisor : TRẦN XUÂN ĐIỆP (Ph.D) II TABLE OF CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENT PART I : INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………… .1 Rational……………………………………………………………………… ….1 Aims of the study……………………………………………………………… Scope of the study……………………………………………………………….2 Methods of the study…………………………………………………………….2 Design of the study…………………………………………………………… PART II: DEVELOPMENT Chapter : Literature Review and Theoreretical background 1.1 Literature Review……………………………………………………………4 1.2 Theoretical background 1.2.1 Discourse and discourse analysis……………………………………….6 1.2.1.1 The concept of discourse……………………… ………………………6 1.2.1.2 Discourse and text…………………………….……………………… 1.2.1.3 Discourse analysis…………… ……………………………………….7 1.2.2 Theories of genres………………………………………………………………8 1.2.2.1 Definition of genre……………………………………………………………8 1.2.2.2 Genre versus register……………………………………………………… 10 1.2.2.3 Common discourse genre……………………………………………………13 1.2.3 Fables as a genre of discourse…………………………………………………15 1.2.3.1 Definitions of Fables……………………………………………………… 15 1.2.3.2 General characteristics of fables…………………………………………….16 1.2.4 Cohesion and coherence………………………………………………………16 1.2.4.1 Cohesion versus coherence………………………………………………….16 1.2.4.2 Cohesion and discourse structure……………………………………………16 1.2.4.3 Types of cohesion………………………………………………………… 17 1.2.4.3.1 Grammatical cohesion…………………………………………………….18 1.2.4.3.2 Lexical cohesion………………………………………………………… 19 III Chapter 2: A comparative study of Lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese fables 2.1 Lexical reiteration…………………………………………………….…… … 22 2.1.1 Repetition………………………………………………………………….…22 2.1.2 Synonymy……………………………………………………………………27 2.1.3 Antonymy………………………………………………………….…………29 2.1.4 Superordinate and general word…………………………………….……… 29 2.2 Collocation…………………………………………………………….……… 30 2.3 Concluding remarks on lexical cohesion……………………………………….32 PART III: CONCLUSION Recapitulation of major ideas…………………………………………… ……36 Implications………………………………………………………………… …36 Suggestions for further studies……………………………………… ……….37 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………… ………38 APPENDIX Part I: INTRODUCTION Rationale It is clear that acquiring a language is not only limited to knowing about its grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary Producing a grammatically correct sentence is not sufficient to use a language to communicate successfully with other people It is very important for language learners to know how to use our linguistic competence in a larger unit of communication, i.e language in use, or in other words, a discourse, in order to convey our ideas to learners as well as to obtain others Several linguists such as Brown and Yule (1983), Halliday and Hasan (1976), Hatim and Mason (1990), Cook (1989), Swales (1990), etc… have been interested in the concepts of discourse and discourse analysis In their view of points, discourse can be shown through different genres, which are shown in terms of a set of features which we perceive as being appropriate to a given social occasion (Hatim and Mason, 1990) Each genre of discourse possesses its own discourse features A fable is ― a traditional short story that teaches a moral lesson, especially one with animals as characters‖ ( Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary) Although fables are short and simple, they own their typical features distinguished from other genres of discourse such as an article or a speech But in fact, English fables are not still paid attention to despite the fact that they represent great potentials for teaching language to learners With all the reasons above, the author would like to choose ― Analysis of lexical cohesive devices in English and Vietnamese Fables as the topic of this study I hope that the results of this study are of practical value Aims of the study The main aims of the thesis are as follows:  To identify lexical cohesive devices used in English and Vietnamese Fables  To compare lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese Fables Scope of the study: This study will firstly deal with theoretical background of discourse especially coherence, cohesion and cohesive devices The attention of the study will be secondly paid to considering study of lexical cohesive devices through some English fables and their equivalents