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O N THE SOCIAL Studies Exam, you will read short passages, varying in length from 50 to 170 words, and then answer a multiple-choice question or set of questions concerning the passage. Reading passages may be taken from a number of sources, often drawn from a workplace or aca- demic context. The test uses both primary sources, such as firsthand historical or practical documents, and sec- ondary sources, such as excerpts from editorials, news articles, or news magazines.  Be an Active Reader When you read social studies material, you use a similar set of skills as you do when you read other kinds of text. Reading is an active exercise in which you interact with the text, paying close to attention to the key thoughts and details of a passage. Try skimming a passage first so that you can discern its organization and get clues about its main ideas. If you read at a slow pace initially, you may lose the overall idea in too many details. Look to see if a reading excerpt is broken into sections, if there are any helpful topic headings, and what key terms are boldfaced or highlighted. After you finish skimming, go back and read more closely. This time ask yourself questions as you read to help you better understand and recall the passage: What is the main point of the text? How did the author support his or her point? As you read, consider making quick notes on a separate piece of paper to help you high- light important words or ideas. CHAPTER Tips and Strategies for the GED Social Studies Exam YOU HAVE reviewed what you need to know for the Social Stud- ies Exam. Now you will learn some specific tips and strategies to use on the exam. 18 155  Where Is the Main Idea? To show that you understand the concepts presented in social studies material, the test will sometimes ask you to find the main idea of a passage. A main idea is a general statement that contains all the ideas within a passage. It is an author’s main point. To locate a main idea, carefully read the topic sentence of the passage. The first sentence may contain the overall idea that an author wishes to express. However, some- times an author may build up to his or her point, in which case you may find the main idea in the last sentence of the introductory paragraph or even the last sentence of the entire passage. Students often confuse the topic or sub- ject of a passage—that is, what the passage is about—with the main idea. The main idea is what the author intends to say about the subject. For example, read the following paragraph: The fertile black soil of the Nile River Valley in northeastern Africa gave rise to the agriculture- based society of ancient Egypt. For more than 3,000 years beginning as early as 5,000 B.C., this civilization flourished. Its cultural contributions include basic concepts of arithmetic and geome- try, a calendar, jewelry, pottery, statues, the pyra- mids at Giza, underground burial chambers, and the mummification process. The Egyptian script, called hieroglyphics, is a form of writing based on pictures. The Rosetta Stone, a granite slab inscribed in 196 B.C. with three identical texts—two in hieroglyphic languages and one in ancient Greek—aided scholars in deciphering hieroglyphics. Note that a statement might be too general to best describe the main idea of a passage. For example, look at the following choices. Which best describes the main idea of the selection? a. Early civilizations often developed near a water source. b. Before deciphering the Rosetta Stone, scholars could not read Egyptian hieroglyphics. c. Ancient Egypt was a sophisticated civilization that made many contributions to human culture. d. The most important Egyptian contribution was a written script called hieroglyphics. e. Scholars have found similarities between heiroglyphics and ancient Greek. Although choice a is a true statement, it is too general to express the main idea of the paragraph. Choice b is also a true statement but is too specific to describe the passage’s main idea. Choice d is an opinion that is not supported by the details of the passage. Choice e is not supported by the passage. Choice c best describes the paragraph’s main idea. To practice finding the main idea, ask yourself some of the following questions when you read: ■ What is this passage about? ■ What is the author’s purpose? ■ If you were asked to choose a headline or title for the passage, what would you choose? ■ Which sentence contains all the ideas expressed in the passage?  