Encyclopedia of Global Resources part 53 docx

468 • France Global Resources France: Resources at a Glance Official name: French Republic Government: Republic Capital city: Paris Area: 248,447 mi 2 ; 643,427 km 2 Population (2009 est.): 64,057,792 Language: French Monetary unit: euro (EUR) Economic summary: GDP composition by sector (2008 est.): agriculture, 2%; industry, 20.4%; services, 77.6% Natural resources: metropolitan France: coal, iron ore, bauxite, zinc, uranium, antimony, arsenic, potash, feldspar, fluorspar, gypsum, timber, fish, timber products Land use: arable land, 33.46%; permanent crops, 2.03%; other, 64.51% Industries: machinery, chemicals, automobiles, metallurgy, aircraft, electronics, textiles, food processing, tourism Agricultural products: wheat, cereals, sugar beets, potatoes, wine grapes, beef, dairy products, fish Exports (2008 est.): $601.9 billion Commodities exported: machinery and transportation equipment, aircraft, plastics, chemicals, pharmaceutical products, iron and steel, beverages Imports (2008 est.): $692 billion Commodities imported: machinery and equipment, vehicles, crude oil, aircraft, plastics, chemicals Labor force (2008 est.): 27.97 million Labor force by occupation (2005): agriculture, 3.8%; industry, 24.3%; services, 71.8% Energy resources: Electricity production (2007 est.): 570 billion kWh Electricity consumption (2007 est.): 480 billion kWh Electricity exports (2007): 67.6 billion kWh Electricity imports (2007): 10.8 billion kWh Natural gas production (2007 est.): 953 million m 3 Natural gas consumption (2007 est.): 42.69 billion m 3 Natural gas exports (2007 est.): 966 million m 3 Natural gas imports (2007 est.): 42.9 billion m 3 Natural gas proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 7.277 billion m 3 Oil production (2007): 71,400 bbl/day Oil imports (2005): 2.465 million bbl/day Oil proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 122 million bbl Source: Data from The World Factbook 2009. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. Notes: Data are the most recent tracked by the CIA. Values are given in U.S. dollars. Abbreviations: bbl/day = barrels per day; GDP = gross domestic product; km 2 = square kilometers; kWh = kilowatt-hours; m 3 = cubic meters; mi 2 = square miles. Paris Italy Spain Germany France Belgium Luxembourg Switzerland United Kingdom Bay of Biscay English Channel sector; coal (anthracite, bituminous, and lignite) and base metals (lead, zinc, copper, nickel, and tin), mak- ing up 5.6percent of sales;and precious metals (gold, silver, platinum, palladium, rhodium, and indus- trial diamonds), amounting to 0.1 percent. In 2007, the value of France’s metal and mining industries was 5.8 percent of the total European value in the cat- egory, behind Germany (17.5 percent) and near the production level of Great Britain. Fossil Fuels As of 2009,500 to 600 millionmetric tons of coalwere estimated tobeunder French soil.However,because of the poorquality ofthe coal andthe effort neededto re- move it,extraction haslargely ceased.The majorcoal- mining operations in the Nord were closed in 1991, and the last mines in Lorraine and Provence were closed in 2004. France continues to import some coal for its steel industry and coal-fired power stations. Hydrocarbon reserves, found in the regions of Aquitaine and Seine-et-Marne, also are limited. Natu- ral gas depositsalso are onthe verge of exhaustion.In 2007, estimates indicated that France had about 122 million barrels of oil reserves; production was only 71,400 barrels a day, while consumption was almost 2 million barrels a day. Clearly, the nation must im- port most of its needs, as crude oil and French oil re- fining capacity amount to about 1.9 million barrels per day. The multinational corporation Total is the world’s fourth largest petroleum company, with assets in Africa, Latin America, and the North Sea, and was formed in 1999-2000 by mergers of the French companies Total and Elf Aquitaine with Belgium’s Petrofina. Natural gas reserves were estimated to be only about 7.3 billion cubic meters in 2008, while con- sumption was at 42.7 billion cubic meters in 2007, most of which was imported. At one time,uranium, one ofFrance’sprincipal en- ergy sources, was extracted from mines at Bessines and La Crouzille (Limousin). Production in the 1990’s wasaround 80,000 metrictons, or 3percent, of the world’s uranium supply, but the last mine was closed in 2001. France still relies heavily on nuclear power production of electricity and is third globally among countries in terms of nuclear waste disposal, behind only the United States and Canada. Energy France is the tenth largest producer of electricity