Solar panels, or modules, are one of the most promising sources of inexpensive and environmen- tally safe energy. Although earlier efforts to harness solar energy utilized steam from solar-heated water, modern solar panels are photovoltaic: They produce electricity from sunlight. The phenomenon was dis- covered in the eighteenth century and studied by Al- bert Einstein in the 1920’s. After the widespread adoption of silicon for circuitry in the twentieth cen- tury, photovoltaic cells became less expensive to pro- duce and more efficient in power output. The most common forms of silicon used for the cells are crystal - line, which became available in the 1950’s, and amor - phous silicon, which is more frequently used now. Typically, the cells are joined together in panels, which may alsobeconnected together in an array. The units are produced in a great variety of forms. In home applications, they may be placedonrooftops, or inindependent structures at some distance from the dwelling. Some units are also designed so that they are able to move over time to capture the most sunlight, like the solar arrays on the Interna- tional Space Station. For homes and other buildings, they may also be disguised visually as shingles or other kinds of roofing material, so that they are more seamlessly integrated with the design. The most desirable locations are unshaded or thinly-shaded areas. On roof installations in the Northern Hemisphere, southern exposures are preferred. Solar panels may be connected to a grid or self-contained, depending on their function. Owners may earn credit by giving energy to the grid during times when their consump- tion is lower thantheirown unit’s production. The energy mayalsobe stored in batteries. So- lar power is a key element in the zero energy building concept. A zero energy building is defined as one which creates more energy than it uses. Combined with other elements such as energy-saving building design and the use of Energy Star qualified appliances, the building’s photovoltaic system, which contrib- utes to the grid, earns energy credit equal to or in excess of its consumption. Wind was an energy resource as early as the fourth century b.c.e., when the Egyptians used wind to move sailboats. Windmills appeared as early as 500 c.e. in Persia. In 1890, in Den- mark, Poul LaCourbuiltthefirstwindturbine,alarge windmill capable of generating electricity. From 1956 to 1957, also in Denmark, Johannes Juul developed the Gedser wind turbine, which wastheworld’s first al- ternating current (AC) wind turbine. Typically, large wind plants are connected to the local electric utility transmission network. Energy Star recommends small wind electric systems as a highly effective home-based system, which could lower electricity bills by 50 to 90 percent. The world’s ten largest producers of wind power, as of 2008, were the United States, Germany, Spain, China, India, Italy, France, the United King - dom, Denmark, and Portugal. Centuries before electricity was harnessed, hydro - 150 • Buildings and appliances, energy-efficient Global Resources This solar-powered building in Athens, Greece, opened in 2007 and is ex- pected to generate enough energy not only to power the building but also to sell the government its surplus. (AP/Wide World Photos) power was asignificant source of energy, largely in the form of water wheels, in which water moved wooden paddles attached to mechanical devices for grinding grains, pumping, andother functions. While displaced in industrialized regions, these mechanical forms of renewable energy technology are still used in rural ar- eas. Typically, modern hydropower comes from large power plants attached to dams and connected to the grid. In the United States, for example, hydropower contributes roughly 70 percent of the electricity from renewable sources and 6 percent of the nation’s total electricity. Other countries—especially Norway, Swit- zerland, and Canada—derive a much higher portion of their electricity from hydropower. A less common use of hydropower, to generate electricity, is provided by micro hydro water turbines, which may be used when a home or other building is next to or over a stream or river. These may be self-contained, or used in conjunction with other systems, including renew- able systems such as solar arrays. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) provided measures benefiting re- newable energy and tax incentives for energy effi- ciency. It includes a Treasury Department grant pro- gram for renewable energy developers and a manufacturing tax credit. The Act also allows individ- ual taxpayers a federal tax credit of 30 percent of the cost of residential alternative energy equipment, such as geothermal heat pumps, wind turbines, and solar hot-water heaters. There are also taxcredits forhome- owners to make energy efficient improvements such as adding insulation, energy-efficient heating and air- conditioning systems, and energy efficient exterior windows. Emerging Technology Energy Star appliances have become commonplace. An emerging technology is the “smart appliance,” which promises even greater energy efficiency and lower energy costs. Smart appliances can have a com- puter chip or “smart meter” which communicates with a centralsystem, such as the local electrical grid. They can sense when the system is overloaded, such as dur- ing peak hours. The appliance can beprogrammed to turn off partially or to wait for convenient times when the system is less stressed. For instance, a refrigerator can delay running its automaticdefrost cycle until the local grid signals that it is an off-peak time. Smart ap - pliances can shut offtheir own power when they sense an electrical surge. They can be part of smart homes or buildings, where allelectricalappliances or devices are connected to a computer system and function au- tomatically or operate by remote control. There are numerous benefits of smart appliances. They reduce electrical demand upon grids during peak hours and help avoid huge power failures, such as the large-scale blackouts in the western United States in 1996 and in the Northeast in 2003. With the rise in electric plug-in vehicles, decreasing peak en- ergy demand nationally becomes even more impor- tant. Under a real-time pricing structure, consumers would receive price signals from the grid, indicating higher prices during peak hours and lower prices when demand is less. Consumers would see cost sav- ings by managing their energy usage. Because utility companies have to build more generating plants to meet the huge stress on the system during peakhours, less demand would mean fewer plants and carbon emissions. Estimations indicate that this technology could eliminate the need to build thirty coal-fired power plants over twenty years. General Electric has been testing “energy manage- ment-enabled appliances” suchaswashersanddryers, microwaves, ranges, and dishwashers. Thesesmart ap- pliances are able to time themselves to operateduring off-peak periods. Consumers can override the pro- gram if they want to use the appliance during peak hours. Whirlpool plans for all its appliances world- wide to be smart appliances by 2015. The ARRA of 2009 provided billions of dollars to modernize the aging U.S. electrical grid and create a “smart grid,” a high-tech electricity distribution and transmission system. A digital communications sys- tem and networking technology would be applied to the existing grid. Wireless devices, controls, smart me- ters, and sensors would be installed along the whole grid, thus providing more services for consumers and giving utilities more control of power production and delivery. More renewable energy sources would be able to come online. The result would be improved electricity efficiency and reliability. A standardized system with a common language understood by all smart appliances when communicating with theirgrids is in development. A hacker could break into the sys- tem, so security issues would have be resolved. In 2009, U.S. commerce secretary Gary Locke and U.S. energy secretary Steven Chu announced the first set of technical standards for the interoperability and se - curity of the “smart grid.” Roger V. Carlson, updated by Alice Myers Global Resources Buildings and appliances, energy-efficient • 151 Further Reading Amann, Jennifer Thorne, Alex Wilson, and Katie Ackerly. Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings. 9th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 2007. Beggs, Clive. Energy: Management,Supply, and Conserva- tion. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002. Bonta, Dave, and Stephen Snyder. New Green Home So- lutions: Renewable Household Energy and Sustainable Living. Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith, 2008. Bridgewater,Alan, and Gill Bridgewater. Renewable En- ergy for Your Home: Using Off-Grid Energy to Reduce Your Footprint, Lower Your Bills,and Be More Self-Suffi- cient. Berkeley, Calif.: Ulysses Press, 2009. Federal Trade Commission. How to Buy an Energy-Effi- cient Home Appliance. Washington, D.C.: Federal Trade Commission, Bureau of Consumer Protec- tion, Office of Consumer and Business Education, 2000. Fickett, Arnold P., Clark W. Gellings, and Amory B. Lovins. “Efficient Use of Electricity.” Scientific Amer- ican 263, no. 3 (September, 1990): 64. Flavin, Christopher, and Nicholas Lenssen. Power Surge: Guide to the Coming Energy Revolution. New York: W. W. Norton, 1994. Gipe, Paul. Wind Energy Basics: A Guide to Home- and Community-Scale Wind-Energy Systems. White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green, 2009. Johnston, David, and Scott Gibson. Green from the Ground Up, a Builder’s Guide: Sustainable, Healthy, and Energy-Efficient Home Construction. Newtown, Conn.: Taunton Press, 2008. McKay, Kim, and Jenny Bonnin. True Green Home: One Hundred Inspirational Ideas for Creating a Green Envi- ronment at Home. Washington, D.C.: National Geo- graphic Society, 2009. Moss, Keith J. Energy Management in Buildings. 