in Vietnamese Fables Our efforts are to collect data in both English and Vietnamese to see the frequencies and differences and similarities of each device and sub-device of lexical cohesive devices in the discourse in both languages Methods of the study To attain the aims of the study, the research will conduct the following activities:  Firstly, data including relevant theories and fables for analysis will be collected Relevant theories will be extracted from various linguistic books written by several linguists, such as Cook (1989), Hatim and Mason (1990), Swales (1990), Simpson (1997), Toolan (1998), ect English fables and Vietnamese fables which are unavailable in printed books in Viet Nam, will be collected from Internet Sources  Secondly, relevant theories will be presented on the ground of several linguists, viewpoints  Then, 30 selected fables (15 English fables and 15 Vietnamese Fables) will be comprehensively investigated for lexical cohesive devices so as to find out the most typical cohesive devices used in English and Vietnamese Fables  After all, based on the results of the analysis, some concluding remarks can be generalized and some implications for teaching and learning English fables can be proposed Three successive methods chosen for the best results are descriptive, analytical and comparative Design of the study Within the scope mentioned above, the study consists of three main parts: introduction, development and conclusion Part is divided into three chapters In the first chapter, Literature Review, theoretical knowledge of lexical cohesive devices and English Fables are presented The second chapter , also the main one of the study, deals with the study of lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese fables in the last chapter, we attempt to present some findings and implications Part II: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND This chapter deals with literature review and theoretical topics such as concepts of discourse, cohesion & coherence, cohesive devices, register and genre, fables which are relevant to the purpose of the study 1.1 LITERATURE REVIEW As a genre of discourse in traditional literature, fables are brief stories which take abstract ideas of good and bad, wisdom and foolishness Because of their relative simple structure and moralizing characters, fables have become popular not only adults but also children They can be used as a means of education by entertainment and as a convenient disguise for manifestation of political and social convictions English fables, however, have not received attentions, despite the fact that they represent great potentials for teaching language to learners, especially learners at the elementary level Actually, they have not been studied systematically There have not been many considerable researchers carrying out the study of English Fables The first research was an M.A thesis named ― Some Discourse Features Of English Fables‖ by Nguyen Thi Thao ( 2005) After examining 45 selected fables, Thao comes to the following conclusions: The structure of fables is relatively simple, consisting of normally three components: the Orientation, the Event Chain and the Coda The development of the story is illustrated as one-way track as follows: Orientation Event Chain Coda If all the three components are available, they are likely to be arranged in supposed order, hardly ever can we see two of them exchange positions with each other It means that the Event Chain never precedes the Orientation, or the Coda never appears before the Event Chain An ideal fable realizes all these components However, it is proved from the analysis that the first and the final components are optional ones, which may or may not exist in English fables Frequently, a fable lacks either or event both of the two components, so that the story commences from Initiating Events, the Sequent Event and destinates at the Final Event In terms grammatical cohesion, Reference and especially Personal Reference, account for the highest frequencies of use This can be explained by the fact that fables, are, at least, stories in which characters interact with one another This raises the need of the use of personal reference to refer to these animals Lexical cohesion such as repetition, collocation, synonyms,antonyms, general word and