Encyclopedia of Global Resources part 135 potx

Turkey Categories: Countries; government and resources Although Turkey does not have major reserves of strate- gically vital resources, like petroleum or materials used in advanced technology, its holdings of “heavy” economic export items for other countries’ construction or middle-range technology needs are substantial. Turkey faces a major issue that may have important effects on the future development of its key resources: application for admission to the European Union. If approved, E.U. participation could open attractive markets for some of Turkey’s less developed resources. The Country Turkey occupies the major west Asian landmass known by modern geographers as Anatolia (described in more traditional literature as Asia Minor). It also shares a portion of the Balkan Peninsula, with borders with Greece and Bulgaria in southeastern Europe. It has extensive maritime coasts on the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Mediterranean Sea. The eastern third of the country is mountainous. Turkey’s population remains unevenly distributed, with higher concentrations in the western portion and sparse population density in the mountainous regions to the east. Its economy depends heavily on agriculture, although its highly educated middle and upper classes have contributed substantially to effective exploita- tion of several of its key resources. Borate Estimates indicate that Turkey holds about two-thirds of the world’s borate reserves, followed by the United States (with major reserves in the California desert), Russia, and Argentina. Diverse and changing forms of demand, as well as changing technological applications throughout the world, tend to give this mineral different levels of importance. Commonplace include boric acid and cleaning abrasives. It is also used in commercial deter- gents for well-known bleaching effects and to balance acidity and alkalinity. In middle-level manufacturing, borate is used in industrial production of glass, paints, and paper and in diverse components in electronic and automobile production. Degrees of processing determine the market price of borate and can, therefore, make Turkey a competi - tor for a wide range of export markets. If used as a low- cost aggregate in cement, it may be merely crushed to the desired consistency. There is little competition for such products, and export prices are mainly a reflec- tion of relative transportation costs. On the other end of the spectrum, as a “heavy” metal, pure barium (ex- tracted from high-quality borates such as barite, or barium sulfate) is used as a screen in radiology and in highly technical medical procedures. In 2008, the value of Turkish exports of borate was estimated at around $500 million. Of this amount, one-quarter was to be exported to countries of the Eu- ropean Union. The traditional place of borate exports in Turkey’s overall economy began to face challenges late in 2008, when the European Union passed legislation aimed at decreasing the use of borate in household products in favor of ecologically safer materials. Coal Although Turkey has not been counted among the primary exporters of coal and is not likely to move into a situation of competition with giant producers like China and India, the overall position of coal in Turkey’s domestic economy is likely to become more and more important. Statistical figures from the first decade of the twenty-first century show that the country’s growing industrial sector may soon represent as much weight as the traditionally dominant agricultural sector in the overall economy (employing 25 percent of the total labor force, against nearly 30 percent in agriculture). Expanding Turkish industries will require ever greatersourcesofenergy,andtherel- ative cost of domestically produced coal will undoubt- edly be weighed against other forms of energy, most notably petroleum and natural gas. Although Turkey produces some oil—2007 production estimates approached forty-three thousand barrels per day, drawing from an estimated reserve of 300 million barrels—and has exported some of its production, petroleum consumption needs clearly outstrip domestic supply possibilities; 2007 estimates pegged consumption needs at nearly 700,000 barrels per day. Most of the coal mined in Turkey is low-quality lignite (soft) coal. Lignite deposits are estimated at 7.2 billion metric tons, which represents the seventh largest holding in the world. The Elbistan (central Anato - lian) basin accounts for 40 percent of lignite total. Al - though some hard (anthracite) coal is mined in the 1246 • Turkey Global Resources Global Resources Turkey • 1247 Turkey: Resources at a Glance Official name: Republic of Turkey Government: Republican parliamentary democracy Capital city: Ankara Area: 302,557 mi 2 ; 783,562 km 2 Population (2009 est.): 76,805,524 Language: Turkish Monetary unit: Turkish lira (TRY) Economic summary: GDP composition by sector (2008 est.): agriculture, 8.8%; industry, 27.5%; services, 63.8% Natural resources: coal, iron ore, copper, chromium, antimony, mercury, gold, barite, borate, celestite (strontium), emery, feldspar, limestone, magnesite, marble, granite, perlite, pumice, pyrites, clay, arable land, hydropower Land use (2005): arable land, 29.81%; permanent crops, 3.39%; other, 66.8% Industries: textiles, food processing, automobiles, electronics, mining (coal, chromite, copper, boron), steel, petroleum, construction, lumber, paper Agricultural products: tobacco, cotton, grain, olives, sugar beets, hazelnuts, pulses, citrus, livestock Exports (2008 est.): $140.8 billion Commodities exported: apparel, foodstuffs, textiles, metal manufactures, transport equipment Imports (2008 est.): $193.9 billion Commodities imported: machinery, chemicals, semi-finished goods, fuels, transport equipment Labor force (2008 est.): 24.06 million (about 1.2 million Turks work abroad) Labor force by occupation (2005): agriculture, 29.5%; industry, 24.7%; services, 45.8% Energy resources: Electricity production (2007 est.): 181.6 billion kWh Electricity consumption (2006 est.): 141.5 billion kWh Electricity exports (2007 est.): 2.576 billion kWh Electricity imports (2007 est.): 863 million kWh Natural gas production (2007 est.): 893 million m 3 Natural gas consumption (2007 est.): 36.6 billion m 3 Natural gas exports (2007 est.): 31 million m 3 Natural gas imports (2007 est.): 35.83 billion m 3 Natural gas proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 8.495 billion m 3 Oil production (2007 est.): 42,800 bbl/day Oil imports (2005): 714,100 bbl/day Oil proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 300 million bbl Source: Data from The World Factbook 2009. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. Notes: Data are the most recent tracked by the CIA. Values are given in U.S. dollars. Abbreviations: bbl/day = barrels per day; GDP = gross domestic product; km 2 = square kilometers; kWh = kilowatt-hours; m 3 = cubic meters; mi 2 = square miles. Ankara Armenia Georgia Iraq Iran Bulgaria Greece Syria Cyprus Turkey Aegean Sea Black Sea Mediterranean Sea Zonguldak basin on the Black Sea, where there are estimated reserves of 252 million metric tons, Turkey is obliged to import about 7 million metric tons of hard coal annually from places as far away as the United States and Australia. Sources in Russia, re- cently tapped by Turkey,are closer.Policymaking and regulations associated with coal mining have traditionally been assigned to the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. Once statism began to be aban- doned in the 1950’s, an entity called the Turkish Coal Enterprises (largely private companies) began to provide state developmental attention to hard-coal mining. Reforms in the late 1980’s concentrated authority over the industry in government hands. Develop- ments in the early twenty-first century suggested that an estimated 3 trillion cubic meters of coal-bed meth- ane could have a major impact on the future of Tur- key’s energy sector. Chromium Turkey’s chromium ore reserves are distributed rather widely over several regions: one between the Sea of Marmara and Ankara, one from Sivas in central Anatolia eastward to Diyarbaker, and two zones in the central southeast from Kayseri to Antakya. Three big companies produce approximately 75 percent of Tur- key’s chromium ore: Eti Krom accounts for nearly one-half, while Dedeman and Cevikler together produced nearly one-third of the 2006 total. The major consumer of chromium in the world has become China, which uses almost 70 percent of the chromium available on the export market (compared to 14 percent for Russia and 9 percent for Japan) to produce various chromium and stainless-steel commodities of both high and lower-to-medium quality. Although more than 90 percent of Chinese importsof chromium generally come from South Africa, India, and Kazakhstan, since 2002 Turkish chromium exports to China have grown. In 2002, Turkey did not export any chromium to China; however, the following year, it sent more than 22,600 metric tons. By 2006, this figure had grown to 672,000 metric tons, seriously rivaling South African exports for the same year. Geographical proximity to China and reduced 1248 • Turkey Global Resources Marble—such as that used to pave the Roman road at the ruins in Ephesus near Ezmir, pictured above—is one of Turkey’s greatest natural resources. (Faith Saribas/Reuters/Landov) transportation costs probably explain India’s con - tinuing domination of the massive Chinese market. Globally, chromium ore production increased at a rate of 5 percent per year between 2005 and 2007, and consumption rose more than 6 percent per year. Thus, Turkey may use leverage to gain an even higher proportion of the supplier market. At the same time, however, the attraction of increased exports will have to be weighed against Turkey’s own chromium needs for industrial production. Marble Turkey has been a producer of marble for centuries. The most concentrated zones for quarries are located near ancient and well-known cities, including