T. T. T. Hoa Ideology of the United States Declaration…, tr. 40-47 40 Ideology of the United States Declaration of Independence Tran Thi Thanh Hoa (a) Abstract. Written by Thomas Jefferson in 1776, the United States Declaration of Independence is a famous discourse. In this paper, an analysis of the United States Declaration of Independence in the light of Critical Discourse Analysis in terms of vocabulary and grammar is presented. Based on the findings of the analysis, the writer's revolutionary ideology which is hidden within the discourse is revealed. In addition, it is suggested that Critical Discourse Analysis can be used as a necessary theoretical basic and analytical tool for analyzing and understanding the intricateness of discourse. 1. Introduction Many language learners, including English language ones, usually find authentic discourse difficult to comprehend fully. This is because they fail to understand the author's aims and ideas. In other words, they are unable to understand the ideology that is hidden within the discourse, and that drives the discourse. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), with its new perspective, can help the language learners in general and English language learners in particular to deal with that problem. To contribute further supporting evidence of the persuasive utility of CDA to authentic discourse, as a case study, the United States Declaration of Independence was analyzed in the light of CDA. 2. Defining CDA and Systemic - Functional Grammar (SFG) 2.1. What is meant by CDA? The term Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is used to denote the theory formerly identified as Critical Linguistics (CL). In the late 1970s, CL was developed by a group of linguists . and literacy theorists at the University of East Anglia [6]. CL practionioners such as Trew [9, p. 155] aimed at “isolating ideology in discourse”. Since 1990s, CDA has been further developed and broadened. Ruth Wodak, writing in Language, Power and Ideology [8] defines CDA as an interdisciplinary approach to language study with a critical point of view. According to Fairclough [2], CDA is critical in the sense that it aims to show non-obvious ways in which language is involved in social relations of power and domination, and in ideology. 2.2. Systemic - Functional Grammar (SFG) and CDA Systemic - Functional Grammar (SFG) is a theory of language centered around the notion of language function. SFG was mainly developed by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s. SFG starts at social context, and looks at how language both acts upon, and is constrained by, this social context. At this point Halliday and CDA theorists agree with each other on the assumption that there is a dialectical relationship between society NhËn bµi ngµy 21/9/2009. Söa ch÷a xong 09/11/2009. tr−êng §¹i häc Vinh T¹p chÝ khoa häc, tËp XXXVIIi, sè 4b-2009 41 and language. It is apparent that SFG is relevant for doing a CDA and that is why most linguistic analysis is based on this grammar model, for example in Fairclough [3], [1]; Chouliaraki and Fairclough [4]; Kress [6]. Chouliaraki and Fairclough [4] note that SFG “has most in common with CDA and most to offer CDA”. 3. Purpose and methodology In analyzing the United States Declaration of Independence, this study has set two aims. The first aim is to discover the ideology which is hidden within this discourse, thereby, to serve a better understanding of this famous political discourse. The second aim is to suggest that CDA, as a research direction, can be used as a necessary theoretical basic and analytical tool for analyzing and understanding the intricateness of discourse. The intricateness of discourse mentioned here is that “discourse is invested with ideologies” [1, p. 8]. There have been different ways of doing CDA since defferent linguists may approach this field of study differently. Each individual method puts emphasis on dissimilar levels of analysis. Hence, the CDA researchers should decide on their own focus of analysis. Norman Fairclough [3] suggested the analytical framework for investigating language in relation to ideology. Therefore, the analysis of the United States Declaration of Independence was based on Fairclough's [3] guided questions on doing CDA in combination with Hallidayan’s SFG. Throughout the analysis, the most relevant social and historical factors that contribute to the production and interpretation of the discourse were referred to when necessary. 4. Analysis The United States Declaration of Independence was analysed in terms of vocabulary and grammar. The following prominent linguistic strategies which include lexical choice, metaphor, pronoun choice, repetition of key words and transitivity would be under consideration. 4.1. Lexical choice According to Fairclough [3] and van Dijk [10] a choice of words may have various implications that express the ideological perspective of the author. In analyzing the lexicon of the speech, it is attempted to clarify how ideology realized in Thomas Jefferson's use of vocabulary. First of all, the type of speech should be under discussion. A discourse of giving a speech often involves a speaker and the audience. The text of the speech in this analysis is the United States Declaration of Independence which was read from the east balcony of the State House in Boston, Massachusetts. The targeted hearer, therefore, was firstly the American people (known to the British as people of the colonies), secondly, King George III )the King of Great Britain) and his people and thirdly, the people from many other countries in the world. This is clear as in different parts of the text, Thomas Jefferson indicates particular addressees either directly or indirectly. For example, in the second part of the speech, he addresses his audience as “we” (We hold these truths to be self- evident) so the “ideal hearer” postulated in the following part and also in most of T. T. T. Hoa Ideology of the United States Declaration…, tr. 40-47 42 the speech are the American people. Especially, he addresses King George III and his people directly and indirectly: present King of Great Britain, A Prince, They too have been deaf , He has refuted / forbidden / refused /…, etc. The speaker normally draws on classification schemes, in terms of which vocabulary is organised, to express his experience or his evaluations. 