superordinate play an indispensable part in fables Among these lexical cohesive devices, repetition contributes the biggest proportion in English Fables With respect to conjunctions, addictive relation serves the most active role to describe sequence of the events In summary, it is noticeable that several studies on cohesive devices and particularly lexical cohesive devices have been carried out in many discourses and genres, while there is only one researcher showing her interest in English fables She gave a detailed analysis to how some discourse features of English fables A study of lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese fables has not been paid attention For these reasons, this study is carried with the hope that the result of the study is helpful for the application of English fables to teach English to Vietnamese fables 27 Thỏ chẳng may bị q Nó kết bạn với bác Dê lịa, để Dê cõng kiếm ăn Đồi cỏ chúng ăn hàng ngày hết, Thỏ muốn sang bên song chưa có cách Bỗng gã Cá Sấu ngoi lên mặt nước gần bờ Thỏ lên tiếng: - Này ơng anh Cá Sấu ơi! Ơng anh vui long chở sang bên song, biếu anh gã Dê béo để ông anh nhấm nháp! Cá Sấu thấy Dê mập mạp cõng Thỏ lưng, bụng bảo dạ: “ chuyến ta chén Dê béo thật Của Không riêng Dê mà Thỏ nhãi cung ngon ăn Chúng chạy đâu cho thoát” ( Thỏ lừa Cá Sấu) 2.1.2 Synonyms Synonym is defined as ― a word or expression that has the same or nearly the same meaning as another in the same language‖ ( Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary of Current English, 2000, Oxford University Press) The synonyms can be replaced each other in order to avoid repetition in case it is not necessary to repeat a word, and especially this can make discourses flexible and diversified, help not to bore the reader Throughout English and Vietnamese Fables, it is easily to notice that synonym is used to make the story coherent Tran Ngoc Them ( 31.1: 137) defines synonymy as a cohesive deviced realized by different words or phrases conveying the same meaning Synonyms can be nouns, adverbs or adjectives as both members of the pair are the same part of speech For example: He looked as brave as he started off that the people in the village said: “ What a blessing it is to have so fearless a man in our village! He will keep us from harm ( the Hunter and the farmer) Pair of synonyms as the above example ― brave‖ and ― fearless‖ is of the same part of speech 28 As he said this, he flew away to the barnyard where he found some feathers which the peacock had shed He picked these up with bill and placing them among his own feathers Then he marched back and forth, looking back at his fine new coat ( the vain crow) ―His own feathers‖ and ―his fine new coat‖ are not synonymic if considered out of context But in this context they become synonyms In Vietnamese fables, synonyms are also an effective means for the maintenance of the main contents of the stories and avoid redundant and boring expressions For example: Khỉ từ tên núi xuống, vào nương ngô, bẻ bắp, vừa vừa nhảy nhót, tỏ thích thú đến cánh rừng đào, thấy đào chín đỏ, trông ngon lành Khỉ quẳng bắp ngô, nhảy lên cây, hái đào Hái đào lại tiếp tục Đến ruộng dưa, thấy dưa to đào nhiều, liền quẳng đào, hái dưa Rồi khệ nệ ôm dưa vui sướng trở (Khỉ hái quả) Bà nằm bà có ngủ đâu Nó khênh bỏ vươn dâu Đêm năm canh bà nằm chả nhắp Nó khênh bà khắp nơi Đêm qua bà thức chong Nó khênh bỏ vườn dong ( Bà thức chong) 29 2.1.3 Antonymy Some of meaning relations among words can be created by using another means of lexical cohesive devices that is antonym Antonyms are words that opposite in meaning Like synonym, antonyms are usually found in English and Vietnamese Fables For example: On the day appointed for the race the two started together The Tortoise never for a moment stopped, but went on with a slow but steady pace straight to the end of the course The Hare, lying down by the wayside, fell fast asleep At last waking up, and moving as fast as he could, he saw the Tortoise had reached the goal, and was comfortably dozing after his fatigue ( The Hare and the Tortoise) The opposition between “ slow” and “ fast” can be thought of as antonyms We can often see the use of antonym in Vietnamese fables: Thỏ ăn vụng chuối người, bị người đánh què cẳng đứng khó nhọc, nên lúc phải đói meo Trong lúc lê lết kiếm ăn, tình cờ Thỏ gặp