Encyclopedia of Global Resources part 52 ppt

Regulation Forest regulation is the process of determining the ap- propriate size and age structure of the forest over a large area to ensure the continued production of re- source values in perpetuity. Regulation also refers to the process of organizing a forest to meet social and economic goals and constraints. One such require- ment may be to produce a relatively even flow of forest products over time; another may be to ensure a con- tinued supply of high-quality water from a municipal watershed. An industrial forest manager may be re- quired to produce a certain level of fiber to supply a billion-dollar mill employing hundreds of people. The appropriate size and age distributions of trees to best achieve this goal may be quite different from those required to maximize the habitat for a particu- lar animal species. Biological and Ecological Considerations Physical, chemical, and climatic factors place limits on both the types of plants and animals that can in- habit an area and their productive potential. Forest managers must recognize and be able to develop pos- sible management alternatives given the biological and ecological characteristics of an area. These define the types and mix of products and values that may be produced. Managers must work within these limits to determine the appropriate mix to best meet man- agement goals. For every resource, it is important to determine appropriate production levels to ensure sustainable production over the long term while maintaining ecosystem structure and function. This is complicated by the fact that production is measured in different units for different resources. For water, it may be the annual volume of water per year from a wa- tershed that meets certain quality standards. For wild- life it may be the population levels an area can sustain. Integration Forest management, therefore, deals with the integra- tion of biological and ecological potential with hu- man economic and social goals and objectives. Some forested areas are managed to produce a mix of com- modities and services, while others are managed to maximize the production of a single item. Designated wilderness areas, national parks, and national wildlife refuges, for example, are all managed largely to opti- mize the production of a relatively narrow set of re - sources, but they still produce a mix of other re - sources. Forest managers are concerned with the production of the whole range of resources from for - est ecosystems in such a way as to maintain ecosystem structure and function in perpetuity. David D. Reed Further Reading Barnes, Burton V., et al. Forest Ecology. 4th ed. New York: Wiley, 1998. Bettinger,Peter, et al. Forest Management and Planning. Boston: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2009. Davis, Lawrence S., et al. Forest Management: To Sustain Ecological, Economic, and Social Values. 4th ed. Bos- ton: McGraw-Hill, 2001. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- tions. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005: Progress Towards Sustainable Forest Management. Rome: Au- thor, 2006. Gane, Michael. Forest Strategy: Strategic Management and Sustainable Development for the Forest Sector. Dor- drecht, the Netherlands: Springer, 2007. Humphreys, David. Logjam: Deforestation and the Crisis of Global Governance.Sterling, Va.: Earthscan,2006. Hunter, Malcolm L., Jr. Wildlife, Forests, and Forestry: Principles of Managing Forests for Biological Diversity. Illustrated by Diane Bowman. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990. Nyland, Ralph D. Silviculture: Concepts and Applications. 2d ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Sauer, Leslie Jones, and Andropogon Associates. The Once and Future Forest: A Guide to Forest Restoration Strategies. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1998. Smith, David M., et al. The Practice of Silviculture: Ap- plied Forest Ecology. 9th ed. New York: Wiley, 1997. See also: Ecology; Ecosystems; Forestry; Forests; Land management; Multiple-use approach; Sustainable de- velopment; Timber industry; Wood and timber. Forest Service, U.S. Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established as Division of Forestry, 1897; renamed United States Forest Service, 1905 The United States Forest Service manages and con- serves U.S. national forestlands and grasslands with a mission of ensuring resource use by the public for rec - reation and by industry for logging and ranching. The 458 • Forest Service, U.S. Global Resources U.S. Forest Service is a recognized international leader in forest and ecosystem research and in natural re- source protection and conservation and serves as a model for similar agencies in developing nations. Background The U.S. Forest Service, a division of the U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, is responsible for managing ap- proximately 77 million hectares of national forest as well as 1.6 million hectares of grassland located in forty-four states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The agency’s history dates back to the early 1890’s, when President Grover Cleveland proclaimed seven- teen federal forest reserves, totaling 7,087,500 hect- ares. In the nineteenth century, the timber industry had become notorious for stripping an area of all its marketable timber and then moving on, leaving be- hind a barren, eroded landscape and deserted towns. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the forest resources of the North American continent appeared so inexhaustible that the forest products industry gave little thought to conserving forests or practicing what is now known as sustainable forestry. By the 1880’s, however, the fact that forest reserves were dis- appearing was clear. Public concerns about excessive harvesting contributed to fears that the nation’s sup- ply of timber would be exhausted before the turn of the century. Conservation leagues formed, and news- papers and magazines of the time published numer- ous articles warning of a coming timber famine. One of President Cleveland’s final acts as president in 1897 was to sign legislation providing funding for the administration of the reserves and creatingthe Di- vision of Forestry within the Department of the Inte- rior. Not all members of the public supported the Di- vision of Forestry’s creation: Many business interests responded to the initial creation of the federal forest reserves by urging that President Cleveland be im- peached. The act stood, however,andin1905, respon- sibility for the federal forest reserves was transferred from the Department of the Interior to the Depart- ment of Agriculture. At that time the agency’s name changed from the Division of Forestry to the United States Forest Service. President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a per- sonal friend, renowned forester and conservation ad- vocate Gifford Pinchot, to serve as the agency’s first director. Pinchot had studied forestry in France, where forests had been managed for hundreds of years, and had also observed forestry practices in other European countries. The initial mission of the U.S. Forest Service was to conserve forest resources for future generations and to protect the nation’s watersheds and riverways by preventing erosion. That is, the U.S. Forest Service attempted to manage the forest reserves in a way that would allow for both sustained-yield harvesting and the prevention of soil run-off from hillsides into waterways. One of the con- sequences of excessive timber harvesting was heavy silt deposits that choked formerly navigable rivers. Rain falling on forested hillsides is slowed or absorbed by vegetation; rain falling on barren hillsides tends to run off quickly, washing soil with it and contributing to both erosion and flooding. Impact on Resource Use Under Pinchot, the U.S. Forest Service practiced for- est management that allowed for harvesting in a man- ner that attempted both to be ecologically sound and to create a solid economic base for logging towns. Sustained-yield harvesting would allow permanent communities to grow; families could flourish as lum- bering and related industries provided stable, year- round employment. In addition to managing forest reserves, the U.S. Forest Service established regional research stations to investigate issues such as silviculture, reforestation, fire suppression, and harvesting practices. Although referred to as stations, the locations of research ef- forts were not actually centralized but instead took place in a variety of settings, including controlled lab- oratory environments and forests. The U.S. Forest Service also supported research performed by scien- tists at universities by funding grants and participat- ing in cooperative research agreements with acade- mia and industry. Research conducted or supported by the Forest Service has led to a better understanding of forest ecology and to subsequent changes in man- agement by both government agencies and private in- dustry. Research continued into the twenty-first cen- tury with activities such as the Forest Inventory and Analysis program, which conducts research on both public and private lands to assess the conditions of U.S. forests and to detect future trends. The U.S. Forest Service is also responsible for over- seeing twenty national grasslands. National grasslands were established during the Great Depression of the 1930’s, when the Great Plains were devastated by the Dust Bowl, an ecological disaster caused by a combi - nation of drought and farming practices unsuited for Global Resources Forest Service, U.S. • 459 a prairie ecosystem. Farmers especially were affected by the country’s economic woes, resulting in thou- sands of farms being abandoned by farmers unable to make mortgage payments or pay property taxes. As part of national relief efforts, the federal government acquired millions of hectares of submarginal farm- land that included both forest tracts and grasslands. Land more suited for forests than for farming was in- corporated into national forests, such as the Oconee National Forest in Georgia, and planted with trees. Prairie lands were restored to grasslands, such as Buf- falo Gap National Grassland in South Dakota. Be- cause land for many forests was often acquired in small, noncontiguous blocks as it became available rather than through condemnation, many forests and grasslands remain a patchwork of private and public