in the world,producing about570 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) and exporting 67.6 billion kWh in 2007. It is second to the United States in the production of nu- clear energy, amounting to 77 percent of domestic production and 47 percent of European Union pro- duction of electricity. The nation has fifty-eight reac- tors. About 15 percent of energy production comes from natural gas. Hydroelectricity is also well devel- oped inFrance butis short ofFrench energy needs.In 2000, energy consumption in France was 54 percent fossil fuels, 39 percent nuclear, 3 percent renewable sources (biomass, geothermal, solar, wind, and tidal), and 2 percent hydroelectric. Nickel, Gold, and Other Resources in Overseas France Mining contributes greatly to the economy of New Caledonia, a self-governing territory of France whose inhabitants are French citizens and vote in national elections. Between2014 and2019, NewCaledonia, an island about 18,575 square kilometers located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, will decide by referendum whether or not to becomeindependent. One-quarter of the world’s nickel resources are located on the is- lands; New Caledonia is also rich in cobalt and chro- mium. Nearbyregionsof thePacific Ocean alsoprom- ise significant nodules of polymetallic resources yet to be exploited. In 2007, mineral and alloy exports, largely nickel ore and ferronickel, amounted to around $2 billion. However, open-pit mining has been heavily criticized as responsible for the loss of the unique natural heritage of the islands. In French Guiana, an overseas department of France, gold deposits in jungle regions have attracted illegal mining, which poses a threat to ecologically sensitive areas and the indigenous Amerindian pop- ulation. An estimated ten thousand illegal miners, known as garimpeiros, are destroying forest areas and polluting streams with mercury. The region also has petroleum, kaolin, niobium, tantalum, and clay. Soil and Agricultural Production In France, agriculture has always figured prominently in economic development because of the country’s temperate climate, good soils, and ample rainfall. In 2005, continental France had some 295,690 square kilometers devoted to agriculture, including crops and livestock, a total greater than any Western Euro- pean nation and one that amounts to 54 percent of France’s total land area. In 2000, the “World Soil Re - sources Report” of the Food and Agriculture Organi - Global Resources France • 469 zation of the United Nations ranked France as having the fewest constraints on agriculture in Western Eu- rope because of its soil quality, placing it fifteenth in the world in the agricultural potential of its soils (re- ferred to by the French as “green oil”). Farms in France are much larger and fewer in number than in the past and have shifted increasingly to intensive, mechanized cultivation techniques. This has, in turn, provoked heatedcriticism from Frenchfood andagri- cultural activists. Around 5 percent of the French la- bor force is involved in agriculture, and in 2004, a no- table 40 percent of all budget expenditures of the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy pro- gram went to French farm subsidies. France isdivided intovast cleared areas suitablefor farming or animal husbandry that are separated by heaths, moors, and extensive forest areas. France is well known as a mosaic of different regional features arising in part from differences in geology, morphol- ogy, climate, soil, and vegetation as well as different human cultural responses to habitats. The agricultur- ally rich low plains of Beauce, Seine-et-Marne, and Picardy were created by limestone and clay sedimen- tation onthe seabedduring the Mesozoicera andTer- tiary period. Fertile alluvial plains are also found along the Seine and Loire rivers. Southern France is distinguished by biennial rotation of crops, while northern France is characterized by triennial rota- tion, andcultivationalso canbecategorized intoopen or enclosed fields; the latter are typical in western France and are known as bocage (hedged farmland). France has the widest range of latitude of any Euro- pean nation,enjoying someof thesubtropical climate of the Mediterranean as wellas the temperate climate of northwestern Europe. This allowsfor a wide variety of crops. France usually suffers from few of the ex- tremes—cold or drought—that affect both northern and southern Europe. On average, almost the entire country receives at least 50 centimeters of precipita- tion as either rain or snow. France ranks regularly in the top ten among coun- tries inthe globalproductionof wheatand othercere- als, sugar