4.1.1. The classification scheme with negative and positive vocabulary In this speech, the classification scheme with negative vocabulary includes 24 words and phrases. It is used to express the speaker’s negative attitude towards King George III and the present government: destructive of these ends, alter, abolish, a long train of abuses and usurpations, absolute despotism,etc. With the use of negative vocabulary, Thomas Jefferson tried to create a negative image of a King and the present government. The King is “unfit to be the ruler” and the government should be “thrown off” The speaker’s words reveal not only his evaluation of reality but also his attitude. As a politician, his description of reality and his attitude are formed on the political ideas and aims. Behind that description of reality is the speaker’s indignation, condemnation and antagonism. It is clear that the speaker’s word choice is ideologically used and his point of view is opposite to the reality he describes. 4.1.2. The classification scheme with positive vocabulary In this speech, the classification scheme with positive vocabulary includes 10 words and phrases. It is used to express the speaker’s positive attitude towards the new government: all men are created equal, Life, Liberty, (pursuit of) Happiness, new Guards, etc. The ideal government is reflected through the speaker’s political stance so it might or might not become true. Behind the image of that ideal is the speaker’s respect, admiration and support to new government. These words appeared here with a careful selection and a clear intention. 4.2. Metaphor Powerful, strong and poetic words found in the text are used in the form of metaphor. This is a means of representing one aspect of experience in terms of another. Different metaphors have different ideological attachments: swarms of Officers new Guards The first phrase “swarms of Officers” is used to refer to the members of the present government. The word “swarms” usually appears in the phrases or combinations with bees or ants, such as “swarms of bees” or “swarms of ants”. They fly and crawl here and there, they make everything confused and they can bite people. In a word, this phrase has a negative sense, it implies a bad government. The second phrase "new Guards" makes us have a feeling of security. This is the image of an ideal government which guards for the people’s security, and gives people the rights to “Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness”. This ideal government in the future is absolutely opposite to the present government. It is clear that these metaphors are ideologically used. tr−êng §¹i häc Vinh T¹p chÝ khoa häc, tËp XXXVIIi, sè 4b-2009 43 4.3. Pronoun choice Throughout the text, the pronoun “we” is found in 10 places. This “inclusive” we represents the speaker and the hearers, and the hearers here are the American people. One aspect of this reduction is that it serves corporate ideologies which stress the unity of a people. The pronoun “he”, which indicates King George III, is used 18 times in the text. With the high frequency of using the pronoun “he” in the text, Thomas Jefferson concentrates the attention of a people on a single enemy to prevent the division of attention of a people. As soon as the wavering masses find themselves confronted with too many enemies, objectivity at once steps in, and the question is raised whether actually all the others are wrong and their own nation or their own . movement alone is right. Therefore, a number of different enemies is regarded as one - the king. This strengthens the King’s causes and increases the American people’s bitterness against the King. It is argued that the use of “we” and “he” is for creating the solidarity in mind of the people and the speaker's responsibility. 4.4. Repetition of key words There are generally formal connections between sentences in a text, which are collectively referred to as cohesion. Among the cohesive devices, vocabulary links between sentences that include the repetition of words can be found in the text. The following graph provides a summary of frequency of repeated words taken from the text. The horizontal of the graph shows the number of repetition (frequency) of words which are taken from the text. The vertical of the graph shows the words which are repeated in the text. The words “dissolve” and “life” appear early at the beginning of the text and they are repeated at the end of the text. The repetition of these words creates a link throughout the text and maintains the topic of the text. The highest frequency of repetition “he has” (18 times) makes up a constant focus of the text. The focus here is the T. T. T. Hoa Ideology of the United States Declaration…, tr. 40-47 44 King has acted tyrannically not just once or twice, but repeatedly and over a long period. A new government, therefore, should be instituted in order to provide American people the “right” to “Life” and “Liberty”. The repetition which can be seen as a listing and makes the hearers have very strong