Finding Supporting Ideas After you have highlighted the main idea of a passage, the next step is to find the details or facts that an author has provided to support his or her main position. While a main idea is a general statement, a supporting idea is spe- cific information. For example, read the next paragraph from a U.S. Census Bureau report: The growth of human population has been, is now, and in the future will be almost entirely determined in the world’s less developed coun- tries (LDCs). Ninety-nine percent of global nat- ural increase—the difference between numbers of births and numbers of deaths—now occurs in the developing regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The topic of this paragraph is world population. The main idea of the passage is what the writer is saying about world population. In this case, the first sentence expresses the main idea: The growth of human population has been, is now, and in the future will be almost entirely determined in the world’s less developed countries (LDCs). The next sentence offers specific information that – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 156 supports the main idea. It offers a specific fact in the form of a statistic (ninety-nine percent of global natural increase) and gives details about which areas of the world the passage is talking about (developing regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America). These words and phrases are often used to introduce a detail or idea that supports an author’s position: for example for instance one reason is in one case in particular specifically To practice locating supporting ideas while you read, skim the text and look for the following: ■ examples that bolster the main idea ■ contrasting arguments that clarify the author’s point ■ arguments for the author’s position ■ details that answer what, when, where, why, or how  Restating Information The GED Social Studies Test will ask you to answer ques- tions based on details supplied in a passage. However, the answer choices will not present the details in the same words—they may restate the information in different terms. To strengthen your critical thinking skills, when you are reading, pause and think about what the mate- rial is stating. Then try putting it in your own words. This will help you better understand reading material and increase your ability to recognize the same material even if it is written in new terms. For example, read the following passage: The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is an agreement between Canada, Mexico, and the United States to remove tariffs and trade barriers from goods made and sold in the continent. Before the pact was approved in 1993, lawmakers and special-interest groups fiercely debated the issue. Labor groups believed that NAFTA would make it easier for U.S. busi- nesses to move their production plants to Mex- ico to take advantage of cheap labor. Environmental groups opposed NAFTA because they felt that pollution regulations would be more difficult to enforce. Think about how you would rephrase this informa- tion in your own words. Now answer the practice question. According to the information in the paragraph, which of the following is true? a. Supporters of NAFTA were not challenged. b. Opponents of NAFTA wanted to keep duties and other tariffs on U.S. goods shipped to Mexico. c. Labor groups were afraid that U.S. jobs would be lost. d. Canada and the United States never approved NAFTA. e. Labor groups believe it is cheaper to produce goods in the United States. Choice c is correct. It restates the following sentence from the passage: “Labor groups believed that NAFTA would make it easier for U.S. businesses to move their plants to Mexico to take advantage of cheap labor.” Choices a and d are incorrect statements. Choice b may be true, but it is not mentioned in the paragraph.  Making Inferences While restating information tests your ability to know what a text says, making inferences about a passage demonstrates your ability to know what a text means. Sometimes, an author may not explicitly state his or her main idea or offer a conclusion. You must infer the author’s meaning. Being able to make inferences is an important critical thinking skill. To figure out an unstated idea or conclusion, look at what the author has stated. Ask yourself these questions: ■ What can I conclude based on the information provided? ■ What is the author suggesting? ■ What will be the outcome? ■ Would the same outcome occur in another setting? – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 157 Read the following excerpt from Elizabeth Cady Stan- ton’s paper, “Self-Government the Best Means of Self- Development,” which she presented to the U.S. Senate Committee on Woman Suffrage at a March 7, 1884 hear- ing. Then answer the practice question. “They who say that women do not desire the right of suffrage, that they prefer masculine domination to self-government, falsify every page of history, every fact in human experience. It has taken the whole power of the civil and canon law to hold woman in the subordinate position which it is said she willingly accepts.” What is the author of this passage suggesting? a. Women do not want the right to vote. b. Women need to have access to education before they are allowed the right to vote. c. Lawmakers and religious leaders have been coercive in maintaining women’s status as “second-class” citizens. d. Women can still be influential citizens with- out the right to vote. e. Women willingly accept their subordinate position. Statements a, d, and e are incorrect. Elizabeth Cady Stanton is making a counterargument against the posi- tion that women do not want the right to vote. Statement b is not supported by the details given in the passage. Statement c is the best answer. Stanton uses strong lan- guage to make her argument for women’s suffrage. She says that “canon law,” which refers to the laws of the