The images of mother in english and vietnamese song lyrics a study based on systemic functional linguistics approach hình Ảnh người mẹ trong lời các bài hát tiếng anh và tiếng việt

The Images of Mother in English and Vietnamese Song Lyrics A Study Based on Systemic Functional Linguistics Approach Hình ảnh người mẹ trong lời các bài hát tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt.pdf

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Song lyrics are one of the prominent types of data that have been discussed in a lot of studies It is undeniable that song lyrics greatly contribute to enhancing language practice Anna (2016) has shown the role of music and songs in teaching vocabulary to students Karen (2009) has discussed “Teaching foreign languages through songs” in her workbook There are two types of text in song lyrics When a song is sung, it is in spoken form When a song is read, it is in written form Therefore, songs can be seen as special data to be analyzed Out of different themes in songs, mother-themed songs especially draw my attention Mother is an important person with an indispensable role in each person‟s life Although each mother shows her love for her children in a particular way, she always wholeheartedly loves her children Apart from enjoying the rhythm of mother-themed songs, listeners or readers can learn more than a story or a message through song lyrics Machin

(2010) stated that if we take song lyrics into account, we will discover hidden meaning in the song lyrics which were composed in different situations, “But when we look more carefully we find much deeper meanings that tie them to particular times, places and ideas” (p.3) In recent years, one of the most powerful tools that has been used to analyze texts in song lyrics is Systemic Functional Linguistics Halliday, whose interest in a language-based linguistics was inspired by his mentor Firth, developed Systemic Functional Linguistics (henceforth SFL) in the 1960s His first book An Introduction to Functional Grammar (1985) marked the formal systematic introduction to this grammar school Since then, the model has been constantly developed toward perfection in a large number of works by himself as well as well as linguists all over the world including Halliday (1973, 1978, 1992, and 1996), Eggins (1994), Matthiessen (1995), Halliday and Martin (1993), Halliday and Hasan (1985), Halliday and Matthiessen (1999), Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), Halliday and Matthiessen (2014), Hoang (2005, 2012)

The key point that distinguishes SFL from other models of language is that SFL sees language as a system of meanings while other models of language consider language as a set of rules In SFL, language is seen as a resource for making meanings It is the reason why the theoretical model of SFL focuses on how different structures construct meanings, authentic texts and their contexts As Martin (1997) mentioned, SFL provides us with tools for describing how language is used in various contexts in real life, and for understanding why a text is the way it is SFL does not separate language from society Language is realized through the text; this implies that texts do not have intrinsic meaning since meaning appears according to the way texts are used in social contexts The language chosen to express meaning affects the way in which that meaning is perceived

With reference to the applicability of SFL, Halliday emphasized that the educational application of SFL is probably the broadest range of its applicability It includes experience in initial literacy, children‟s writing, and classroom discourse analysis, and teaching of foreign language For such practical applications, SFL has also caught a great interest of a number of Vietnamese linguists and researchers such as Hoang (1997, 2005, 2012), Ngo (2007), Do (2007), and Nguyen (2013) They have applied SFL theories to shed light on a number of linguistic features of Vietnamese Until now, there has not been any research on mother song lyrics in the light of linguistic theory In Vietnam and in the world as well, a large number of researchers have used SFL as theoretical framework The materials in such studies are normally texts in the form of conversation, advertisement, speech, literary work, and poem or song lyrics For example, two researches named “A comparative study of ideational meaning between the song lyrics written by the most popular American song writers in 1990 and Indonesian song writers in 2000s – A study based on SFL” (Ratih

Wulan Sari, 2009), and “A Systemic Functional Linguistics analysis on the passionate love song lyrics” (Amalia Istiqomah, 2011) have made comparison between love songs in English In Vietnam, a number of researchers have conducted studies to compare discourse in English and Vietnamese such as the doctoral thesis