beets, potatoes, apples, apricots, and wine grapes. With 6.5 million metric tons of meat produc- tion, France ranked fourth globally and first in Eu- rope in 2001. Producing 6.5 million metric tons of wheat per hectare, France ranked fourth in the world in wheat yield in 2004. In the same year, France culti - vated 70.5 million metric tons of cereals, including 39.7 million metric tons of wheat, 11 million metric tons ofbarley, 16.3million metric tons of corn, 598,200 metric tons of oats, and 257,600 metric tons of sor- ghum. Francealsoproduces 7.25 millionmetric tons of potatoes, 30.5 million metric tons of sugar beets, 3.9 million metrictons ofrapeseed, 2.1 millionmetric tons of pulses, 26.8 million metric tons of citrus fruit, 7.5 million metrictonsof grapes,808,000 metric tonsof to- matoes, 2.2 million metric tons of oil crops, 2.2 million metric tons of apples, 90,700metric tons offiber crops, 15,000 metric tons of honey, 11 million metric tons of total fruit, and 8.8 million metric tons of vegetables. For centuries, France’s wine production has ranked near the top among countries in quantity (and some would say quality), with 2 percent of its arable land used for wine grapes. In 2005, France produced 5.3 billion liters ofwine, which wassecondonly toSpain. Although France is popularly known for its exten- sive cereal production, which includes its famous bread and pastry products, and its vineyards and wines, it produces large quantities of meat as well, some 6.53 million metric tons annually. In 2004, live- stock production resulted in6.3 millionmetrictons of total meat, including 1.6 metric tons of beef, 2.3 mil- lion metric tons of pork, 131,000 metric tons of lamb and goat meat, and 1.9 metric tons of poultry. France also produced 1 million metric tons of eggs, 150,000 metric tons of cattle hides, and 11,000 metric tons of horsemeat. France is also a producer of dairy prod- ucts, notably milk, cheese, and butter. Winston Chur- chill declared famously upon the occasion of the Ger- man invasion of France in 1940, “A country producing almost 360 different types of cheese cannot die.” Finally, it should be notedthat France is the top Euro- pean producer of oysters and among the top three in mussels, fishing, and aquaculture, which includes freshwatertrout, bass,andbream from marinefarms. Forests and Forest Resources Forests are France’s richest natural resource, with one-quarter of the land covered by forest, amounting to 13.8 million hectares. One-quarter of this land is managed bytheNational Forests Office,whose efforts led to the doubling of forest areas during the twenti- eth century. Forest areas are concentrated in the east, south, and southwest, the largest of which is the Landes coastal region south of Bordeaux. France’s forests are made up of 63 percent deciduous and 38 percent coniferous or mixed trees; another 8 per - cent are considered brushwood. France imports soft - woods and pulp largely for paper production, but the 470 • France Global Resources French are thelargest producers of sawn hardwood in Europe, with about $7.1 billion in exports. Bland Addison Further Reading Chandler, Virginia. The Changing Face of France. Aus- tin, Tex.: Raintree, 2003. Cleary, Mark C. Peasants, Politicians, and Producers: The Organisation of Agriculture in France Since 1918.Re- print. New York: CambridgeUniversityPress, 2007. Dormois, Jean-Pierre. The French Economy inthe Twenti- eth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Fanet, Jacques. Great Wine Terroirs. Translated by Flor- ence Brutton. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. Hecht, Gabrielle. The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity After World War II. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1998. Pinchemel, Philippe, et al. France: A Geographical, So- cial, and Economic Survey. Translated by Dorothy Elkins with T. H. Elkins. Reprint. Cambridge, En- gland: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Web Sites The Greens-EFA Group, European Parliament Nuclear Power in France Beyond the Myth http://www.greens-efa.org/cms/topics/dokbin/ 258/258614.mythbuster@en.pdf Inventaire Forestier National (English language version) http://www.ifn.fr/spip/?lang=en 2006 Minerals Yearbook France http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/ 2006/myb3-2006-fr.pdf See also: Agricultural products; Agriculture indus- try; Nuclear energy; Uranium. Freeze-drying of food Category: Obtaining and using resources The first modern quick-freezing process was developed by Clarence Birdseye in 1925; he used refrigerated moving metal belts to quick-freeze fish. Definition Freeze-drying, also called lyophilization, is