2d ed. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2006. Rosenfeld, Arthur H., and David Hafemesiter. “En- ergy-Efficient Buildings.” Scientific American 258, no. 4 (April, 1988): 78. Smith, Colin. This Cold House: The Simple Science of En- ergy Efficiency. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. Woodside, Christine. Energy Independence: Your Every- day Guide to Reducing Fuel Consumption. Guilford, Conn.: Lyons Press, 2009. Yudelson, Jerry. The Green Building Revolution. Wash - ington, D.C.: Island Press, 2008. Web Sites Federal Trade Commission Energy http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/menus/consumer/ energy/energy.shtm Natural Resources Canada Office of Energy Efficiency http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/english U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Energy Star http://www.energystar.gov See also: Energy storage; Geothermal and hydro- thermal energy; Solar chimneys; Solar energy. Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1946 The Bureau of Land Management hasthe responsibil- ity for land-use management on U.S. national unre- served public lands. Background The way land is used and the management choices that direct such use are important resource issues. Of- ten such land-usedecisionsare made by individuals in the context of private land ownership. However, the federal government also has a variety of agencies whose responsibilities include making appropriate land-use management decisions. One of these agencies is the Bureau of Land Man- agement, a part of the U.S. Department of the Inte- rior. According to bureau literature, the Bureau of Land Management’s responsibility is to administer those public lands that are in federal ownership but are not a part of any other established management agency such as the National ParkService. The Bureau of Land Management oversees the use of 104 million surface hectares and 283 million hectares of subsur- face mineral estate, comprising 13 percent of thetotal land in the United States. The Bureau of Land Management was formed in 1946 when the General Land Office and the Grazing Service were merged. The Bureau of Land Manage - ment’s authorization included such diverse areas of 152 • Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Global Resources concern as mineral leasing, public land sales, and grazing regulation. In 1964,Congress created the Public Land LawRe- view Commission to review policies regarding public land management. The work of this commission was followed in 1976 by the passage of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act. This act clarified the po- sition that the remainder ofpubliclands would not be widely transferred to private ownership but would be held in trustforalltoenjoy.Themanagementofthese lands was to be undertaken usingthe principles of sus- tained yield and multiple use, related concepts that were embodied in law with passage of the Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960. Impact on Resource Use Management practices on public lands must meet a wide range of land-use needs. Resource needs in such categories as mineral production, timber provi- sion, and grazing must be balanced with such needs as public recreation, archaeological preservation, American Indian land rights, and general conserva- tion practices. Land-use planning that uses input from citizen groups and is applied in the context of multiple-use sustained-yield principles has provided a framework for balancing this wide variety of needs and concerns. The complexity of managing such diverse land-use issues iscomplicated by the diversity of geography un- der Bureau of Land Management authority. Most of the land under its authority is in the western United States. However, concerns about mineral leasing on federal land eastof the Mississippi led tothe establish- ment of an eastern office in 1954. Thus the bureauop- erates in areas ranging from highlypopulated eastern areas to thevirtually empty wilderness areas ofAlaska. In order to oversee such a diverse landscape, the bureau has a variety of management programs. Some of these programs are land disposition and use, range management, resource conservation and develop- ment, forest management, outdoor recreation, and wilderness resources. Jerry E. Green Web Site U.S. Bureau of Land Management http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en.html See also: Bureau of Mines, U.S.; Department of the Interior, U.S.; Land management; Land-use planning; Multiple-use approach; National parks and nature re- serves; Public lands; Rangeland; Wilderness. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1910; abolished February, 1996 The U.S. Bureau of Mines focused on mine safety, mining efficiency, and minerals and materials re- search. Background In December, 1907, explosions killedmore than eight hundred coal miners in West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Alabama. Before these events, between 1890 and 1906, many thousands of coal miners had been killed in the United States. The tremendous loss of life was caused by unsafe working conditions and a lack of in- spection by any governmental authority. States re- fused to interfere in mining operations run by large corporations. Finally, as a result of a huge outpouring of public concern following the disastrous events of 1907, the U.S. Congress gave the technological branch of the U.S. Geological Survey authority to investigate the causes of mine explosions. In 1910, this branch became the BureauofMinesintheDepartmentofthe Interior. Its responsibilities included mine safety, im- provement ofworking conditions, and training in the proper use of electricity and explosives. Because of opposition from mine owners,however, the bureau wasunable to studyconditions outside the coal industry, and metal mines in Western states re- mained extremely dangerous. Congress responded to industry pressure by reducing the bureau’s budget and restricting its authority to conduct inspections. Impact on Resource Use In 1913, Congress extended the agency’s powers but insisted that itspendasmucheffort on reducing waste and inefficiency in mining as it did on worker safety. Mine-safety inspections did not become a responsibil- ity of the bureau until 1941. Inspectors could search mines looking for health and safety violations but could dolittlemorethan publish inspection reports. In 1952, President Harry S. Truman signed a bill Global Resources Bureau of Mines, U.S. • 153 creating the Federal Mine Safety Board of Review. This agency could send inspectors into mines once a year unless the mine owners had submitted an ap- proved safety program. If unsafe practices were dis- covered or unsafe areas of mines were being worked, the board could order an immediate shutdown of the unsafe area. Fines and other penalties could also be assessed, subject to review by a federal judge. The next major change in mine safety enforcement came after a huge explosion killed seventy-eight miners near Farmington, West Virginia, in November of 1968. Af- ter this disaster even the coal industry pushed for tougher regulations, inspections, and enforcement. The Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 gave the federal government more power than it had ever had regarding mine safety. It covered almost ev- ery coal mine in the United States and authorized more rigorous and frequent inspections, along with heavy fines and penalties for violators. Coal mines were required to reduce the amountof dust in the air; to prohibit smoking; and to take action to reduce black lung disease, or pneumoconiosis, a deadly dis- ease contracted by many miners. Enforcement of these provisions went to the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, however, not the Bureau of Mines. The bureau saw a constant reduction of its respon- sibilities in the area of safety in the 1970’s and 1980’s. Instead, it became the primary agency for mineral re- search. This had become the primary job of the agency by the 1990’s, with major emphasis placed on the availability of basic resources and restoration of abandoned mines and mining properties. Bureau of Mines scientists worked with industry in developing 154 • Bureau of Mines, U.S. Global Resources Nurses tend to injured miners during a rescue drill in this 1917 U.S. Bureau of Mines photograph. (Library of Congress) mining technology that could leave the surface of the land virtually untouched. They also did valuable work in the areas of materials research, conservation, and extraction and separation, with the long-term goal of addressing U.S. materials supply in the twenty-first century. The bureau was a leader in developing recy- cling technology. The Bureau of Mines also regularly published a number of informative works on mining and minerals, including annual reports such as the Minerals Yearbook. In the fall of 1995, a conference committee in the U.S. Congress recommended abolishing the Bureau of Mines and transferring some of its functions