Afyon, Balekesir, Tokat, and Çanakkale. The most productive quarries (of varying quality) are found in the western regions near the Sea of Marmara and in commercial port cities such as Ezmir. The distant eastern location of high-quality quarries has an effect on cost per unit, given higher transportation costs. Estimates indicate that Turkey still possesses upward of 12.6 million metric tons of marble. This approaches one-half the known reserves in the world. One of the main attractive features of Turkish marble, beyond its range of medium- to high-quality ratings, is its diversity of color and patterns, which demand high prices for export to many areas of the world. Examples of attractive categories include: Elazig Cherry (from central eastern Anatolia); Milas Kavaklidere (from the Ankara region), which is white with purple veins; and Aksehir Black marble. The value of Turkey’s processed marble exports (the most profitable among various natural stone products that are quarried) is more than $500 million per year. The majority of marble exports go to the United States, Canada, Italy, and Spain, but rising amounts are exported to Saudi Arabia. Annually, $700 million worth of block marble for processingafterexport goesmainly to Europe, and even as far as China. Granite A second stone resource for Turkey, high-quality granite, is almost as important as marble. Turkey’s annual production capacity for granite is more than 10 million square meters, which is almost twice production levels for marble. Less costly than marble, granite is used widely for exterior surfaces of major buildings and monuments. In recent years the growing demand for granite for use in modern household interiors, both as flooring and for kitchen or bathroom coun - ters, has encouraged Turkish producers not to ex- pand already massive quarry activities but to select grains that will attract discriminating importers. Feldspar Although statistics show that Italy has traditionally been the main producer of feldspar minerals, with approximately one-fifth of the world’s known deposits, Turkey is a close second, with about 10 percent of world reserves, or 118 million metric tons. Turkish feldspar deposits have been mined for centuries, pri- marily to supply a long-standing domestic ceramic industry; however, production for export is a fairly recent development, dating from the early 1990’s. In less than twenty years, Turkey became the largest exporter of feldspar,holding45percent of the global export market and sending most to Spain, the Nether- lands, Poland, and even Italy. The annual value of exports came to $104 million in 2005, as demand for added production continued to increase. Most mining occurs in what is called the “feldspar triangle,” running from Ezmir and Güllük in the west to Çine to the east. Almost all feldspar mining is in the hands of large domestic private companies. Three Turkish companies rank among the top five feldspar mining companies in the world. The largest, Kaltun Mining (with eight open-pit mines located near Çine), has a capacity production of nearly 2 million metric tons per year.Although all major companies bring the bulk (“dry”) feldspar by truck to the port cities of Güllük and Ezmir to be shipped abroad, only Kaltun Mining has invested in its own processing plants (for crushing and homogenization)—an effort at both horizontal and vertical economic integration. Its main plant at Güllük provides processing services to other exporters, thus increasing its share of income from the feldspar industry and making it possible to increase the asking price for high-quality export products. Mercury Turkey was traditionally among the top producers of mercury in the world. By the early years of the twenty- first century, however, China had became the major producer of mercury, and Kyrgyzstan counted as the second main producer. This means that, whatever the controversial future may hold for mercury, a rare and mysterious liquid-metal element, Turkey will have to calculate its role in the global market carefully. In the Global Resources Turkey • 1249 first decade of the twenty-first century, the price of mercury has fallen markedly, reaching its lowest point in the first few years after 2000. Previously used as a component in simple household items, such as thermometers and barometers, mercury’s importance in middle- to high-range technology continues to be visible in industries active in developed countries (for cooling systems for nuclear reactors and in various phases of the space industry). A predictable level of demand from these sectors represents a certain future for mercury-exporting countries, but—given multiple environmental dangers associated with mercury as well as its high toxicity—the larger picture is less positive. Environmentalists are especially concerned about dangerous effects (specifically methyl mercury poi- soning) that stem from the use of mercury in a variety of industrial processes. “Renegade” importers in countries where there is minimal governmental control, like Brazil