a method of preserving substances for future use by removing water from them. Freeze-dried foods retain their nu- trients almost intact. Their flavor characteristics are almost undiminished, and the process prevents the growth of microbes. Overview Food was not dried in great volume in the United States until World War I (1914-1918), when dried food became important for feeding soldiers. During World War II (1939-1945), the need for dried foods for soldiersled tothe developmentof such items as in- stant coffee and dried milk. Modern freeze-drying techniques began in the late 1960’s. Freeze-drying differs from other drying methods because the substance is frozen into a solid state (at a temperature of about −29° Celsius) before being dried. The substance is then placed on trays in a re- frigerated vacuum chamber, and heat is carefully ap- plied until the frozen moisture content is evaporated without melting. A technician controls the rate of heating so that the pressure inside the vacuum cham- ber neverbecomes great enough tomelt theice in the substance. The process of changing the ice directly from a solid to a vapor without its first becoming a liq- uid is known as sublimation. As the ice vaporizes, the food maintains its shape but becomes a porous (full of tiny holes), spongelike, lightweight dry solid.Drying takesfrom fourto twelve hours, depending on the type of substance, the parti- cle size, and the drying system used, with more than 90 percent of the water being removed. Freeze-dried foods are usually packed in an inert gas, such as nitro- gen, and then packaged in moisture-proof contain- ers. Since freeze-drying prevents microbial growth and freeze-dried foods can regain a close approxima- tion of their original shape, texture, and flavor when reconstituted with theadditionof water,freeze-drying is an ideal method for storing food supplies. Among the foods most commonly preserved by freeze-drying are soup mixes, strawberries, mush- rooms, bamboo sprouts, shrimp, a variety of vegeta- bles, and beverages, especially instant coffee, tea, and dried milk. Many other substances are also freeze- dried. Drug companies use the process to prepare many medicines, including medicines derived from plants, sincethe lowtemperature atwhich theprocess takes place allows serums and other drug solutions to Global Resources Freeze-drying of food • 471 retain their original characteristics. Biologists use the freeze-drying process to prepare animal specimens for displays in museums, or to prepare parts of organ- isms for microscopic studies. The process is also used to restore valuable papersdamaged bywater, andmili- tary personnel, hikers, and campers often carry freeze-dried foods because the products are light and compact. Although it has many diverse, practical ap- plications, freeze-drying is not used extensively for food preservation because the difficulties in freeze- drying animaland plantcells makeit relatively uneco- nomical. Alvin K. Benson See also: Agricultural products; Agriculture indus- try; Biotechnology; Canning and refrigeration of food; Plants as a medical resource; Population growth; Water. Friends of the Earth International Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1969 Friends of the Earth International (FOEI) is a federa- tion of national environmental organizations focusing on global environmental problems, such as rain-forest destruction, ozone-layer depletion, marine pollution, and the hazardous-waste trade. Background Friends of the Earth was founded in the UnitedStates by David Brower. Over the years, national groups were established in other countries. There are nearly eighty national member groups throughout the world. Each national group is an autonomous body with its own funding and strategy. FOEI takes an active part in the international envi- ronmental policy process. It has had observer status at convention proceedings and consultative status at a number of United Nations organizations, such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the United Nations Economic and Social Council. It has also participated in meetings of the International Atomic Energy Agency, the In- ternational Panel on Climate Change, and the Mon - treal Protocol. The Rainforest Action Network and the Interna - tional Rivers Network are affiliates of Friends of the Earth International, and FOEI is a member of the In- ternational Union for Conservation of Nature and the Environmental Liaison Center International. Impact on Resource Use The organization’s objectives include protecting the Earth from damage by humans; increased public par- ticipation in environmental protection; social, eco- nomic, and political