Dê mù mò mẫm bước, may với bắt gặp vài cọng cỏ cho vào mồm Thỏ liền bảo Dê: - Này bác Dê, em bị gãy chân mắt sáng, cịn bác mắt mù mà chân lại khỏe kết bạn, giúp đỡ lẫn nhau…… ( Truyện dân tộc Khơme – Thỏ Dê kết bạn) 2.1.4 Superordinate and general word: Superordinate and general word make an essential contribution amongst the lexical cohesion devices used in English and Vietnamese Fables Coordinate means that two items are in cohesive relation, in which one item belongs to a general class compared to the other Let us consider the following example: 30 The Rat caught beetles which had hidden under leaves(…)The Tortoise found plenty of insects in the woods and fields(…) The Raven visited grain fields where he often met the Rat The Gazelle ate grass wherever he could find it (…) At night all the animals met at their home in the woods and talked of what had happened to them through the day… ( The Happy Family) As we have seen, the animals is the superordinate of all these : the rat, the tortoise, the raven and the gazelle By ―general word‖ one repeating is a generalization of the presupposed one For example: A Lion one day one day put his paw upon a mouse who was picking up some crumbs that he had dropped “ oh, please, sir, don‟t kill me!” cried the little animals ( the Mouse and the Lion) Under a lexical point of view, a superordinate item operates anaphorically as a kind of synonyms, whereas a general noun is grammatically similar to a reference item It is easy to find out superordinate and general word that are popularly used in Vietnamese fables By means of these lexical cohesive devices, the author wants to avoid overuse of repetition in word choice However, the coherence, precision and clarity are not affected and not making the boring to read Một Ếch sống lâu năm giếng Chung quanh có vài Nhái, Cua, Ốc…bé nhỏ Hằng ngày, Ếch cất tiếng kêu ộp ộp làm vang động giếng, kiến vật hoảng sợ (Ếch từ đáy giếng ra) 2.1 Collocation Collocation is the type of cohesion that is achieved through the association of lexical items that regularly co-occur 31 Collocational meaning may arise from various semantic associations For example, in partwhole collocation, the two items are in some kind of semantic relation between a person, a thing, or a concept as a whole and its parts ― good day, my pretty bird, “ said the fox, “ I wish I had such a beautiful form as you have” But the crow did not answer “ What a beautiful neck and bright eyes,” said the fox “ the other birds may be well jealous of you.” No answer yet She only raised her wings a little and gazed down upon the fox… (the fox and the crow) In the above example, ― form‖, ― neck‖, ― eyes‖‘ ―wings‖ are all parts of ― the bird‖ Similarly, ― the bank‖ and ―the water‖ are parts of ― a pond‖ Beyond this field there was a pond The frog had been going toward this pond all of the time, but the mouse had not noticed it They were soon on the bank “ oh, you know I not like the water, Mr Frog” cried out the mouse when he saw the pond ( the mouse and the frog) One winter, the weather was very cold, and many of them died But spring came at last ( The ice King) There is an existence of collocational meanings in hyponym This happens when two items are of the same rank are members of the same more general class In this example, ― winter‖, and ― spring‖ aare hyponyms because they belong to a broader concept – ― season‖ We will look at some collocated words and phrases that are found in Vietnamese fables These expressions are so familiar with the readers that they are not too difficult to be realized Một hôm,Khỉ rủ Rùa vào rừng hái Rùa nói: 32 - Bạn Khỉ ơi, trèo lên hái được? Bạn Khỉ bảo: - Tôi trèo lên hái ném xuống cho bạn bạn theo mà thu nhặt Tôi không quên phần bạn đâu ……Đi nửa đường , Rùa nghĩ kế trả thù Khỉ Rùa đào hố phủ lên ( Khỉ Rùa hái quả) ―lá‖, ―quả‖ are all parts of ― cây‖ Similarly, ― chân‖, ― tay‖, ― miệng‖, ― tai‖, ― mắt‖ are parts of body in this example: Miệng Chân, Tay, Tai, Mắt từ lâu song với thân thiết Bỗng hôm, mắt đến than thở với Chân Tay rằng: Hai anh, bác Tai tơi làm việc mệt nhoc quanh năm, cịn lão Miệng làm cả, ăn khơng ngồi Nay đừng làm nữa, thử xem lão có sống hay khơng (….) ( Miệng Chân, Tay,…………) 2.3 Concluding remarks on lexical cohesion Understanding comprehensively the usage and functions of the lexical cohesive devices