and India, will face stricter world trade legislation governing mercury. Turkey’s interest in en- couraging further or, more likely, less private com- pany investment in this sector of its mining resources is therefore a major consideration. Growing alarm over mercury pollution may also be linked to future demands for coal, another of Tur- key’s traditionally recognized natural resources. Be- cause burning coal in electric power stations, a com- mon practice in Turkey, releases mercury into the atmosphere, global environmental legislation may eventually target not one, but two key sectors of Tur- key’s economy. Other Resources An increasingly important by-product of Turkey’s extensive domestic agricultural and pastoral economy is its expanding production of cotton and woolen textiles for export. Hand-woven wool carpets and kilims, in particular, make up an important part of Turkey’s production for foreign trade. Bath and table wear (towels and tablecloths) as well as casual clothing are produced from high-quality cotton grown in the southeast, in the provincial zone of Cilicia. Finally, Turkey sits astride one of the most important maritime straits in the world: the Bosporus. A source of major revenues because of the passage of ships into and out of the Black Sea from the Mediter- ranean via the international port of Istanbul, this natural waterway counts as one of Turkey’s significant resources as well as an economic lifeline for many countries’ maritime fleets. Byron D. Cannon Further Reading Altunilik, Meliha Benli, and Özlem Tür Kavli. Turkey: Challenges of Continuity and Change. New York: Rout- ledge, 2005. “Turkish Minerals.” Industrial Minerals 440 (2004): 26- 44. Yildirim, Robert Yuksel. “An Overview of the Turkish Chrome Ore Market: Trends and Forecasts.” China Ferroalloys Conference (May 28, 2007). See also: Boron; Chromium; Coal; Feldspars; Mar- ble; Mercury. 1250 • Turkey Global Resources U Ukraine Categories: Countries; government and resources Ukraine is one of the most abundant countries in the world in terms of natural resources.Itstemperateconti- nental climate, similar to that of the Great Plains area, and Mediterranean climate on its southern coast provide the perfect place for agriculture. It has been called “Europe’s breadbasket” because of the abundant crops it grows and exports. In addition to its fertile soil, Ukraine contains about 5 percent of the total mineral resources in the world, with more than eighty types of mineral deposits, providing for large mining, production, and exporting businesses. The Country Ukraine is the second largest country in Europe and the largest European country with its borders entirely within Europe. It is located in the southeast of central Europe and covers an area about the size of the state of Texas or the country of France. It consists of twenty- four regions and one autonomous republic, Crimea. It borders several other countries, giving it a strategic central position in the European area. By land, it borders Belarus, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russia, and Slovakia. It also shares a border on the Black Sea with Bulgaria, Georgia, and Turkey. Its en- tire coastline, including the Black Sea, covers 2,782 kilometers. Ukraine’s landscape is mainly steppe, which is a generally level, treeless plain. Its borders contain the Crimean Mountains on the Crimean Peninsula and the Carpathian Mountains in the western area. These mountains and other areas of Ukraine are cov- ered by forests containing a mixed variety of trees, such as alder, birch, beech, elm, fir, linden, maple, oak, pine, poplar, and willow. However, Ukraine’s thickest forests are not in the mountains but in the Volyn’ Province in the northwest. The country’s main river is the Dnieper, one of the longest rivers in Eu- rope, which gives Ukraine abundant hydroelectric power. Favorable climate conditions, abundant soil and arable land, huge tracts of forest, and major mineral deposits give Ukraine an edge in the production of nearly every natural resource. However, its inhabitants rank lower in income than many of its European neighbors, even as its per-capita income rises. It is recognized as having the potential of a major European economy, but its economy suffers from excessive government regulation and corruption. Though Ukrai- nian is the official language, about one-half of the inhabitants speak Russian—especially in the south, east, and north—a holdover from the days when Ukraine was part of the Soviet Union. Many inhabitants also speak Polish, Romanian, or Hungarian. Though the hryvnia is the official currency, euros are widely ac- cepted. Ukraine is working toward becoming part of the European Union. Arable Land Ukraine has more natural resources than any other country in Europe, and the most valuable of these is its exceptionally fertile soil, which covers more than one-half of its land. Ukraine’s farmers produce and export about one-quarter of the world’s total exported grains. These farmers, about one-quarter of the population, account