justice; and the promotion of environmentally sustainable development. FOEI has been instrumental in coordinating the activities of networks of environmental, consumer, and human rights organizations. Marian A. L. Miller Web Site Friends of the Earth International http://www.foei.org/ See also: Conservation; Earth First!; Environmental movement; Montreal Protocol; Oceans; Ozone layer and ozone hole debate; Rain forests. Fuel cells Category: Energy resources Fuel cells, which most often use hydrogen as their fuel, are an attractive idea for the generation of electric power because high efficiencies are possible. Research and development were spurred by the special needs of spacecraft in the 1960’s. Commercial use will increase as designs and materials of construction improve. Background The first fuel cell wasdemonstrated in 1839by the En- glish scientist SirWilliam Robert Grove. In 1889, Lud- wig Mond and Carl Langer developed another ver- sion of the device and gave it the name “fuel cell,” but not until 1932was the first usefulfuel cell designed by Francis Thomas Bacon at Cambridge University. Ex- plosive growth in cell research followed in the 1960’s, supported by the need for electric power aboard manned spacecraft. Units forthe commercial genera - tion of power followed roughly twenty years later. 472 • Friends of the Earth International Global Resources How Fuel Cells Work A fuel cell consists of a pair of electrodes separated by an electrolyte. Although according to this description a battery could be considered a fuel cell, batteries are not classified assuch because theyconsume chemicals that form part of their structure or are stored within the structure. With fuel cells, on the other hand, the reactants are supplied from outside the cell, and the cell continuesto operate aslong asthe suppliesof fuel and oxidant continue. Most commonly, the fuels are gaseous and are sup- plied to porous electrodes impregnated with a cata- lyst. Reactions occur at each electrode, setting up a voltage between them. Thus the electrodes can be connected to a device such as a light or a motor. The electric circuit is completed within the cell itself through the electrolyte through which ions flow from one electrode to the other. Grove’s cell used hydro- gen as the fuel and oxygen as the oxidant, but various types of fuels,oxidants, and electrolytes canbeused. Efficiency In one of the more common methods for generating electric power from fossil fuels, combustion occurs and is used to generate steam. The steam, in turn, passes through a turbine that drives an electrical gen- erator. Because of the constraintsof the second law of thermodynamics, some of the energy of the combus- tion must be released into the surroundings—for example, into a river or a lake. As a result, the overall efficiency is usually between 30 and 40 percent. By contrast, a fuel cell converts the chemical energy of the fuel directly to electricity. Theoretically, the effi - ciency can approach 100 percent. In actual practice, an efficiency of about 75 percent can be achieved, roughly twice that of conventional power plants using steam. Uses of Fuel Cells The first practicaluses of fuelcells were in such exotic areas as mannedexploration of spaceand the oceans. Costs and efficiencies were not critical items in the se- lection of fuel cells for these applications. Since these early uses, fuel cells have made inroads into the area of commercial power generation. Growth has been slow because the technology lags behind that of more advanced conventional power plants using gas and steam turbines. As might be expected, there is more development of fuel cell technology in countries and regions where the cost of fossil fuels is relatively high—for example, in Japan and Europe. In the United States, there has been increased in- terest in distributed power generation, in which small power plants are located at the sites where the power is actually needed. In this case, power transmission lines from a central power station would not be needed. Fuel cells are well suited to thistype of gener- ation, because they are efficient, even in small sizes (such is notthe case forconventionalpower plants). The transportation industry, in particular theauto- mobile industry, isinterestedin usingfuelcells togen- erate electricity to power automobiles and other vehi- cles. The ongoing research into developing smaller fuel cellswith higherperformance could leadto arev- olution in electric vehicles. Hydrogen as a Fuel Hydrogen was the first fuel used in fuel cells and is an attractive fuel because there are enormous amounts of it on the Earth. However, most of the hydrogen is combined with