ownership with irregular boundaries. Like national forests, national grasslands are managed for multiple use, including recreation, wildlife habitat, and live- stock forage. Also in the 1930’s, the U.S. Forest Service began to provide more recreational opportunities in national forests. Civilian Conservation Corps members devel- oped campgrounds, picnic areas, and hiking trails. The agency also instituted leasing programs that al- lowed the public to lease lots within national forests on which they could build recreational cabins for sea- sonal use. The U.S. Forest Service provided guide- lines that set size limits and specified the materials, such as types of exterior siding, that could be used. Al- though these recreational opportunities were viewed originally as secondary to the agency’s primary mis- sion of ensuring a sustainable timber supply,overtime recreation assumed a more important role. As the threat of a timber famine faded, the public’s under- standing of forest conservation and the appropriate role of the U.S. Forest Service changed. This change has been reflected in significant pieces of twentieth century federal legislation, such as the Wilderness Act (1964), the National Environmen- tal Policy Act (1970), and the National Forest Manage- ment Act (1976). Congress originally created the For- est Service for conservation, that is, to promote the wise use of forest resources. Subsequent legislation has resulted in the Forest Service becoming a diverse agency with multiple missions relating to natural and cultural resources in the United States. The National Forest Management Act in particular redefined the agency’s mission by making multiple use an explicit rather than an implicit requirement. In the twenty- first century, in addition to managing forests for a sus - tained yield available to the commercial forest prod- ucts industry, the Forest Service also is charged with protecting critical wildlife habitat, providing outdoor recreationalopportunities for the general public, and protecting cultural resources, such as historic build- ings or archaeological sites, that fall within national forest boundaries. Thus the Forest Service is occasionally embroiled in controversy when one mission, such as providing rec- reational opportunities for the public, conflicts with other missions, such as protecting critical habitat for endangered species. Nonetheless, as part of the De- partment of Agriculture, the Forest Service still over- sees national forests as reserves of timber which have been set aside for eventual sale to private industry. For administrative purposes the U.S. ForestService is divided into ten geographic regions. The bound- aries for these regions have changed over time to re- flect changes in administration policies and goals. Similarly, improvements in office automation, com- munications, and transportation technology have led to management of individual forests becoming more centralized. In Wisconsin, for example, the formerly separate Nicolet National Forest and Chequamegon National Forest are now managed as the Chequa- megon-Nicolet National Forest, while in Texas four national forests (the Angelina, Davy Crockett, Sabine, and Sam Houston) and two grasslands (Caddo and LBJ) are supervised from a central office. Nancy Farm Männikkö Further Reading Arnold, R. Keith, et al. View from the Top: Forest Service Re- search. Durham, N.C.: Forest History Society, 1994. Clary, David A. Timber and the Forest Service. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1986. Lewis, James G. The Forest Service and the Greatest Good: A Centennial History. Durham, N.C.: Forest History Society, 2005. Steen, Harold K. Origins of the National Forests: A Cen- tennial Symposium. Durham, N.C.: Forest History Society, 1992. Web Site U.S. Forest Service http://www.fs.fed.us See also: Conservation; Forestry; Forests; Multiple- use approach; Pinchot, Gifford; Timber industry. 460 • Forest Service, U.S. Global Resources Forestry Category: Environment, conservation, and resource management Billions of people, industrialists, and the economies of many nations rely on forests, which cover approxi- mately 30 percent of the world’s landmass. The prac- tice of forestry can ensure that there will be sustainable forests to support all living things with timber and wood products, energy resources, animal ranges, wild- life habitats, recreational opportunities, water re- sources, oxygen, and climate control. Background Forestry, considered both a science and an art, has its origins in China, while the Western world formalized the practice of forestry during the Middle Ages. By the sixteenth century, Germany and Japan were leaders in developing systematic forest management, and German foresters established many of the earliest forestry schools in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Royalty often promoted forest management through mapping, harvesting, and reforestation. An example of such early forestry practices was Great Britain’s Broad Arrow Policy of 1691, which required reservation for the navy of all trees on public lands with a diameter of 60 centimeters or greater. These trees were used in large part for building ship masts— one of the significant commercial enterprises