to other agencies; the bureau was closed in 1996. Its health and safety research and materialsresearch pro- grams were transferred to the Department of Energy, the land and mineral resources program went to the Bureau of Land Management, andtheminerals infor- mation section went to the U.S. Geological Survey, which continued the Bureau of Mines’ publishing ac- tivities. Leslie V. Tischauser Web Sites National Archives Records of the U.S. Bureau of Mines http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed- records/groups/070.html U.S. Geological Survey Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook (1932-1993) http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/ usbmmyb.html See also: Bureau ofLandManagement, U.S.; Depart- ment of Energy, U.S.; Mining safety and health issues; Mining wastes and mine reclamation; Recycling; U.S. Geological Survey. Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established as the Reclamation Service in 1902; renamed 1923 The Bureau of Reclamation is the federal agency that has been chiefly responsible for the development of fed - eral irrigation water projects in the American West. Background The Bureau of Reclamation is an agency within the U.S. Department ofthe Interior whosechief mandate is to develop and manage irrigation water supplies in the western United States. Toward this end, the bureau surveys potential project sites; acquires water rights; constructs dams, reservoirs, and diversion fa- cilities; and in many cases subsequently manages recla- mation projects. Together with its predecessor agency, the Reclamation Service, the bureau has constructed hundreds of reclamation projects and provides water to a vast number of Western farms. Some of the largest and most famous dam projects in the West, including Hoover Dam, Glen Canyon Dam, and Grand Coulee Dam, are projects of the Bureau of Reclamation. Under reclamation law, farmers receiving bureau water enter into a long-term (typically forty-year, but sometimes much longer) contract with the bureau that fixes the terms under which repayment is to oc- cur. These terms include the maximum quantity of water that farmers are entitled to receive in a given year and the price that they are required to pay over the term of the contract. Farmers lucky enough to contract with the bureau are exempted from paying interest on the cost of construction of the project. In multiple-purpose projects, the bureau has on occa- sion reduced the payment burden to farmers still fur- ther by levying heavier fees on other user groups, such as urban recipients and hydropower. The overall sub- sidy to farmers is believed to be considerable, in some cases exceeding 90 percent of the actual cost of water development. Impact on Resource Use The policies of the Bureau of Reclamation have been highly controversial. Supporters of federal reclama- tion argue that the bureau has provided considerable income to western farmers and has greatly expanded agricultural production. Opponents point out that many reclamation projects have not been economi- cally justified and question whether western farmers should receive the massive subsidies given them un- der reclamation law. Furthermore, it is likely that a considerable fraction of these subsidies has gone to large farming operations, a situation that goes di- rectly against the intent of the original federal recla- mation program, which targeted small farmers. The Reclamation Reform Act, passedby Congress in 1982, went some way toward reducing the magnitude of the average subsidy while expanding the size of the farm Global Resources Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. • 155 eligible to receive bureau water. The latter provision had the effect of making actual bureau policy more consistent with reclamation law. Since the 1980’s, bureau policies have increasingly deemphasized water development in favor of a stron- ger focus onwater management,mainly through water conservation and reallocation. This changed empha- sis reflects the fact that few economically feasible water projects remain to be undertaken in the West. Consequently, additional demands for water are un- likely to be met through expansion of supply but rather through improved management of existing supplies. Mark Kanazawa Web Site U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Reclamation: Managing Water in the West http://www.usbr.gov/ See also: Department of the Interior,U.S.;Irrigation; Reclamation Act; Water. 