will help the writer to create effectively coherent texts in general and fables in particular The lexical cohesive devices have a great contribution to the creation of the cohesive and coherent text with precision, unambiguity, nature and interests After carefully investigating 15 English fables and 15 Vietnamese fables, we can present an overall picture of the occurrence of lexical cohesive devices as following: A total number of 337 lexical cohesive devices are recorded in 15 English Fables, which includes:  198 repetitions (58.75%)  66 collocations (19.58%) 33  39 synonyms (11.57%)  27 antonyms ( 8.0%)  superordinates and general words ( 2.1%) Repetition Collocation Synonym Figure 1: Analysis of lexical cohesive devices in English Fables And a total number of 304 lexical cohesive devices in 15 Vietnamese Fables consists of  189 repetitions ( 62.17%)  72 collocations (23.68%)  23 synonyms (7.57%)  14 antonyms (4.60%)  superordinates and general words (1,97%) 34 Repetition Collocation Synonym Figure 2: Analysis of lexical cohesive devices in Vietnamese Fables The figure demonstrates that repetition is the most frequently-used devices with the percentage of up to 58.75% This proved that repetition is the most necessary means of all the lexical cohesion The repeated items are usually some denoting main characters and key concepts, and these nouns appear constantly throughout the stories Collocation ranking the second take up 19.58% Ranking the third in the group is synonyms with 11.57% Antonyms account for 8.0% the five lexical cohesive devices It is quite a low frequency Superordinates and general words account for the smallest portion of only 2.1% 35 Similarly, the figure illustrates the frequency of occurrence of lexical cohesive devices in Vietnamese fables It is not surprising that repetition also accounts for large portion in comparison with other lexical cohesive devices with 62.17% the other types account for relatively small percentage ( collocation – 23.68% ; synonyms – 7.57%; antonyms – 4.6% ; superordinate and general word – 1.97%) With low frequency of occurrence collocation, synonyms, antonyms, superordinate and general word also make a valuable contribution to the coherence and cohesion of Vietnamese fables 36 Part III: CONCLUSION Recapitulation of major ideas As the title suggested, the thesis has discussed coherence, cohesion and study of lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese Fables Thanks to a comprehensive analysis of the chosen fables, we have come up to the following conclusions about the discourse features of English fables:  Fables are for people from all ages but mainly familiar with small-aged children, whose language acquisition and background knowledge are still limited So, the two essential characteristics of a fable is briefness and simplicity in structure and wording  In terms of contrastive analysis on devices as repetition, synonyms and antonyms, there has a tendency of maintained structures or the usages of these devices in English and Vietnamese Fables Repetition contributes the biggest proportion ( nearly three fourth of all lexical cohesive devices) in English and Vietnamese fables repetition is considered to be the easiest way to understand, the readers can know what the item refers to without looking back the preceding parts Moreover, the reader is not required to have necessary knowledge for interpretation Repetition is an effective means which enables small-aged readers to connect things and events together for a complete comprehension of the story  Last but not least, other sub-types of lexical cohesive devices such as collocation, synonym, general word and superordinate also play an important part in fables Implications: As we mentioned above, English fables are quite simple and easy to understand Moreover, the stories with animals as characters are of great attraction to readers Children are very interested in the behaviors as human-beings of these animals, so the children become more involved in the development of the story Therefore, it is suggested that English fables should be introduced to Vietnamese learners of English of elementary level in order to improve knowledge of English and on the other hand to acquire the moral or living experience Fables with real characters, real happening and 37 real consequences