that made use of forest products in the seventeenth cen- tury. The German influence was felt in North America by 1898, when German Carl Schenck established one of the first American schools of forestry in North Car- olina. The New York State College of Forestry was also established at Cornell University in the same year. Schenck, who initially came to the United States to re- place Gifford Pinchot in managing the forests of the Biltmore Estate in Asheville, North Carolina, utilized many of the German forestry methods in his educa- tion program. Pinchot, who was trained in France, was appointed by President William McKinley as the head of what became known as the United States Forest Service. The Beginnings of Forestry Initially, forestry involved finding ways to cultivate trees and plant materials quickly because of the deple - tion of wood products caused by war but also necessi - tated by the spread of settlements throughout the world. People used wood not only for construction of buildings and fences but also as the main source of en- ergy. Thus, as population increased, the demand for wood products increased. The settlers in the New World began shipping substantial amounts of logs and lumber to the Old World, where many forests had already been depleted, often as a result of practices such as clear-cutting—the cutting of all trees in a stand with little concern for underlying plants, soil, and water resources. As the population in the United States spread in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries from New England south through the Appalachian forests and west to the forests surrounding the Great Lakes, early settlers practiced little forest management or conser- vation. Most of the settlers believed there was an end- less supply of trees; not until the second half of the nineteenth century did influential politicians and au- thors begin to advocate for forest management and conservation. However, the United States did little to manage its forests until after many trees had been clear-cut for commercial purposes, including build- ing railroads, and soil had been degraded through erosion. The scientific methods employed in early forestry involved managing and improving existing forests through cutting, pruning, and thinning of forests and controlling erosion, diseases, and pests. To foster for- est continuity, loggers modified their previous “cut out and get out” approach to logging and also applied science in order to protect the soil, water, and young trees in areas where timber harvesting was taking place. Many of these early scientific methods are still practiced. In addition, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many nations began to adopt laws and regulations to conserve forests, protect wa- tersheds, and establish forest reserves. In many cases, these laws were a reaction to the commercial slash- and-burn practices of the past and the technologies being employed by the logging and paper industries. As the nineteenth century began, Pinchot philoso- phized that forests could be used wisely while also be- ing preserved for the enjoyment of future genera- tions. This multiple-use philosophy, that there can be a balance between economic and environmental factors to meet both present and future needs, is known as sustainable forestry. The debate, however, continues in modern forestry—should forests be pre - Global Resources Forestry • 461 served or managed for commercial timber produc - tion? Modern Forestry Practices Modern forestry not only employs the early scientific methods and management practices but also utilizes many new mechanized and science-based techniques. Today’s foresters use tools such as portable computers to maintain and organize forest inventory databases and to generate financial and harvest-yield models. Forest scientists link computer mapping technologies with satellite resources such as geographic informa- tion systems that allow remote sensing. Combining mapping and sensing data allows evaluation of for- ests, such as insect damage, forest erosion, and po- tential harvest yields throughout the globe. Global Positioning Systems are also important in pinpointing exact locations of forest resources that may have been identified through aerial photography or remote- sensing technologies. Today’s forest management also involves special- ization. Silviculture is the main specialty that con- cerns management of forests and their surroundings to establish healthy tree populations and plant mate- rials for commercial harvesting. Silviculturalists de- velop forest management plans in order to ensure healthy and profitable yields, while recognizing that forests are in constant states of change, which is known as succession. In addition, genetic engineers are con- ducting global research to improve species that can withstand pests, diseases, and drought in specific geo- graphic areas. Controlled or prescribed forest burn- ing to reduce the amount of fuel available for fires, soil conservation and watershed management to en- sure that soils are adequate to support a forest and to prevent soil erosion, protection of forest ecosystems 462 • Forestry Global Resources A forest employee uses a chainsaw to clear a felled