Christian Church, and “civil law,” which refers to the laws of the United States, have used their power to keep women in a “subordinate position.” Looking for Proof Just because something is in print does not mean that the reader must believe it or take it as fact. Most written material has some bias. Sometimes, a writer’s beliefs may unknowingly affect how he or she writes about an event. In other instances, a writer purposefully tries to shape your reaction and opinion. For example, a writer may present only one perspective of an event or include only facts that support his or her position. One crucial think- ing skill that the GED will measure is your ability to make judgments about what you read. As you read, you will need to challenge the author’s assumptions and posi- tions, tell the difference between fact and opinion, and look for complete and accurate information. FACT VS. OPINION A fact is a statement that can be verified by a reliable source. Because all sources have some bias, you must decide whether you think a source presents accurate, researched information. Examples of reliable sources of information may include official government docu- ments, encyclopedias, or well-documented studies. Here is an example of a factual statement: The U.S. population is growing older—in fact, adults over age 65 are the fastest-growing seg- ment of today’s population. This sentence could be supported by the recent national census. An opinion is a statement of the beliefs or feelings of a person or group. It cannot be proven by a reliable source. An opinion is a judgment that may or may not be true. It includes predictions of the future because it cannot be proven at the current time. The following sen- tence represents an opinion: Many believe that the population boom among elderly Americans will create a future health- care crisis. Note that this statement is attributed to a source (“many”) that is unknown and therefore cannot be ver- ified. It also represents a belief or speculation about the future. Others may disagree with this prediction. Be alert to the common words that may introduce a statement of opinion: likely should/could say possibly think charge probably believe attest E MOTIONAL LANGUAGE Propaganda refers to techniques that try to influence your opinion, emotions, and attitudes in order to bene- fit an organization or individual. Propaganda uses lan- guage that targets your emotions—your fears, beliefs, values, prejudices—instead of appealing to reason or critical thinking. Advertising, media, and political cam- – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 158 paigns use propaganda techniques to influence you. To detect propaganda, ask yourself the following questions about written material: ■ Who does it benefit? ■ What are its sources? ■ What is the purpose of the text? Here are six common propaganda techniques: Bandwagon—The basic message of bandwagon propaganda is “everyone else is doing something, so you should be, too.” It appeals to the desire to join the crowd or be on the winning team. Phrases like “Americans buy more of our brand than any other brand” or “the brand that picky parents choose” are examples of the bandwagon technique. To evaluate a message, ask these questions: ■ Does this program or policy serve my particular interests? ■ What is the evidence for or against it? Common Man—This approach tries to convince you that its message is “just plain old common sense.” Politicians and advertisers often speak in an everyday language and use common jokes and phrases in order to present themselves as one “of the people,” and thereby appeal to their audience. For example, a presidential candidate campaigning in New Hampshire may dress in a plaid shirt and chop wood or visit a mill in order to look like an ordinary citizen. To avoid the common-man technique, ask yourself these questions: ■ What ideas is the person presenting—separate from the person’s image or language? ■ What are the facts? Euphemisms—Instead of emotionally loaded lan- guage that rouses its audience, these terms “soften” an unpleasant reality and make it less emotional. Terms that soften the nature of war are an example. A historical instance of euphemism is when in the 1940s, the U.S. government renamed the War Department to the Department of Defense. Stay alert to euphemisms. What facts are being softened or hidden? Generalities—This approach uses words and phrases that evoke deep emotions. Examples of gen- eralities are honor, peace, freedom, or home. These words carry strong associations for most people. By using these terms, a writer can appeal to your emo- tions so that you will accept his or her message with- out evaluating it. Generalities are vague so that you will supply your own interpretations and not ask further questions. An example might be, “The United States must further restrict immigration in order to preserve freedom and liberty.” Try to challenge what you read or hear. Ask yourself: ■ What does the generality really mean? ■ Has the author used the generality to sway my emotions? ■ If I take the generality out of the sentence, what are the merits of the idea? Labeling or name calling—This method links a negative label, name, or phrase to a person, group, belief, or