“Thematic structure in English and Vietnamese – a comparative study from the systemic functional perspective” (Do, 2007), “Logico-semantic relationship in English and Vietnamese clause complexes” (Nguyen, 2013), or “A contrast of modes expressing interpersonal meaning in English-Vietnamese patient information leaflets (applying the theory of Systemic Functional Linguistics)” (Nguyen, 2019)

However, none of these studies is concerned with comparing mother song lyrics in English and Vietnamese

The reasons above have motivated the researcher to carry out the research “The Images of Mother in English and Vietnamese Song Lyrics - A Study Based on Systemic Functional Linguistics Approach” The study adopts Halliday‟s theory of

SFL as theoretical framework to figure out the images of mother in English and Vietnamese song lyrics, which are constructed through experiential and interpersonal meanings.

Aim and objectives of the study

As aforementioned above, this research is intended to reveal the images of mother presented through two types of metafunctions realized in the lyrics of English and Vietnamese songs about mother To achieve a comprehensive view of the images of mother, English and Vietnamese song lyrics of mother in war time and peace time are explored Hence, the following objectives are set to achieve the primary aim of the study

1 Investigating experiential meaning (realized in Transitivity resources) found to depict the images of mother in English and Vietnamese war and peace mother song lyrics

2 Investigating interpersonal meaning (realized in Mood resources) found to depict the images of mother in English and Vietnamese war and peace mother song lyrics

3 Comparing two data sets to pinpoint the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese war and peace mother song lyrics in terms of experiential and interpersonal meanings.

Research questions

To fulfil the aim and objectives, two main questions raised for exploration:

1 What images of mother are constructed in English and Vietnamese mother song lyrics?

2 How are the images of mother in English and Vietnamese mother song lyrics constructed?

2.1 What transitivity resources are found in EMSL and VMSL, and how do they operate to realize the experiential meaning for depicting the mother images?

2.2 What mood resources are found in EMSL and VMSL, and how do they operate to realize the interpersonal meaning for depicting the mother images?

2.3 What are the similarities and differences between EMSL and VMSL in terms of experiential and interpersonal meanings?

Scope of the study

Given the aim and objectives, the study covers two aspects of meanings, namely, experiential and interpersonal in English and Vietnamese war and peace mother song lyrics Actually, experiential meaning is one of two components of ideational metafunction and the other component is logical meaning However, the study is limited to exploring the experiential meaning because logical meaning is concerned with the relationship of clauses in clause complexes while experiential meaning implicates participant roles and configurations within the clause simplex One question put forward is why experiential and interpersonal meanings not textual meaning investigated in the study Experiential and interpersonal meanings are two main strands of meanings of language while textual meaning is concerned the cohesion and coherence or the flow of discourse Hence, experiential and interpersonal meanings enable the researcher to explore the images of mother in the English and Vietnamese war and peace song lyrics Experiential and interpersonal meanings are realized through Transitivity and Mood resources Therefore, the analytical framework for the study is based on Halliday‟s Transitivity and Mood models As mentioned above, the research is confined to experiential meaning, not ideational meaning; therefore, the unit analysis of the research is clause simplex The justification for clause simplex as the unit analysis of the research is presented

5 in Chapter 2 The statistics compiled allow the researcher to make comparison of Transitivity and Mood in constructing meanings of lyrics between mother song lyrics in English and Vietnamese Simultaneously, the researcher also makes an attempt to suggest the possible reasons for the differences

Given the scope of the study, 50 mother songs in English and Vietnamese are selected The selection of English and Vietnamese song lyrics is based on theme For the purpose of this study, the songs about mother in war time are referred to as

“war mother song lyrics” and the songs about mother in peace time are referred to as “peace mother song lyrics” Out of 50 songs, 25 are English songs and the remaining are in Vietnamese ones For English songs, they are written in English of

“inner circle” regions in which English is used as the primary language (the USA, the UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand) (Kachru, 1985).

