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ONLY HALF THE STORY Another way a writer may slant information is to omit evidence. A writer may try to convince you to accept his or her interpretation of an event or issue by giving you only one side of the story and by leaving out contrasting facts or perspectives. When this is done deliberately, it is a propaganda technique called card stacking. When you read, evaluate whether the author has presented different points of view and offered balanced evidence. For instance, a campaign ad might highlight a candidate’s positive qualities and leave out unfavorable characteris- tics. Campaign ads might also target an opponent, pre- senting negative qualities and omitting positive ones, thereby creating a distorted perspective.  Cause and Effect Relationships The GED Social Studies Test will ask you to identify the relationships between events. Often, historical events are connected to situations that came before them. When you are considering the causes of an event, be aware that multiple causes can create one effect, just as one cause can have many effects. Sometimes, what is considered a cause can be controversial. In the following passage, leg- islators and criminologists argue over the causes that might have contributed to a drop in the youth crime rate. Juvenile crime has reached its lowest national level since 1988. The number of arrests for juve- nile murder has also dropped. It is now at the lowest level since 1966. Backers of “adult time” legislation—“get-tough” laws that send violent teenagers to adult prison—believe that fear of imprisonment is stopping juveniles from com- mitting crimes. However, the decrease in crime often started before these laws took effect. Some criminologists believe a drop in crack cocaine use and gun carrying is the more likely cause. These experts argue that as the crack market dropped off in the mid-1990s, fewer teens were dealing drugs and fewer were carrying guns to protect themselves. Police also increased their efforts to enforce gun laws. With fewer young people carry- ing weapons, the teen murder rate dropped. According to the criminologists mentioned in the pas- sage, which of the following is NOT a cause of the drop in juvenile crime? a. fewer gun-carrying juveniles b. enforced gun laws c. fear of jail time d. fewer drug dealers on the street e. police presence The correct choice is c. In the passage, criminologists argue that “adult time”laws have not had an effect on the decrease in youth crime. They believe that choices a, b, d, and e are multiple causes of the drop in crime.  Social Studies Key Words As with any type of study, the social sciences use specific terms and vocabulary. While you are studying for the test, use a dictionary to look up unfamiliar terms. How- ever, even if you do not recognize a word, you might be able to figure out its meaning. The parts of a word— prefix, root, and suffix—can offer clues to its meaning. A number of terms used in social studies derive from Latin or Greek. Knowing some useful word parts can help you make an educated guess about the meaning of a word. Review these common Latin and Greek word parts: – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 160 ante before anthrop human arche beginning, government auto self bi two bio life bene good cracy rule co, con with demo people dis not, opposite femina woman geo Earth genos race inter between mis wrong mono one ology study poly many proto first sub under, below super over theo god topos place tri three uni one Using the chart, isolate the word parts of the following words: monotheism ___________________________ autocrat _______________________________ democracy _____________________________ Now you can guess what they mean. Monotheism is the belief that there is only one God. Autocrat stands for someone who rules by him- or herself: a ruler with unlimited power. Democracy is a government in which the people rule either directly or indirectly through representatives. Context—the words and sentences surrounding a term—can also offer clues to its meaning. Sometimes, a word will be followed by a phrase that restates and explains its meaning. Example: President Truman instituted a set of domestic programs that were later labeled the Fair Deal; these policies continued and devel- oped Roosevelt’s New Deal programs. In this sentence, you can determine what the term Fair Deal means from the text that surrounds it. The Fair Deal is both “a set of domestic programs” and a contin- uation of “Roosevelt’s New Deal programs.” A contrast or opposing point of view can also offer clues to the meaning of a term. The following sentence uses the term bipartisanship: Example: Despite the president’s plea for bipartisanship, Republican senators accused Democratic leaders of petty politics. The sentence tells you that the Republicans are mak- ing accusations about the actions of the Democrats. The two groups are not in agreement. In the sentence, the term bipartisanship refers to the opposite. So, you can guess that it refers to the two groups when they are in agreement.  