tree. (©iStockphoto.com) and biodiversity enhancement, water quality manage - ment and pollution control, pest and disease control, and climate control by ensuring sufficient plant mate- rials to create a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide and oxygen restoration through photosynthesis are all prominent features of modern-day forestry prac- tice and education. The commercial enterprise of plantation forestry, much like single-crop farming, involves establishing monoculturesor single varieties of trees and plant ma- terials usually started from seeds or seedlings. Christ- mas tree farms and nurseries are examples of planta- tion forestry. Urban forestry is practiced in highly populated areas where urban living environments are enhanced through the creation of green spaces and the planting of shade tree species and other plant ma- terials appropriate for a geographic location. An- other specialty branch of forestry is tropical forestry, which takes place in equatorial forests and involves harvesting of woods popular in furniture manufactur- ing, such as mahogany and teak. Commerce vs. Preservation Forests have substantial commercial value not only for wood and paper products such as plywood and as a re- newable energy source but also for many manufac- tured products that are derived from trees and plant materials. Many of these manufactured products be- gin with a wood source that is turned into a useful product through the application of chemicals. These products include rayon, cellophane, adhesives, photo film, paints, household cleaners, baby food, ice cream, cosmetics, and food flavorings. Many pharmaceutical products also come from forest sources. Economics is important in forestry, and foresters must have an un- derstanding of how to ensure that forest products will have sufficientquantityand quality to maintain a prof- itable business. Global forestry initiatives have taken place for many years. The World Forestry Congress has met almost every six years since 1926, and the 2009 meeting in Buenos Aires, Argentina, concerned ways to achieve a balance between preserving tropical rain forests and allowing for development. Moreover, since the 1980’s, many international entities, including the United Nations, the World Bank, and the European Forest Institute, have begun to formulate and imple- ment global conservation-oriented forestry strategies and initiatives. However, not all of the world leaders agree that conservation is the best policy, as national develop - ment varies globally from hunter-gatherer societies to industrialized nations that place an emphasis on the commercial value of forest products. Many develop- ing nations believe in maximum use of their forests to fuel their development in the same manner that in- dustrialized nations overused their forests to enhance their economies. Although overuse of forests and lack of forest management in one area of the globe will impact other areas, the many international agencies trying to resolve the global forestry debate between deforestation for economic development and preser- vation are not likely to come to an easy resolution. Carol A. Rolf Further Reading Achard, Frédéric. Vital Forest Graphics. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme, 2009. Berger, John J. Forests Forever: Their Ecology, Restoration, and Protection. Chicago: Center for American Places, 2008. Burton, L. DeVere. Introduction to Forestry Science.2d ed. Clifton Park, N.Y.: Thomson Delmar Learning, 2008. Dietrich, William. The Final Forest: The Battle for the Last Great Trees of the Pacific Northwest. New York: Pen- guin, 1993. Lele, Uma, ed. Managing a Global Resource: Challenges of Forest Conservation and Development. World Bank Se- ries on Management and Development, Volume 5. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2002. McEvoy, Thomas J. Positive Impact Forestry: A Sustain- able Approach to Managing Woodlands. Covelo, Calif.: Island Press, 2004. Morsbach, Hans W. Common Sense Forestry. White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green, 2002. Palo, Matti, and Jussi Uusivuori. World Forests, Society, and Environment. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 1999. Perry, David A., Ram Oren, and Stephen C. Hart. For- est Ecosystems. 2d ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Uni- versity Press, 2008. Web Sites European Forest Institute http://www.efi.int/portal/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Forestry Information Centre http://www.fao.org/forestry/library/en/ Global Resources Forestry • 463 See also: Forest management; Forest Service, U.S.; Forests; Multiple-use approach; Pinchot, Gifford; Timber industry; Wood and charcoal as fuel re- sources; Wood and timber. Forests Category: Plant and animal resources Forests are complex ecosystems in which trees are the dominant type of plant. Both humans and animals de- pend on forests for food, shelter, and other resources. Background Forests once covered much of the world and are still found from the equator to the Arctic regions. A forest may vary in size from only a few hectares to thousands of square kilometers, but generally any natural area in which trees are the dominant plant type can be con- sidered a