oxygen in the form of water, and it would cost more to separate these components than any gain in efficiency that could be achieved in using them in a fuel cell. Nevertheless, Canada has used ex- cess hydroelectric power to separate the hydrogen and oxygen. On the positive side, hydrogen can be produced from natural gas using steam in a process referred to as steam reforming. Refineries have gas streams thatcan be converted to hydrogen as well.Re- search is being carried out on the use of sunlight in photoelectrochemical and photobiological methods of separating the hydrogen and oxygen in water. Global Resources Fuel cells • 473 – + H 2 O 2 CathodeAnode Electrolyte Porous electrodes Principal Parts of a Fuel Cell There has been occasional political interest in pro- moting hydrogen asthe “fuelofthe future.” Assuming that it were economical to produce, problems regard- ing storage, distribution, and safety would still exist. As long as the cost of producing hydrogen remains high, it will be used mostly for specialized needs such as fuelingspacerockets orrunning fuelcells on space- craft. As might be expected, the future of fuel cells is tied to the availability of hydrogen. Future of Fuel Cells As noted earlier, fuel cells can have high efficiencies. The cell itself has no moving parts, so it operates qui- etly. There are no toxic or polluting exhaust emis - sions. When hydrogen and oxygen are used, the by- product is water, which can be used for drinking and humidification of the air on a spacecraft. Fuel cells produce direct-current (DC) power, which isa signifi- cant advantage in some applications. Use of fuel cells has increased as their technology has advanced. When smaller fuel cells with higher performance are perfected, the increased use will cause costs to de- cline, removing any past disadvantage to their use. Thomas W. Weber Further Reading Adamson, Kerry-Ann. Stationary Fuel Cells: An Over- view. Boston: Elsevier, 2007. Bagotsky, Vladimir S. Fuel Cells: Problems and Solutions. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Barclay, Frederick J. Fuel Cells, Engines, and Hydrogen: An Exergy Approach. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2006. Busby, RebeccaL.Hydrogen andFuel Cells:AComprehen- sive Guide. Tulsa, Okla.: PennWell, 2005. Goswami, D. Yogi, and Frank Kreith, eds. Energy Con- version. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 2008. Harper, Gavin D. J. Fuel Cell Projects for the Evil Genius. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Mench, Matthew M. Fuel Cell Engines. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2008. O’Hayre, Ryan, et al. Fuel Cell Fundamentals. 2d ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Sorensen, Harry A. Energy Conversion Systems. New York: J. Wiley, 1983. Weston, Kenneth C. Energy Conversion.St. Paul,Minn.: West, 1992. Web Sites Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center, U.S. Department of Energy Fuel Cell Vehicles http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/ fuel_cell.html Breakthrough Technologies Institute Fuel Cells 2000: The Online Fuel Cell Information Resource http://www.fuelcells.org See also: Electrical power; Hydroenergy; Hydrogen; Photovoltaic cells. 474 • Fuel cells Global Resources At the 2009 International Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Expo in Tokyo, Japan, a man holds a toy model that demonstrates the operation of a car powered by a fuel cell. (Kim Kyung-Hoon/Reuters/ Landov) G Gallium Category: Mineral and other nonliving resources Where Found Gallium is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust in small amounts. It is found in ores of aluminum, zinc, and germanium. The richest concentration of gal- lium is found in germanium ores in South Africa. Primary Uses The main use of gallium is in the production of semi- conductors for use in the electronics industry. It is also used in research and development. Technical Definition Gallium (abbreviated Ga), atomic number 31, be- longs to Group IIIA of the periodic table of the ele- ments and resembles aluminum in its chemical and physical properties. It has two naturally occurring iso- topes andan averageatomic weight of69.72. Pure gal- lium is a silvery-white, soft metal that takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to air. Its density is 5.9 grams per cubic centimeter; it has a melting point of 29.8° Cel- sius and a boiling point of 2,403° Celsius. Description, Distribution, and Forms Gallium is a rare but widely distributed element re- sembling aluminum. It occurs mostly as an oxide but may also occur as a sulfide. It is combined with anti- mony, arsenic, or phosphorus to create compounds