156 • Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Global Resources C Cadmium Category: Mineral and other nonliving resources Where Found Cadmium, a rare element,does notoccur in nature in its elemental form. Its ore deposits are of insufficient concentration to permit direct mining. Cadmium is found in sulfides of zinc, lead, and copper and is typi- cally obtained asa by-product of zinc. Mainproducers are China, South Korea, Canada, Kazakhstan, and Japan. Primary Uses Cadmium is used principallyinbatteries and in alloys. It is also used in coatings and plating, pigments, and stabilizers for plastics and similar synthetic products. Technical Definition Cadmium (abbreviated Cd), atomic number 48, be- longs to Group IIB of the periodic table of the ele- ments and resembles zinc in its chemical and physical properties. It has eight stable isotopes and an average molecular weight of 112.40. Pure cadmium is a lus- trous, silver-white, malleable metal. Its specific gravity is 8.65, itsmelting point is321° Celsius, and itsboiling point is 765° Celsius. Description, Distribution, and Forms Cadmium is arare element that ischemically and phys- ically similar to zinc. Its concentration in the litho- sphere is 0.1 to 0.2 gram per metric ton, making it the sixty-seventh most abundant element. The fewknown cadmium minerals include greenockite, hawleyite, cadmoselite, monteponite, otavite, and saukovite, none of which occurs in commercial deposits. Cad- mium is concentrated principally in sulfide deposits. It frequently substitutes for zinc in zinc minerals, where it occurs as an impurity or a surface coating; it is found to a much lesser extent with lead and copper. Cadmium is softer than zinc, is capable of taking a high polish, and alloys readily with other metals. Its characteristics make it particularly useful to the alloy, plating, and coating industries, some of its chief con - sumers. The United States produced approximately 750 metric tons of cadmium in 2008, and total world refinery production was about 21,000 metric tons. Cadmium is a toxic element; its toxicity has led to a search for alternative industrial materials and has heightened efforts to recycle cadmium-containing products. Cadmium-containing zinc deposits occur in many diverse geological settings. Commercially, strata- bound deposits are the most important source of cad- mium. Internationally, chief producers of cadmium are China, South Korea, Canada, Kazakhstan, and Mexico. The most common cadmium minerals are the sul- fides hawleyite and greenockite. Typically these occur only as impurities or surface incrustations in zinc ores. Zinc sulfide ores such as sphalerite and wurtzite are the main commercial source of cadmium. History Cadmium was isolated and identified in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer. One of the earliest uses of cad- mium sulfides was as a paint pigment. Commercial production of cadmium as a by-product of zinc smelt- ing began in the nineteenth century. Cadmium was first produced in the United States on a pilot-plant scale; during World War I, production increased rap- idly,anditcontinuedto rise in the following decades. Cadmium is toxic to almost all human body systems and plays no known part as a trace element in human metabolism. Cadmium elimination proceeds slowly enough that the element can accumulate in the body over time, with storage primarily in the kidneys and liver.Chronicexposure can leadtoirreversible kidney disease and fluid in the lungs as well as to osteomala- cia, an extremely painful softening of the bones. Cad- mium canalso induce hypertension and cancross the placenta to causefetal damage. Victims ofacute expo- sure may exhibit symptoms similar to those of food poisoning. Industrial pollution has introduced cadmium into surface water, groundwater, and the air. Zinc mine tailings can be a source of environmental cadmium in regions where transporting waters are acidic. In West - ern Europe, where landfilling is less common than in the United States, incineration of plastics is a poten- tial source of cadmium release to the atmosphere. In the late 1960’s, itai-itai (literally “ouch-ouch”) disease was diagnosed in several localities in Japan. The disease, characterized by osteomalacia, multiple bone fractures, and kidney dysfunction, was linked to elevated levels of cadmium in body tissues and bone. High concentrations of cadmium derived from mine tailings, metal smelters, and other industrial sources were found in soil and drinking water. In the United States, the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act set the maximum allowable concentration for cadmium in drinking water at 10 micrograms per li - ter. Regulatory criteria have also been established for aquatic environments: 5.0 micrograms per liter for salt water, and between 0.4 to 12.0 micrograms per li- ter for fresh water, depending on water’s hardness and the sensitivity of resident fish species. Environmental regulations based on cadmium’s toxicity have led to a search for alternative materials. Cadmium plating is still necessary where surface char- acteristics of the coating are critical, notably in air- craft parts. Recycling cadmium-containing products and recovering the element for reuse can diminish its release into the environment through landfilling or incineration. 