nation. It appeals to hates and fears. Name calling can be a direct attack or it can be indirect, using ridicule. Labels can evoke deep emotions, such as Commie, Nazi, or Terrorist. Others can be nega- tively charged, depending on the situation: Yuppie, Slacker, Liberal, or Reactionary. When a written text or speech uses labeling, ask yourself these questions: ■ Does the label have any real connection to the idea being presented? ■ If I take away the label, what are the merits of the idea? Testimonials—In advertising, athletes promote a range of products, from cereal to wristwatches. In politics, celebrities endorse presidential candidates. Both are examples of testimonials. A testimonial uses a public figure, expert, or other respected per- son to endorse a policy, organization, or product. Because you may respect or admire a person, you may be less critical and accept a product, candidate, or idea more readily. Ask yourself these questions: ■ Does the public figure have any expert knowledge about this subject? ■ Without the testimonial, what are the merits of the message? – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 159 ONLY HALF THE STORY Another way a writer may slant information is to omit evidence. A writer may try to convince you to accept his or her interpretation of an event or issue by giving you only one side of the story and by leaving out contrasting facts or perspectives. When this is done deliberately, it is a propaganda technique called card stacking. When you read, evaluate whether the author has presented different points of view and offered balanced evidence. For instance, a campaign ad might highlight a candidate’s positive qualities and leave out unfavorable characteris- tics. Campaign ads might also target an opponent, pre- senting negative qualities and omitting positive ones, thereby creating a distorted perspective.  Cause and Effect Relationships The GED Social Studies Test will ask you to identify the relationships between events. Often, historical events are connected to situations that came before them. When you are considering the causes of an event, be aware that multiple causes can create one effect, just as one cause can have many effects. Sometimes, what is considered a cause can be controversial. In the following passage, leg- islators and criminologists argue over the causes that might have contributed to a drop in the youth crime rate. Juvenile crime has reached its lowest national level since 1988. The number of arrests for juve- nile murder has also dropped. It is now at the lowest level since 1966. Backers of “adult time” legislation—“get-tough” laws that send violent teenagers to adult prison—believe that fear of imprisonment is stopping juveniles from com- mitting crimes. However, the decrease in crime often started before these laws took effect. Some criminologists believe a drop in crack cocaine use and gun carrying is the more likely cause. These experts argue that as the crack market dropped off in the mid-1990s, fewer teens were dealing drugs and fewer were carrying guns to protect themselves. Police also increased their efforts to enforce gun laws. With fewer young people carry- ing weapons, the teen murder rate dropped. According to the criminologists mentioned in the pas- sage, which of the following is NOT a cause of the drop in juvenile crime? a. fewer gun-carrying juveniles b. enforced gun laws c. fear of jail time d. fewer drug dealers on the street e. police presence The correct choice is c. In the passage, criminologists argue that “adult time” laws have not had an effect on the decrease in youth crime. They believe that choices a, b, d, and e are multiple causes of the drop in crime.  Social Studies Key Words As with any type of study, the social sciences use specific terms and vocabulary. While you are studying for the test, use a dictionary to look up unfamiliar terms. How- ever, even if you do not recognize a word, you might be able to figure out its meaning. The parts of a word— prefix, root, and suffix—can offer clues to its meaning. A number of terms used in social studies derive from Latin or Greek. Knowing some useful word parts can help you make an educated guess about the meaning of a word. Review these common Latin and Greek word parts: – TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM– 160 ante before anthrop human arche beginning, government auto self bi two bio life bene good cracy rule co, con with demo people dis not, opposite femina woman geo Earth genos race inter between mis wrong mono one ology study poly many proto first sub under, below super over theo god topos place tri three uni one . the idea? Testimonials—In advertising, athletes promote a range of products, from cereal to wristwatches. In politics, celebrities endorse presidential candidates. Both are examples of testimonials the Main Idea? To show that you understand the concepts presented in social studies material, the test will sometimes ask you to find the main idea of a passage. A main idea is a general statement. cultural contributions include basic concepts of arithmetic and geome- try, a calendar, jewelry, pottery, statues, the pyra- mids at Giza, underground burial chambers, and the mummification process.