for almost 9 percent of Ukraine’s gross domestic product. More than forty types of soil exist in Ukraine, allowing for growth of nearly any type of agricultural product. Much of the soil in Ukraine is chernozem, or black soil, which is considered to be the most fertile soil in the world; Ukraine’s black soil accounts for one-third of the black soil worldwide. Through the areas surrounding the Dnieper and Dniester rivers, this soil reaches widths of 500 kilometers, the only place in the world where it does so, allowing for huge tracts of farming where nearly any type of crop can be grown. Other types of soils in Ukraine include nutrient-rich riverbed soils and various mountain soils in areas such as the Carpathian Mountains. However, this rich resource is in danger. Removal of the grass cover has led to soil erosion, and excessive use of herbicides and pesticides in farming areas has led to damage to land and water. The Ukrainian government recognizes this risk to its most important resource and has provided incentives for local farm - ers and large agricultural businesses to conserve this 1252 • Ukraine Global Resources Ukraine: Resources at a Glance Official name: Ukraine Government: Republic Capital city: Kiev Area: 233,049 mi 2 ; 603,550 km 2 Population (2009 est.): 45,700,395 Language: Ukrainian Monetary unit: hryvnia (UAH) Economic summary: GDP composition by sector (2008 est.): agriculture, 9.3%; industry, 31.7%; services, 58.9% Natural resources: iron ore, coal, manganese, natural gas, oil, salt, sulfur, graphite, titanium, bouxite, uranium, phosphate, potash, magnesium, kaolin, nickel, mercury, timber, arable land, peat Land use (2005): arable land, 53.8%; permanent crops, 1.5%; other, 44.7% Industries: coal, electric power, ferrous and nonferrous metals, machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, food processing (especially sugar) Agricultural products: grain, sugar beets, sunflower seeds, vegetables, beef, milk Exports (2008 est.): $67.72 billion Commodities exported: ferrous and nonferrous metals, fuel and petroleum products, chemicals, machinery and transport equipment, food products Imports (2008 est.): $84.65 billion Commodities imported: energy, machinery and equipment, chemicals Labor force (2008 est.): 21.57 million Labor force by occupation (2005): agriculture, 19.4%; industry, 24.2%; services, 56.4% Energy resources: Electricity production (2006 est.): 182.4 billion kWh Electricity consumption (2006 est.): 148.1 billion kWh Electricity exports (2006 est.): 12.52 billion kWh Electricity imports (2006 est.): 2.082 billion kWh Natural gas production (2008 est.): 21.05 billion m 3 Natural gas consumption (2008 est.): 66.32 billion m 3 Natural gas exports (2006 est.): 4 billion m 3 Natural gas imports (2007 est.): 65.4 billion m 3 Natural gas proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 1.104 trillion m 3 Oil production (2007 est.): 102,400 bbl/day Oil imports (2005): 441,200 bbl/day Oil proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 395 million bbl Source: Data from The World Factbook 2009. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. Notes: Data are the most recent tracked by the CIA. Values are given in U.S. dollars. Abbreviations: bbl/day = barrels per day; GDP = gross domestic product; km 2 = square kilometers; kWh = kilowatt-hours; m 3 = cubic meters; mi 2 = square miles. Kiev Hungary Romania Poland Belarus Slovakia Moldova Russia Ukraine Black Sea Sea of Azov highly prized soil and allow it to continue to grow an abundance of crops. Coal Ukrainian coal is known worldwide for its high quality.Mostof these high-quality coal reserves are located in the Donets’k coal basin, which contains an area of more than 50,000 square kilometers rich with coal reserves. Coal reserves in this area are estimated at 100 billion metric tons. This region, located in the east- central area of the country, is considered the industrial heartland. It is one of the major mining and met- allurgical complexes in all of Europe. Coal reserves throughout Ukraine contain rich reserves of bitumi- nous and anthracite coal, and brown coal reserves are located in the Dnieper River basin. More than three hundred mines operate throughout Ukraine, though economic circumstances have forced an evaluation of whether these mines are economically able to con - tinue operations. Grains Ukraine’s farmersproducealltypesofgrains,particu- larly wheat. Annual production of grains exceeds 90 million metric tons, with wheat accounting for about 41 million metric tons of that total. Most of the wheat grown in Ukraine is hard red winter wheat or bread wheat. The grains are generally farmed by large agricultural businesses, though winter wheat (planted in the fall and harvested the following summer), which accounts for about 95 percent of the wheat grown in Ukraine, is produced on small farms. Ukrainian wheat is known for its high quality; more than 80 percent of the wheat grown in Ukraine is of milling quality. Wheat is grown throughout the country, but most is