useful in making semiconductors. History Gallium wasdiscovered in 1875 by theFrench chemist Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran. Although it was seen to haveunusual properties, including alarge dif- ference between its melting and boiling points, it was of little practical use until the middle of the twentieth century. Obtaining Gallium Although gallium is found in concentrations of up to 1 percent in South African germanium ores, this ore has been exhausted to the point where recovery is no longer practical. Instead, it is obtained from world- wide aluminum ores and from zinc ores in Missouri, Oklahoma, and Kansas. These ores contain about 1 percent gallium as the same amount of the South African germanium ores. Gallium is obtained as a by-product of aluminum production by chemically removing leftover alumi- num from the liquid remaining after most of the alu- minum is obtained from the ore. The gallium is then removed from the liquid by electrolysis. Galliumis ob- tained as a by-product of zinc production by treating the ore with sulfuric acid and neutralizing it to re- move iron, aluminum, and gallium. This solution is treated with a base and neutralized to remove the alu- minum and gallium. The mixture is next treated with hydrochloric acid to remove the gallium and some aluminum. It is then treated with ether to remove the Source: Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2009 Data from the U.S. Geological Survey, .U.S.GovernmentPrinting Office, 2009. Integrated circuits 65% Optoelectronic devices 29% Research & development 6% U.S. End Uses of Gallium gallium, treated with a base to remove traces of iron, and electrolyzed to recover the gallium. Uses of Gallium Gallium used for semiconductors must be very pure. Iron and organic impurities may be removed by treat- ing the gallium with a base. Zinc and remaining iron may be removed by treating it with an acid. Other im- purities may beremovedby crystallizing thegallium. In 1952, German chemists produced the first semi- conductors using gallium compounds. Gallium anti- monide, gallium arsenide, and gallium phosphide are the most useful for this purpose. These compounds are used in much the same way that silicon com- pounds and germanium compounds are used in elec- tronic devices. In 2008, about 65 percent of gallium consumption in the United States was for integrated circuit manufacture. Another and increasingly important use of gallium is in optoelectronic devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), laser diodes, and solar cells for appli- cations in consumer goods, aerospace medical equip- ment, industrial equipment, and telecommunications. Gallium phosphide and gallium indium arsenide can be used in these devices to convert nearly 41 percent of the light that strikes them into electricity. In 2008, U.S. consumption of gallium for such purposes com- prised about 29 percent. Rose Secrest Web Site U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Information: Gallium Statistics and Information http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/ commodity/gallium/ See also: Aluminum; Germanium; Semiconductors; Silicon; Zinc. Garnet Category: Mineral and other nonliving resources Where Found Garnet occurs worldwide;it is common in manymeta - morphic and igneous rocks, especially gneisses and schists, and in garnet-rich sands that develop by ero - sion of suchrocks. Garnet is animportant constituent of the Earth’s mantle. Gem-quality garnets are nota- bly found in Brazil, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, and the Ural Mountains. Industrial garnets are mined in the United States, India, China, and Australia. Primary Uses Garnet is used primarily as an abrasive and second- arily as a semiprecious gemstone. The color is the principal factor in determining the value of gem- quality garnets. Technical Definition Garnet is a family name for a group of minerals that have a common internal structure but vary in their composition and physical properties. The color of garnet is usually red, sometimes yellow or brown, and rarely green. Garnet commonly forms equidimen- sional crystals that have from twelve to thirty-six faces. The hardness of garnet varies from 6.5 to 7.5 on the Mohs scale.Garnet isbrittle andforms subconchoidal fractures when it breaks. Description, Distribution, and Forms There are about twenty minerals called garnet. Each has the same general formula, “A” 3 “B” 2 Si 3 O 12 , where “A” is calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, or a combination and “B” is aluminum, iron, vanadium, zirconium, titanium, chromium, or a combination. Most of the formal garnet names are based