emotion. Therefore, the hearers could feel that there is a call for revolution. Additionally, the hearers would be given the careful, step by step, justification for the revolution. It is clear that the critical analysis could help us to unpack the ideological underpinnings of the text. 4.5. Transitivity The result of transitivity analysis including Material, Relational, Verbal and Mental processes of the speech is illustrated in the following table. Table: Summary of Transitivity Analysis Data Type of Process Number of citations Percentage of total citations material 57 66.3% relational 17 19.7% verbal 9 10.5% mental 3 3.5% TOTAL 86 (100%) Regarding the processes of transitivity system, the process type of greatest importance is “Material” 66.3% or two-thirds of the total number. The remaining third consists of: “Relational” (19.7%); “Verbal” (10.5%); and, “Mental” (3.5%). Material As far as material clauses are concerned, the foremost aim of the speaker is to describe actions and events. Among the 57 instances of material, up to 39 are related to the King. And interestingly enough, all of these material processes have the King and his people in the role of actor. For example: - The political bands which have connected them with another - He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coast The implication that the readers can easily get from this is that the King and his people are the causes of all the usurpations, abuses and damages that the American people are suffering. In Jefferson’s mind, this justifies the rebellious actions of the American people. Moreover, their actions are justified to the point of actual revolutions, not just rebellious actions. Relational The next most commonly used process type is relational (19.7%), of which the carriers are only about either the American people or King George III. This choice of process type helps to describe the situation of America under the rule of King George III: - The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations - A Prince is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. And the American people have the following reaction: - while evils are sufferable (by the American people) than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. - such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies However, the situation gradually gets worse and worse: - They (King George III and his people) too have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. tr−êng §¹i häc Vinh T¹p chÝ khoa häc, tËp XXXVIIi, sè 4b-2009 45 In a word, the Relational process helps to depict the situation of America’s society and the destiny of the American people under the rule of King George III. Verbal An interesting thing is that there are 10 verbal processes in the text and all of them have American-related sayer. For example: We have warned , We have appealed , We have conjured , We publish and declare In the verbal processes, the American people appeared in the role of Sayer. It implies that the American people do not want the “actions”. They demonstrate the tendency to negotiate. They would love to maintain the long-established government that was performing its proper duty - securing the rights of its citizens. And people should think long and hard before trying to overthrow any government, however evil it may be. Taking a look at the context, we could find the reason why the speaker describes the King’s actions strongly and the American people’s actions slightly. In the 18 th century, the most powerful nations of the world were monarchies. The ideas of Jefferson could serve not only to threaten Great Britain’s colonial empire, but the colonial empires of other nations in Europe. Recognizing the importance of maintaining good diplomatic relations with European nations to get aid, Jefferson sought to explain the actions of the 13 colonies in rational terms. Anticipating that this document would influence rebellions elsewhere, Jefferson clarified that governments should not be changed for trivial causes. Instead, Jefferson explained that only “despotic” or totalitarian governments should be overthrown. Mental The mental process, which is only 3 out of 86, brings remarkable impression, especially with one in which the senser is the King. - He has excited domestic insurrections among us The other two are those in which the senser is the American people. - Mankind are more disposed to suffer - Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren The choice of those mental processes creates two contrasting pictures of the King who is doing evil and the American people who do not want to continue to live with that evil. This expresses the attitude of the American people towards the King. It also arouses the indignation of the hearers against the King and expresses the American people’s hope to be separated from Great Britain. To conclude, the transitivity analysis of the text has made it clear about the situation in America and the status of the American people under the rule of King George III. Moreover, it points out the causes of that situation and the American people’s attitude towards the King along with their hope to be separated from Great Britain. 