forest. For a plant to be called a tree, the standard definition requires that the plant must attain a mature height of at least 2.4 meters, have a woody stem, and possess a distinct crown. Thus, even though apples and roses are otherwise close botanical rela- tives, size dictates that roses grow on shrubs and apples grow on trees. Tropical, Temperate, and Boreal Forests Foresters generally divide the forests of the world into three general categories: tropical, temperate, and boreal. (See “Rain forests” for a discussion of the tropical rain forest.) In brief, the tropical forest consists of a dizzying variety of trees that remain green year-round, shrubs, and other plants. The growth is lush and usually includes both a dense canopy formed by the crowns of the largest trees and a thick under- story of smaller trees and shrubs. Growth is often con- tinuous, rather than brokeninto periods of dormancy and active growth, so that fruiting trees are occasion- ally seen bearing blossoms and mature fruit simulta- neously. The temperate forest lies between the tropical for- est and the boreal, or northern, forest. The forests of the Mediterranean region of Europe as well as the forests of the southern United States are temperate forests. Trees in temperate forests can be either decid - uous or coniferous. Although coniferous trees are generally thought of as evergreen, the distinction between types is actually based on seed production and leaf shape. Coniferous trees, such as spruces, pines, and hemlocks, produce seeds in cones and have needle-shaped leaves. Deciduous trees, such as maples, poplars, and oaks, have broad leaves and bear seeds in other ways. Some conifers, such as tamarack, do change color and drop their needles in the au- tumn, while some deciduous trees, particularly in the more southerly regions of the temperate forest, are evergreen. Deciduous trees are also referred to as hardwoods, while conifers are softwoods, a classifica- tion that refers more to the typical density of the wood than how difficult it is to nail into it. Softwoods are lower in density and will generally float in water while still green. Hardwoods are higher in density on aver- age and will sink. Like the tropical forest, the temperate forest can be quite lush. While the dominant species vary from area to area, depending on factors such as soil types and available rainfall, a dense understory of shade- tolerant species often thrives beneath the canopy formed by taller trees. Thus, a mature temperate forest may have thick stands of rhododendrons 6 to 9 meters high thriving in the shade of 25-meter oaks and tulip poplars. As the temperate forest ap- proaches the edges of its range and the forest makes the transition to boreal, the understory thins out, disappearing almost completely or consisting only of low shrubs. Even in temperate forests, the domi- nant species may prevent an understory from form- ing. Stands of southern loblolly pine, for example, often have a parklike feel as the thick mulch cre- ated by fallen needles chokes out growth by other species. The boreal forest, which lies in a band across the northern United States, Canada, northern Europe, and northern Asia, is primarily a coniferous forest. The dominant species are trees such as white spruce, hemlock, and white pine. Mixed stands of north- ern hardwoods, such as birch, sugar maple, and red oak, may be found along the southern reaches of the boreal forest. As the forest approaches the Arctic, trees are fewer in type, becoming primarily spruce, birch, and willows, and smaller in size. The under- story is generally thin or nonexistent, consisting of seedlings of shade-tolerant species, such as maple, and low shrubs. Patches of boreal-type forest can be found quite far south in higher elevations in the United States, such as the mountains of West Vir - ginia, while the edge of the temperate forest has 464 • Forests Global Resources crept steadily northward following the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the Ice Age twenty thousand years ago. Forest Ecology and Resources In all three types of forests a complex system of inter- relationship governs the ecological well-being of the forest and its inhabitants. Trees and animals alike have evolved to fit into particular environmental niches. Some wildlife may need one resource pro- vided by one species of tree in the forest during one season and a resource provided by another during a different time of year, while other animals become to- tally dependent on one specific tree. Whitetail deer, for example, browse on maple leaves in the summer, build reserves of fat by eating acorns in the fall, and survive the winter by eating evergreens. Deer are highly adaptable in contrast with other species, such as the Australian koala, which depends entirely on eu- calyptus leaves for its nutritional needs. Just as the ani- mals depend on the forest, the forest depends on the animals to disperse seeds and thin new growth. Cer- tain plant seeds, in fact, will not sprout until being abraded as they pass through the digestive tracts of birds. Humans also rely on the forest for food, fuel, shel- ter, and other products. Forests provide wood for fuel and construction, fibers for paper, and chemicals