Tools and Methods in Social Science Social scientists use polls in order to learn the attitudes and opinions of a population. Polls are surveys that ask people about the way they live and what they believe. One method of polling is called sampling, in which a polltaker questions a small part of a group so that he or she can speculate about the opinions of the whole group. In this way, polltakers can make accurate predictions. However, sometimes polls are inaccurate. A historic polling failure occurred in 1948, when polling groups predicted that presidential candidate Harry S. Truman would lose the election. In the recent 2004 presidential election, the narrow margin in some states between can- didates George W. Bush and John Kerry made it difficult for polling organizations to make predictions. In addition to forecasting voting patterns in elections, polls can determine the opinions of groups on a whole range of issues from consumer trends to health care and education. Polltakers may use personal interviews, tele- phone interviews, or mail-in questionnaires. The data from these methods are then tabulated and evaluated. After social scientists gather information from surveys or studies, they can organize the information into the form of numbers or statistics. Statistics can help social scientists interpret information. They use statistics to fol- low trends in global or national rates of population, edu- cation level, housing status, crime, or another category. They can also use statistics to make comparisons between groups. Example: The U.S. Census Bureau found that 36% of U.S. citizens between the ages of 18 and 24 voted in the November 2004 election, while 72% of citizens between the ages of 65 and 74 voted. From this information, a social scientist can hypoth- esize about the causes and effects of this age difference in people who vote. – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 161  Primary Sources To gather information about the past, social scientists and historians use a wide range of sources. Primary sources are firsthand records of the past that include let- ters, legal records, business records, diaries, oral histories, photographs, posters, maps, or artifacts. Secondary sources are accounts of an event made sometime after the event took place. These include newspaper articles, pam- phlets, books, or interviews. Together, these clues about the past make up the historical record. When reading historical sources, you need to use the same analysis skills that you would apply to a present-day source. Here are some basic questions to ask when you are evaluating the reliability of a historical source: ■ Consider the purpose of the author. Was the source intended for a private or public audience? ■ Did the author witness the event or rely on oth- ers’ accounts? ■ Did the author express an opinion? What was his or her point of view? ■ Can you verify the source with other evidence? ■ How much time elapsed after the event before the author made his or her account? (The sooner an account is made, the more reliable a source tends to be. Also, the nearer the witness is in proximity to the event, the more reliable. Social scientists and historians call this the time and place rule.)  Presenting Facts Social scientists often use tables, charts, and graphs to arrange information. Charts and tables divide figures into columns. They organize information so that you can see the relationships between facts. Graphs visually dis- play information so that you can interpret facts more easily. Graphs include tables, bar graphs, line graphs, and circle graphs. Tables Tables arrange figures (numbers) into columns in order to show a relationship between them. To read a table, begin by noting the title of the table (the title runs across the top of the table). Next, read each column heading. Now you can locate facts and begin to discern the rela- tionships between them. World Energy Consumption, 1970–2020 Year Quadrillion Btu Consumed 1970 207 1975 243 1980 285 1985 311 1990 346 1995 366 2000 382 2005 439 2010 493 2015 552 2020 612 Sources: History—Energy Information Administration (EIA), Office of Energy Markets and End Use, International Statistics Database and International Energy Annual 1999, DOE/EIA-0119(99), Washington, DC, February 2001. Pro- jections—EIA, World Energy Projection System (2002). E XERCISE 11 Look at the table, “World Energy Consumption, 1970– 2020,” and then answer the following questions. The answers are on page 169. 1. How much energy did the world consume in 1980? 2. What is the table’s estimate of world energy consumption for the year 2015? 3. What is the trend of the world’s energy consumption? 4. In which five-year period in the past was the increase in the world’s energy consumption the greatest? 5. Between 1970 and 2020, how many times will the world’s consumption rate grow, according to the table’s estimate? Bar Graphs A bar graph is one way to present facts visually. A bar graph features a vertical axis (running up and down on the left-hand side of the graph) and a horizontal axis – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 162 (running along the bottom of the graph). The graph rep- resents quantities in strips or bars. To construct a bar graph from the table, “World Energy Consumption, 1970–2020,” mark the five-year increments on the bot- tom horizontal axis and the units of energy consumed (by increments of 100 quadrillion Btu) on the vertical axis. By representing the table’s data in a bar graph, you can visualize the world’s energy consumption trend more easily. World Energy Consumption, 1970–2020 Line Graphs Line graphs compare two or more things and help you to visualize trends at a glance. Like the bar graph, a line graph features a horizontal and vertical axis. Look at the graph, “Immigrants Admitted: Fiscal Years 1900–2000.” The vertical axis marks the number of immigrants (in thousands). The horizontal axis measures each decade between 1900 and 2000. A point for each year is plotted on the coordinate plane and a line connects the points. By using a line graph, you can readily see immigration trends over the century. Immigrants Admitted to the United States: Fiscal Years 1900–2000 Source: 2000 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service. EXERCISE 12 Look at the line graph, “Immigrants Admitted to the United States,”and then answer the following questions. The answers are on page 169. 1. What was the general trend of U.S. immigration between 1950 and 1990? 2. In which decades was lowest point of U.S. immi- gration in the last century? 