5. Summary of the main findings and discussion Lexical choice including the classification schemes with negative and positive vocabulary, metaphor, and repetition of key words reveal quite interesting aspects of the speech. The author has employed all these three linguistic strategies to create the opposite images of the two governments: the present government and the new government. T. T. T. Hoa Ideology of the United States Declaration…, tr. 40-47 46 Similarly, the choice of mental process of the transitivity system has created the contrasting pictures of the King and the American people. The contrast of the two images and two pictures make the hearers have very strong emotion. Therefore, they could feel that there is a call for an actual revolution to “dissolve” the bad “government” and to establish a new, radical “government”. The high frequency of repetition” he has” (18 times) gives rise to a sense of over-abundance. The King George III has acted tyrannically not just once or twice, but repeatedly and over a long period. The hearers could understand that there is no other choice but to change the bad situation and to seek the ideals through military means. Obviously, this strategy is used to justify the Americans’ use of military means to set aside the present government and institute a new government. Perhaps the most surprising finding from the study is the use of pronoun “he”. With the high frequency of using the pronoun “he” (18 times) in the text, Thomas Jefferson concentrates the attention of a people on a single enemy - the King. This could be explained as follows. It took 14 months, military mobilization persuasive pamphleteering, and the further abuse of colonial rights before all 13 colonies agreed to pursue independence. The Colonies doubted whether they would be strong enough to resist the British military. When pronoun “he” (but not they) used, it can make hearers find themselves not to confront too many people. This could persuade the Americans to take up arms in the revolution for their independence. Also, in the 18 th century, the powerful nations of the world were monarchies and among them Great Britain was considered as the most economically and militarily powerful nation. The way of saying of “he” (but not you) could pull the British citizens towards the Americans’ side. An important finding from the study was the absolute percent of verbal processes in which American people appeared in the role of sayer. As the data have shown, up to 39 instances (or 45.3%) of material having the King and his people in the role of actor. They are the causers of all the “repeated injuries”, and “usurpations” which American people have to suffer under the rule of the King. The speaker describes the King’s action strongly and the American people’s slightly in order to maintain the diplomatic relationship with European nations to get their support and aid, and to justify the Americans’ actual revolutions. 6. Conclusion This study has been an attempt to discover the ideology of the United States Declaration of Independence. The particular linguistic strategies employed, were, lexical choice, metaphor, pronoun choice, repetition of key words and transitivity. The author has embedded in the text his indignation. condemnation and antagonism to King George III and the present government. He then lends his respect, admiration and support to the new and radical government. In the speech, there is a justification for an actual revolution for abolishing the present government and establishing the new and radical government. What is embedded here is the speaker's revolutionary ideology. trờng Đại học Vinh Tạp chí khoa học, tập XXXVIIi, số 4b-2009 47 It is clear that, this discourse is invested with ideologies [1, p. 8]. It is evident that Critical Discourse Analysis, as a research direction, can be used as a necessary theoretical basic and analytical tool for analyzing and understanding the intricateness of discourse. References [1] N. Fairclough, Discourse and Social Change, London, Polity Press and Blackwell, 1992. [2] N. Fairclough, Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language, London, Longman, 1997. [3] N. Fairclough, Language and Power, (2nd edition), London, Longman, 2001. [4] N. Fairclough and L. Choulariaki, Discourse in Late Modernity: Rethinking Critical Discourse Analysis, Edinburgh University Press, 1999. [5] M. A. K. Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar, London, Arnold, 1994. [6] G. Kress, B. Hodge, Language as Ideology, London, Routledge, 1979. [7] Nguyn Hoà, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method, NXB ĐHQG Hà nội, 2006. [8] Ruth Wodak, Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse. London, Benjamins Publishing Company, 1989. [9] T. Trew, Language and control, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979. [10] T. A. Van Dijk, Critical Discourse Analysis, (1998a), Available: http://www.hum.uva.nl/teun/cda.htm (20/3/2003). [11] R. Wodak, and M. Meyer, Methods of Critical Analysis, London, SAGE Publications, 2001. Tóm tắt Hệ t tởng của bản Tuyên ngôn Độc lập Mỹ Tuyên ngôn Độc lập Mỹ đợc Thomas Jefferson viết vào năm 1776. Đây là một ngôn bản nổi tiếng. Trong bài báo này, Bản tuyên ngôn Độc lập của các Bang Thống nhất Mỹ đợc phân tích dới cách nhìn của Phân tích Diễn ngôn Phê phán (CDA) trên phơng diện từ vựng và ngữ pháp. Kết quả phân tích đã khám phá ra hệ t tởng của bản Tuyên ngôn Độc lập - hệ t tởng cách mạng. Bài viết còn gợi ý rằng CDA, với vai trò là một đờng hớng nghiên cứu, có thể dùng nh một cơ sở lý thuyết và công cụ phân tích để khám phá ra tính bên trong của ngôn bản. (a) Department of Foreign Languages, Vinh University. . Hệ t tởng của bản Tuyên ngôn Độc lập Mỹ Tuyên ngôn Độc lập Mỹ đợc Thomas Jefferson viết vào năm 1776. Đây là một ngôn bản nổi tiếng. Trong bài báo này, Bản tuyên ngôn Độc lập của các Bang. phân tích dới cách nhìn của Phân tích Diễn ngôn Phê phán (CDA) trên phơng diện từ vựng và ngữ pháp. Kết quả phân tích đã khám phá ra hệ t tởng của bản Tuyên ngôn Độc lập - hệ t tởng cách mạng ý rằng CDA, với vai trò là một đờng hớng nghiên cứu, có thể dùng nh một cơ sở lý thuyết và công cụ phân tích để khám phá ra tính bên trong của ngôn bản. (a) Department of Foreign Languages,