for thousands of products often not immediately rec- ognized as deriving from the forest, such as plastics and textiles. In addition, through the process of tran- spiration, forests regulate the climate by releasing Global Resources Forests • 465 Forest Areas by Region Asia/Oceania, 16.4% (565 million hectares; 1,396 million acres) Africa, 15.1% (520 million hectares; 1,284 million acres) Latin America and the Caribbean, 27.5% (950 million hectares; 2,347 million acres) 1995: total area = 3,454 million hectares; 8,533 million acres Europe, 4.2% (146 million hectares; 361 million acres) temperate/boreal North America, 13.2% (457 million hectares; 1,129 million acres) former USSR, 23.6% (816 million hectares; 2,016 million acres) Source: Data are from United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAOSTAT Database, 2000). water vapor into the atmosphere while removing harmful carbon compounds. Forests play an impor- tant role in the hydrology of a watershed. Rain that falls on a forest will be slowed in its passage downhill and is often absorbed into the soil rather than run- ning offinto lakes and rivers. Thus, forestscan moder- ate the effects of severe storms, reducing the dan- gers of flooding and preventing soil erosion along streams and riverbanks. Threats to the Forest The primary threat to maintaining healthy forests around the world is the rising rate of human popula- tion growth. As the population grows, three types of pressure are placed on the existing forest. First, for- ests are cleared to provide land for agriculture or for the construction of new homes. This process has oc- curred almost continuously in the temperate regions for thousands of years, but it did not become common in tropical regions until the twentieth century. Often settlers level the forest and burn the fallen trees to clear land for farming without the wood itself being utilized in any way. Developers tend to see the forest as a nuisance to be removed as quickly as possible. As a result, the exposed land often becomes infertile for farming within a few years. After a few years of steadily diminishing crops, the land is abandoned. With the protective forest cover removed, it may quickly be- come a barren, eroded wasteland. Second, rising populations in developing nations often depend on wood or charcoal as their primary fuel for cooking and for home heat. Forests are de- stroyed as mature trees are removed for fuel wood faster than natural growth can replace them. As the mature trees disappear, younger and younger growth is also removed, and eventually the forest is gone com- pletely. Finally, growing populations naturally demand more products derived from wood, which can include everything from lumber for construction to chemi- cals used in cancer research. Market forces can drive forest products companies to harvest more trees than is ecologically sound as stockholders focus on short- term individual profits rather than long-term envi- ronmental costs. The challenge to foresters, ecolo- gists, and other scientists is to devise methods that allow humanity to continue to utilize the forest re- sources we need to survive without destroying the forests as complete and healthy ecosystems. Nancy Farm Männikkö Further Reading Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- tions. Forests and Energy: Key Issues. Rome: Author, 2008. _______. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005: Prog- ress Towards Sustainable Forest Management. Rome: Author, 2006. Holland, I. I., and G. L. Rolfe. Forests and Forestry. 5th ed. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Publishers, 1997. Kimmins, Hamish. Balancing Act: Environmental Issues in Forestry. Vancouver: University of British Colum- bia Press, 1992. Nyland, Ralph D. Silviculture: Concepts and Applications. 2d ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Page, Jake. Forest. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1983. Sands, Roger. Forestry in a Global Context. Cambridge, Mass.: CABI, 2005. Sharpe, Grant W., John C. Hendee, and Wenonah F. Sharpe. Introduction to Forests and Renewable Re- sources.7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Educa- tion, 2003. Walker, Laurence C., and Brian P. Oswald. The South- ern Forest: Geography, Ecology, and Silviculture. Rev. ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 2000. Web Sites Environment Canada Welcome to the Western Boreal Conservation Initiative http://www.pnr-rpn.ec.gc.ca/nature/ecosystems/ wbci-icbo/index.en.html Natural Resources Canada Canada’s Forests http://canadaforests.nrcan.gc.ca/?lang=en U.S. Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis National Program http://www.fia.fs.fed.us U.S. Geological Survey Forest Ecosystems http://www.usgs.gov/science/ science.php?term=410 See also: Clear-cutting; Deforestation; Forest fires; Forest management; Forestry; Hydrology and the hydrologic cycle; Rain forests; Reforestation; Timber industry; Wood and charcoal as fuel resources; Wood and timber. 