grown in the central and south regions. Ukraine exports about 54 million metric tons of grains, most often to the Mid- dle East and North Africa, which account for about one-quarter of total grain exports worldwide. Barley is another important grain crop but is not as heavily exported as wheat. Spring barley (planted Global Resources Ukraine • 1253 Ukraine is renownedforitsarable land fromwhich numerous crops, includingthe grains being swept intoa large pile in thepicture above, are cultivated. (AFP/Getty Images) in April and harvested in August) is a main cerealprod - uct for Ukrainian consumption and accounts for more than 90 percent of the barley crop. It is mostly grown in eastern Ukraine. Winter barley is grown as well, though it is not as tolerant of the cold as winter wheat and thus can be grown only in the southern areas of Ukraine. Corn, or maize, is the third most commonly growncerealinUkraine,mostly in the east and south. Iron Ore Ukraine produces many types of metals from its abundant resources of iron ore, including cast iron, pipes, and steel. It is the eighth largest producer of steel in the world, and this product is its main export. The largest iron-ore deposits in the country are located in Kryvyy Rih in the southeast part of the country, but deposits also exist in Kremenchug, Belozerskiy, and Kerch, which host both deep underground and open- pit mines for extraction of iron ore. Ukrainian iron ore is known for its high iron content. About two hundred major companies extract and process metals and produce pipes and other metallic goods. Ukraine hosts the world’s largest steel plants, which make cast iron, steel, steel bars, and steel pipes. These plants are located in cities such as Dnipropetrovs’k, Zaporizhzhya, Donets’k, Makeyevka, and Mariupol’. Iron-ore production reached a high of 114 million metric tons in 1978, when Ukraine provided 15 percent of the world’s iron ore. After that time, because of economic conditions, production steadily dropped until 1999, when it stabilized. In 2007, Ukraine exported $537 million of iron and steel mill products to the United States. Oil Historically, Ukraine was a major world oil producer. However, most of its oil reserves are now exhausted. Oil and natural gas are still found in the Carpathian, Dniprovsko-Donetskyy (Dnieper-Donets), and Pry- chornomorsko-Krymskyy regions. Previously, Ukraine exported oil to other countries, but as of 2009, it had to import oil to meet demand. This situation is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. Sugar Ukraine is a major exporter of sugar. Its sugar comes from sugar beets grown mainly in the central and western regions in the forest-steppe area. However, because of its popularity and suitability for small farm - ers, sugar-beet production is moving farther into the southern areas of Ukraine, where its yields are lower. Historically, the major agricultural enterprises pro - duced sugar beets, but as the demand for and prices of sunflower seeds (for oil), wheat, and other cereals grows, these large businesses have turned to growing those products rather than sugar beets. At the same time, however, small, local or family-run farms have increased production of sugar beets. This is a crop that requires high amounts of manual labor and thus is a better-paying crop for small farmers with limited access to machinery than it is for larger agricultural businesses that must pay workers despite having machinery in place to farm larger crops that produce higher revenue than sugar beets. Sunflower Seeds Sunflowers for seeds and oils are a main production crop in southern and eastern regions of Ukraine. These types of crops are relatively inexpensive to grow, but they bring a high price. The demand worldwide is high, so this has become a very profitable crop for Ukrainian farmers. However, the European Union blocked imports of sunflower oil from Ukraine when tainted oil was found. The Kiev government is working to enforce higher standards on producers of sunflower seeds and oils. Another problem has been that as the price and demand for sunflower seeds and oils rise, farmers are less likely to allow their sunflower fields to rest, leading to smaller and smaller production per field. Ukraine exports approximately 1 million metric tons of sunflower seeds and oils annually. Export taxes on sunflower products have traditionally been high, and the Ukrainian government is working with other governments to alleviate these taxes and allow Ukrai- nian farmers to export their sunflower crops at a profit. Other Resources Ukraine also has significant resources in aluminum, bauxite, chromium, coke, fertilizers, graphite, kaolin clay, magnesium, manganese (especially in the Nikopol’ area), mercury, natural gas (mostly in the Zakarpattia region), nickel, phosphate, peat, pre- cious and semiprecious stones, potash, rock salt, sulfur, timber, titanium, and uranium. Its abundant wealth in natural resources gives it an economic advantage over many of its neighbors. Because of its extremely fertile soils, Ukraine