3. When did the highest point occur? Circle Graphs Circle graphs, also called pie charts, display information so that you can see relationships between parts and a whole. The entire circle in the graph represents 100% of something. Then it is divided into parts, or pie slices, that together add up to the whole. To understand a circle graph, read the title of the graph. What does the graph represent? Read all other headings and labels. What does each portion of the circle represent? Now you are ready to see how the parts of information relate. Review the following circle graph and then answer the practice questions. 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Thousands 1,950 1,800 1,650 1,500 1,350 1,200 1,050 900 750 600 450 300 150 0 0 100 200 207 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 243 285 311 346 366 382 439 493 552 612 Projections History Quadrillion Btu 300 400 500 600 700 – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 163 The Federal Government Dollar Source: U.S. Office of Management and Budget, the Execu- tive Office of the President. Reading and Interpreting Graphs ➧ Note the title of the graph. ➧ Look at the labels of the axes (or pie slices in a circle graph). ➧ Carefully read the information in the legend or key if there is one. ➧ Look for relationships between the facts presented. E XERCISE 13 Use the circle graph, “The Federal Government Dollar,” to answer the following questions. The answers are on page 169. 1. What percentage of the federal budget comes from social insurance receipts and corporate income taxes? 2. What is the biggest source of income for the fed- eral government? 3. Which program receives the largest share of the national budget? 4. What proportion of the budget goes to health- care programs?  Maps Maps are printed or drawn representations of a geo- graphic area. Social scientists use different types of maps to understand the natural or cultural facts about an area. Maps can visually display many kinds of information, such as the physical features of the land, political bound- aries between nations, or population densities. Topographic maps show the physical features of land, including land elevations and depressions, water depth, rivers, forests, mountains, or human-made cities and roads. Political maps display political divisions and borders. Special-purpose maps can depict a wide range of infor- mation about an area, from average rainfall, crop distri- bution, or population density, to migration patterns of people. To read a map, carefully review each of the following: ■ Title—this describes what the map represents. ■ Legend, or key—a table or list that explains the symbols used in a map. ■ Latitude and longitude—latitude refers to the lines on a map that are parallel to the equator; longitude refers to lines parallel to the prime meridian that run north to south through Green- wich, England. These lines help locate specific areas on a map. ■ Scale—shows the map’s proportion in relation to the area it represents. For example, on a topo- graphic map, the scale might show the distance on the map that equals a mile or kilometer on land. Review the special-purpose map on page 165, paying careful attention to its details, and then answer the prac- tice questions. The answers are on page 169. National Defense 16 cents Nondefense Discretionary 19 cents Social Security 23 cents Medicare 12 cents Net Interest 10 cents Medicaid 7 cents Other Means—Tested Entitlements 6 cents Other Mandatory 7 cents Where It Goes Individual Income Taxes 49 cents Social Insurance Receipts 33 cents Corporate Income Taxes 11 cents Other 4 cents Excise Taxes 3 cents Where It Comes From – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 164 EXERCISE 14 1. What is the title of the map? 2. What do the four shades of color indicate in the legend? 3. How much did the population change in the last decade in the state of California? 4. Which states experienced the largest population change in the last decade? 5. Which area experienced a loss?  Political Cartoons A regular feature in American newspapers since the early nineteenth century, political cartoons use satirical humor to comment on a current event. Their purpose is to express an opinion—the political point of view of the cartoonist or the newspaper or magazine in which they appear. A cartoon will often focus and simplify a single issue or event so that readers can easily grasp its message. Cartoons employ few words, often just enough to make their point clear. They sometimes use caricature, a tech- nique in which the cartoonist deliberately exaggerates the features of well-known people (often politicians) to make fun of them. Because of their emotional appeal, political cartoons can be effective tools in swaying public opinion. The power of political cartoons was demonstrated in 1869 when Harper’s Weekly cartoonist Thomas Nast used his art to help end the corrupt Boss Tweed Ring in New York City. Nast first introduced symbols that we still use today: the tiger as the symbol of Tammany Hall, the elephant for the Republican Party, and the donkey for the Demo- cratic Party. – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 165 Percent Change in Population for United States: 1990–1999 16.9 to 50.6 9.7 to 16.8 0.1 to 9.6 −14.5 to 0.0 AK WA ID NV UT CO AZ TX GA OR MT ND SD WY NE KS NM OK LA AR MO IA MN WI IL IN OH MI KY TN MS AL FL SC NC VA WV DC DE MD NJ PA NY MA CT RI NH VT ME HI CA Source: Population Estimates Program, U.S. Census Bureau. . 1940 1 950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Thousands 1, 950 1,800 1, 650 1 ,50 0 1, 350 1,200 1, 050 900 750 600 450 300 150 0 0 100 200 207 1970 19 75 1980 19 85 1990 19 95 2000 20 05 2010 20 15 2020 243 2 85 311 346 366 382 439 493 55 2 612 Projections History Quadrillion. Consumption, 1970–2020 Year Quadrillion Btu Consumed 1970 207 19 75 243 1980 2 85 19 85 311 1990 346 19 95 366 2000 382 20 05 439 2010 493 20 15 552 2020 612 Sources: History—Energy Information Administration (EIA),. for the year 20 15? 3. What is the trend of the world’s energy consumption? 4. In which five-year period in the past was the increase in the world’s energy consumption the greatest? 5. Between 1970