466 • Forests Global Resources France Categories: Countries; government and resources France ranks regularly among the top five countries in the global production of wheat and other cereals, sugar beets, potatoes, and wine grapes because of its rich soils. France also exports significant amounts of vege- tables, beef, and dairy products as well as some timber and fish. The Country France benefits from its geographic location between northern and southern Europe, possessing coastal openings on both the Atlantic Ocean and the Medi- terranean Sea. The river systems of the Seine, Loire, Garonne, and Rhone favor interior communication, with only the Massif Central considered an internal natural obstacle. Although France has limited min- eral resources, it has abundant fertile soils, receives ample rainfall, and has an equable climate. His- torically, the nation has been known for its agricul- tural products. After World War II, however, France industrialized rapidly under extensive governmental promotion of such development, and in the twenty-first century the French are recognized for their high-tech products in such areas as public transportation, defense, and power generation. Among European countries, France ranks the lowest in the material intensity mea- sure of its gross domestic product (GDP)—at 0.7 kilo- gram per euro—which some researchers believe is a measure of technological and environmental effi- ciency but also reflects the service and agricultural orientation of France’s mixed economy. In 2008, France had the eighth largest GDP in the world—measured in terms of purchasing power par- ity—at $2.1 trillion, with 20 percent coming from the production of items such as machinery, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, automobiles, metallurgical materi- als, aircraft, electronics, textiles, and beverages. A little more than 2 percent comes from agriculture (in- cluding wheat and other cereals, sugar beets, pota- toes, and wine grapes), beef, dairy products, and fish. The global recession of 2008 slowed French GDP growth to 0.7 percent, with an estimated −8 percent in industrial production. France is one of the world’s most popular tourist destinations, attracting approxi - mately 75 million foreign visitors every year. Minerals and Ores The mining sector, which began declining in the 1990’s, typically contributes around 7 percent to the French GDP and employs less than 1 percent of the workforce. In 2006, France produced an estimated 13 million metric tons of stone, sand, and gravel; 21 mil- lion metric tons of hydraulic cement; 9.4 million met- ric tons of salt (rock, refined brine, marine, and in so- lution); 3.5 million metric tons of crude gypsum and anhydrite; 300,000 metric tons of marketable kaolin and kaolinitic clay; 650,000 metric tons of crude feld- spar; 40,000 metric tons of marketable fluorspar; 30,000 metric tons of barite; 65,000 metric tons of kyanite, andalusite, and related materials; 20,000 met- ric tons of mica; and 420,000 metric tons of crude talc. France has also mined copper, gold, silver, powder tungsten, sponge zirconium, elemental bromine, ball and refractory clays, diatomite, lime, nitrogen, and iron oxide pigments as well as thomas slag phos- phates, pumice (pozzolan and lapilli), and soda ash and sodium sulfate. Phosphorous iron deposits found along the Moselle in Lorraine constitute the largest vein in Western Eu- rope. They once produced 50 million metric tons per year but were increasingly hard to exploit profitably; the last mine was closed in 1998. Bauxite, discovered in the village of Les Baux in Provence, also was once mined extensively, but the deposits are nearly exhausted, and France ceased production in 1993. Similarly, potas- sium carbonate (potash), important in the production of fertilizer, once came abundantly from the mines of Alsace, but production was stopped because of ecologi- cal concerns and the depletion of the resource. During a decade of neoliberal policies, the government ceased subsidizing unprofitable operations. In 2000, mining production in France was 76 percent of what it was in the 1990’s. In fact, since 1985, the European Union as a whole has imported more industrial minerals and ores, including fossil fuels, than it has extracted. Nevertheless, from 2003 to 2007, the French metal and mining industries grew by 5.5 percent because of concerns about foreign dependency for certain alloys and ores needed in industrial production. In 2007, companies in heavy industry reached a total value of $19 billion and were forecast to continue to grow into the next decade. Sales of iron and steel—including crude steel, pig iron, and direct reduced iron— accounted for 87 percent of the industry’s overall value. Other metal and mineral products include alu - minum, composing 7 percent of total revenues in the Global Resources France • 467 . the mountains of West Vir - ginia, while the edge of the temperate forest has 464 • Forests Global Resources crept steadily northward following the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the Ice. reserves was transferred from the Department of the Interior to the Depart- ment of Agriculture. At that time the agency’s name changed from the Division of Forestry to the United States Forest. thou- sands of farms being abandoned by farmers unable to make mortgage payments or pay property taxes. As part of national relief efforts, the federal government acquired millions of hectares of submarginal