is a major producer of nearly all types of agricultural products, including wheat, rye, barley, oats, corn, mil - let, buckwheat, cabbage, tomatoes, cucumbers, on - ions, apples, grapes, and potatoes. In general, grain 1254 • Ukraine Global Resources production is dominated by large business enterprises, but 90 percent of Ukraine’s fruits and vegetables are grown on small farms. Its farmers also provide cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, poultry, honey, and silk from silk- worms. Ukraine’s long coastline and rivers also provide a fishing industry that helps feed Ukraine and provides exports to other countries. Ukraine is also known worldwide as a source of mineral water and medicinal mud treatments. Hydroelectric power is another valuable natural resource in Ukraine. The Dnieper River contains six large hydroelectric power plants to generate power for the Ukrainian economy. There are also fifty-five smaller hydroelectric power plants on smaller rivers, and Ukraine is exploring how to increase this valuable and environmentally friendly resource. Marianne M. Madsen Further Reading Åslund, Anders. How Ukraine Became a Market Economy and Democracy. Washington, D.C.: Peterson Insti- tute for International Economics, 2009. Banaian, King. The Ukrainian Economy Since Indepen- dence. Northampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar, 1999. Galets’kyi, Leonid, ed. An Atlas of the Geology and Mineral Deposits of Ukraine. Translated by Walter Peredery. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007. Kubicek, Paul. The History of Ukraine. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2008. Motyl, Alexander J. Dilemmas of Independence: Ukraine After Totalitarianism. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1993. Reid, Anna. Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1999. Siedenberg, Axel, and Lutz Hoffman, eds. Ukraine at the Crossroads: Economic Reforms in International Per- spective. New York: Physica-Verlag, 1999. Subtelny, Orest. Ukraine: A History. Toronto: Univer- sity of Toronto Press, 2009. Wilson, Andrew. The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation.3d ed. New Haven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress, 2009. World Bank. Ukraine’s Trade Policy: A Strategy for Integra- tion into Global Trade. Washington, D.C.: Author, 2005. See also: Agricultural products; Agriculture industry; Agronomy; Chernobyl nuclear accident; Coal; Iron; Oil and natural gas distribution; Russia; Sugars; Wheat. U.N. See United Nations entries Underground mining Category: Obtaining and using resources Underground mining is the process of making selective excavations beneath the Earth’s surface to remove valuable natural materials. A number of methods are used, and underground mining is done throughout the world, depending on mineral concentrations. Background The natural materials produced from mining operations are necessary for modern life. Practically all raw materials used in metallurgy (metals, coal, stone fluxes) are produced from underground mines. Many mineral or energy resources can be mined by either surface or underground means, and the decision to mine using underground techniques is made when economics or environmental conditions will not per- mit surface mining. Examples include when the amount of material overlying the mineral deposit is too costly to remove and dispose of or when the direc- tion of mining makes continued surface mining im- possible, such as mining under populated areas or under bodies of water. History Mining is thought to have begun with Paleolithic hu- mans, perhaps as early as 450,000 years ago with the excavation of flint implements. The oldest mine of record, a hematite (iron ore) mine in Swaziland, is believed to be 40,000 years old. Underground mines had reacheddepthsof240metersbyancientEgyptian times. The first recorded mining by Europeans in the New World was in 1524. From the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution to the present, mining techniques have evolved to increase output at greater depths while providing a safer working environment underground. Slope, Shaft, and Drift Methods Three primary methods are used to gain access to underground mineral deposits: the shaft, slope, and drift methods. Shaft access is by a vertical shaft driven from the surface to the deposit. The shaft is usually Global Resources Underground mining • 1255 . of lignite total. Al - though some hard (anthracite) coal is mined in the 1246 • Turkey Global Resources Global Resources Turkey • 1247 Turkey: Resources at a Glance Official name: Republic of Turkey Government:. zone of Cilicia. Finally, Turkey sits astride one of the most important maritime straits in the world: the Bosporus. A source of major revenues because of the passage of ships into and out of. Mercury. 1250 • Turkey Global Resources U Ukraine Categories: Countries; government and resources Ukraine is one of the most abundant countries in the world in terms of natural resources. Itstemperateconti- nental