158 • Cadmium Global Resources Data from the U.S. Geological Survey, . U.S. Government Printing Office, 2009.Source: Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2009 2,000 2,100 1,620 500 420 850 3,500 745 1,250 Metric Tons of Cadmium Content 5,0004,0003,0002,0001,000 United States Peru Netherlands Mexico Kazakhstan Japan Russia South Korea Other countries India Germany China Canada Australia 620 640 4,100 2,100 350 Cadmium: World Refinery Production, 2008 Obtaining Cadmium Cadmium is entirely a by-product metal. Itis obtained principally from the smelting and refining of sulfide ores of zinc, lead, and copper. Cadmium can be vola- tilized from the ores, recovered from the dust and fumes produced duringore roasting and sintering,or precipitated from electrolytic refining slimes. Uses of Cadmium Cadmium is a key component of alkaline nickel-cad- mium batteries, accounting for 83 percent of world consumption. Although its use in consumer electron- ics has been declining as a result of the more popular lithium ion technologies, nickel-cadmium batteries are seeing newindustrial applications, including elec- tric vehicles and photovoltaic (solar-energy) systems. Cadmium is also an important element in alloys. When alloyed with nickel or with silver and copper, it forms a high-pressure antifriction metal for automo- bile bearings. It hardens copper and makes silver re- sistant to tarnish. Cadmiumplating forms a thin, rust- less surface alloy, especially on iron and steel; it is electroplated onto vehicle and aircraft parts such as bolts, nuts, and locks to make them corrosion- resistant. It also provides an adhering bond between iron and other plating metals. Cad- mium compounds are used in chemicals, pho- tographic materials, television picture tubes, rubber, soaps, textile printing, and fireworks. Cadmium serves as a stabilizer for plastics and similar synthetic products. Cadmium sulfide forms a durable yellow pigment used in paints, glass, and enamels. Karen N. Kähler Further Reading Adriano, Domy C. “Cadmium.” In Trace Ele- ments in Terrestrial Environments: Biogeochem- istry, Bioavailability, and Risks of Metals. 2d ed. New York: Springer, 2001. Bhattacharyya, M. H., etal. “BiochemicalPath- ways in Cadmium Toxicity.” In Molecular Bi- ology and Toxicology of Metals, edited by Rudolfs K. Zalups and James Koropatnick. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2000. Dobson, S. Cadmium: Environmental Aspects. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organi- zation, 1992. Greenwood, N. N., and A. Earnshaw. “Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury.” In Chemistry of the Elements. 2d ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997. Khan, Nafees A., andSamiullah, eds.Cadmium Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants.Oxford, England: Alpha Sci- ence, 2006. Massey, A. G. “Group 12: Zinc, Cadmium, and Mer- cury.” In Main Group Chemistry. 2d ed. New York: Wiley, 2000. Nordberg, G. F., R. F. M. Herber, and L. Alessio, eds. Cadmium in the Human Environment: Toxicity and Carcinogenicity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Scoullos, Michael J., ed. Mercury, Cadmium, Lead: Handbook for Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy and Reg- ulation. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2001. Web Sites Natural Resources Canada Canadian Minerals Yearbook, Mineral and Metal Commodity Reviews http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/mms-smm/ busiindu/cmy-amc/com-eng.htm Global Resources Cadmium • 159 Batteries 83% Coatings & plating 7% Pigments 8% Other 2% Source: Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2009 Note: Data from the U.S. Geological Survey, . U.S. Government Printing Office, 2009. “Other” includes stabilizers for plastics, nonferrous alloys, and photovoltaic devices. Global End Uses of Cadmium . management decisions. One of these agencies is the Bureau of Land Man- agement, a part of the U.S. Department of the Inte- rior. According to bureau literature, the Bureau of Land Management’s responsibility. the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, however, not the Bureau of Mines. The bureau saw a constant reduction of its respon- sibilities in the area of safety in the 197 0’s and 198 0’s. Instead,. investigate the causes of mine explosions. In 191 0, this branch became the BureauofMinesintheDepartmentofthe Interior. Its responsibilities included mine safety, im- provement ofworking conditions,