upon hypothetical pure compositions in which a single ele- ment occurs in the A and B sites. Such “pure” gar- nets are rarely found in nature; most natural garnets are mixtures. The most common mixture is called pyralspite, which is an acronym for a mixture of the pure garnets named pyrope (Mg 3 Al 2 Si 3 O 12 ), alman- dine (Fe 3 Al 2 Si 3 O 12 ), and spessarite (Mn 3 Al 2 Si 3 O 12 ). The secondmost common mixture is calledugrandite, an acronym for a mixof uvarovite (Ca 3 Cr 2 Si 3 O 12 ), gros- sularite (Ca 3 Al 2 Si 3 O 12 ), and andradite(Ca 3 Fe 2 Si 3 O 12 ). The color of a garnet is controlled by its chemical composition. Garnets rich in iron are dark red to nearly black. Garnets containing mostly calcium and aluminum are yellow to cinnamon brown. Shades of green result when abundant chromium is present. Garnets grow as isometric crystals that commonly de- velop as dodecahedron or trapezohedron forms or as a combination of both. Garnets grow in a variety of geological settings. Pyralspite formsduring metamorphismofshale orba - 476 • Garnet Global Resources salt at moderate temperatures and pressures, whereas ugrandite forms during metamorphism of limestone at moderate temperatures and low pressures. Semi- pure pyrope occurs in rocks of the lower mantle, and gem-quality almandine can be found in igneous pegmatites. New York State has the largest known deposit of high-quality abrasive garnet. Bodies of ore can be found 30 to 120 meters wide, more than 30 meters thick, and approximately 1.5 kilometers long. Once the ore is mined and taken to the mill, the garnet is separated from other minerals by a combination of crushing and grinding, screening, tabling, flotation, magnetic separation, water sedimentation, and/or air separation. The maximum grain size of the garnet concentrate is less than one-half of a centimeter. Grains of differing grades are grouped into a variety of sizesdependingon therequirementsof thespecific industrial use. History Garnet has been prized as a gemstone for most of his - tory. Some Bronze Age jewelry contained garnet. The Greeks and Egyptians also used garnet ornamentally. During the Middle Ages, garnet was used for medici- nal purposes. Obtaining Garnet High-quality garnets are cut as semiprecious gem- stones and made into jewelry. The transparent red almandine is the most common garnet gemstone, but the most valuable is the brilliant green-colored demantoid garnet. Uses of Garnet The major use of garnet is as an abrasive. Its hardness and brittle fracturing allow garnet particles to un- dergo little chemical or structural change when crushed or ground into a powder. Abrasive uses in- clude the finishing of wood furniture, the produc- tion of plastic, and the processing of sheet aluminum for the aircraft and shipbuilding industries. Garnet is also used in the petroleum industry, in filtration media, in ceramics and glass, and as an electronic component. TheUnitedStates isone ofthedominant producers and consumers of abrasive garnet. Indus- trial garnets are also used in waterjet cutting and water filtration media. Gem-quality garnets are used in jewelry. Dion C. Stewart Web Site U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Information: Garnet Statistics and Information http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/ commodity/garnet/ See also: Abrasives; Gems; Metamorphic processes, rocks, and mineral deposits; Pegmatites. Gases, inert or noble Category: Mineral and other nonliving resources Where Found The noble gases—neon, argon, krypton, helium, ra- don, and xenon—naturally compose a small part of the atmosphere. The gases are also found in hot- spring water. Argon has been found in certain igne - ous rocks with helium. Helium is addressed in its own Global Resources Gases, inert or noble • 477 Source: Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2009 Data from the U.S. Geological Survey, .U.S.GovernmentPrinting Office, 2009. Waterjet cutting 35% Abrasive blasting media 30% Water filtration media 15% Abrasive powders 10% Other 10% U.S. End Uses of Industrial Garnet . range of latitude of any Euro- pean nation,enjoying someof thesubtropical climate of the Mediterranean as wellas the temperate climate of northwestern Europe. This allowsfor a wide variety of crops tons of wheat, 11 million metric tons ofbarley, 16.3million metric tons of corn, 598,200 metric tons of oats, and 257,600 metric tons of sor- ghum. Francealsoproduces 7.25 millionmetric tons of potatoes,. metric tons of sugar beets, 3.9 million metrictons ofrapeseed, 2.1 millionmetric tons of pulses, 26.8 million metric tons of citrus fruit, 7.5 million metrictonsof grapes,808,000 metric tonsof to- matoes,