prove to be effective to create an exciting atmosphere for the class, which helps to improve the learners‘ motivation It is useful to use fables to teach the learners language skills such as reading comprehension, listening and speaking Suggestions for further studies: This paper is attempted to bring out a detailed analysis of lexical cohesive devices in English fables Further studies conducted could focus on the followings:  Other discourse features of English Fables such as metaphor, grammatical cohesive devices, logical cohesive devices, ect will be carried out  Comparison between the narrator‘s discourse and characters, discourse in English Fables in terms of linguistic perspectives  Comparison between English and Vietnamese fables in terms of generic structure Due to the constraint in time, the framework of a minor M.A thesis as well as the limited knowledge of the author, mistakes are inevitable Constructive comments from those who are concerned, therefore, would be highly appreciated 38 REFERENCES In English: Brown, G & Yule, G (1983) Discourse analysis Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cook, G (1989) Discourse Oxford: Oxford University Press Cook, G (1994) Discourse and Literature Oxford: Oxford University Press Halliday, M.A.K (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar London: Arnold Halliday,M.K & Hasan, R.(1976) Cohesion in English London: Longman Grop Limited Hatim, B & Mason, I (1990) Discourse and the Translator Longman Group Limited Hoa, Nguyen (2000a) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis Hanoi: VNU Publishing House Hoa, Nguyen (2003) Understanding English Semantics Hanoi: VNU Publishing House http://www Fables.org.uk http://www.fables,co.uk//butterfly.concise Lien, Tran Thi Ngoc (2003) A research into Genre Analysis at Linguistic Level: the Case of English Fairy tales and Application to Translation Unpublished M.A.Thesis Hanoi Mc Cathy, M (1991) Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers CUP> Munday, J.(2001) Introducing Translation Studies London and Newyork: Routledge Nunan, D (1993) Introducing Discourse Analysis England: Penguin Group (2000) Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary Oxford University Press Raphael, S (1995) Text and Discourse Analysis Newyork: Routledge Simpson, R (1997) Language through Literature London: Routledge Swales, J.M.(1990) Genre Analysis Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Toolan, M (1998) Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics M Arnold 39 In Vietnamese: Hòa, Nguyễn.(2003) Phân tích diễn ngôn- Một số vấn đề lí luận ph-ơng pháp Nguyên Triều.(2004) Góc nhìn cấu trúc truyện Ngụ ngôn Dân Gian Việt Nam Nhà xuất Khoa học XÃ Hội Phát, Lê Tr-ờng.(2000) Thi pháp Văn học Dân Gian Nhà Xuất Giáo Dục Thêm, Trần Ngọc.(2000) Hệ thống liên kết văn Tiếng Việt Nhà xuất Giáo Dục Vân, Hoàng Văn.(2000) Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm cú Tiếng Việt Nhà xuất Đại học Quốc Gia Hà Nội 40 APPENDIX LIST OF FABLES FOR ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL COHESION DEVICES English Fables The Ant and the Dove The two Goats The Eagle, the Cat & the Wild Snow The Vain Crow The Hare and the Tortoise The Happy Family The Mouse and the Lion The Fox & the Crow The Mouse & the Frog 10 The Wolf and the Lamb 11 The Dog & the Wolf 12 The Dog & the Shadow 13 The Bull & the Goat 14 The Crow & the Raven 15 The Hen & the Golden Egg Vietnamese Fables: Cú, Quạ phận Con Cò Thỏ lừa Lợn Rừng Ng-ời chủ xe víi hai ngùa Thá lõa C¸ SÊu Khỉ hái Bà thức nh- chong Thỏ Dê kết bạn ếch từ đáy giếng 10 Khỉ Rùa hái 41 11 Miệng Chân, Tay 12 Êch lừa Rái cá 13 Chồn Cọp 14 Chó học tài chạy H-ơu 15 Chim sẻ, Chuột Mèo ... English and Vietnamese fables 22 Chapter 2: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES THROUGH SOME ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FABLES Lexical cohesive devices play an important part in forming a. .. analysis to how some discourse features of English fables A study of lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese fables has not been paid attention For these reasons, this study. .. wisdom and foolishness and make them concrete Fables have some characteristics Characters in fables are usually animals, or sometimes inanimate objects which behave as human-beings 15 Characters are