Significance of the study

There have been a number of researches conducted on the depiction of mother images in particular or woman images in general in song lyrics or in other genres However, none of them has explored the representation of mother images in the light of SFL, a modern linguistics model that has had wide applicability to different research fields including applied linguistics (discourse analysis, text generation, translation comparison, etc.) and foreign language education With the achieved results, the doctoral thesis is intended to contribute to the study of some aspects of meaning in mother song lyrics in English and Vietnamese through the mediation of a linguistic theory – SFL In other words, the images of mother are explored with linguistic evidence In that way, the study has enriched reference resources for students, teachers or people who are interested in using SFL to analyze and compare the meaning of texts For teachers who are teaching SFL at tertiary level, they can use materials in the study to design exercises For students majoring translation in particular and students taking interest in discourse analysis, the study shows them different colors of text genres The study is also a good guide to orient them which aspects of text should be considered in comparison

Moreover, there has been no research on the images of mother under SFL perspective; therefore, the study is intended to make a small contribution to using SFL framework to compare and reveal some aspects of the meaning of song lyrics - a text type in English and Vietnamese which seems not to have not received adequate attention from researcher.

Structure of the doctoral thesis

The study is organized as follows:

Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION - presents an overview of the research In this part, rationale, aims & scopes, research methods and structure of the doctoral thesis are provided

Chapter 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW – reviews the theoretical framework for the research In this chapter, a general view of Systemic Functional Linguistics is given, and key concepts directly related to the research such as Transitivity, Mood and Modality and how they are viewed in both English and Vietnamese are investigated Besides, the reasons why SFL was adopted as theoretical framework are discussed The analysis unit of clause and the images of mother in the research is also reasoned

Chapter 3 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY – is concerned with methods of the research The main contents discussed in this chapter include the introduction of the overall approach to the research, the research questions, the methods of data collection, the methods of data analysis, evaluation and justification of methodological choice

Chapter 4 – TRANSITIVITY AND MOOD RESOURCES FOUND IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE WAR MOTHER SONG LYRICS – provides the results of Transitivity resources (process types, participants in the dominant process type, circumstantial types) and Mood resources (mood types, modality types) in English and Vietnamese war mother song lyrics

Chapter 5 – TRANSITIVITY AND MOOD RESOURCES FOUND IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE PEACE MOTHER SONG LYRICS provides

7 the results concerning the use of Transitivity resources (process types, participants in the dominant process type, circumstantial types) and Mood resources (mood types, modality types) in English and Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

Chapter 6 – SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN TRANSITIVITY AND MOOD RESOURCES FOUND IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE WAR AND PEACE MOTHER SONG LYRICS establishes the similarities and differences of Transitivity and Mood resources in English and Vietnamese song lyrics

Chapter 7 – DISCUSSION ON THE IMAGES OF MOTHER IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE SONG LYRICS – revolves around the question posed in the research In other words, in this part, the images of mother in English and Vietnamese war and peace mother song lyrics are revealed

Chapter 8 – CONCLUSION - recapitulates the main points presented in the previous chapters, provides pedagogical implications, and makes some suggestions for further study

LITERATURE REVIEW

An overview of systemic functional linguistics

The theoretical framework employed in the research is SFL SFL is a model of language in context This linguistic model has earned a considerable interest by the world researchers since its introduction in the 1960s (Martin, 1985; Halliday & Hasan, 1989; Eggins, 1994, Matthiessen, 1995; Halliday & Matthiessen, 1997; Hoang, 1997, 2012) SFL is also deemed applicable in a number of fields such as healthcare, computational linguistics, translation, studies, multimodal studies, and education (Matthiessen, 2010) In this part, the theory of Systemic Functional Linguistics that has been evolved by these researchers will not be reviewed The researcher will try to be selective, relating the aspects of SFL to the main concerns of the research To fulfil it, the researcher will begin by examining different levels of context and the relationship of context and language Then the researcher will end with a brief discuss of metafunctions and two strands of meaning and their lexicogrammatical realizations

2.1.2 Levels of context and language in relation to context

When it comes to the concepts of context, two types of contexts in SFL are introduced: context of culture and context of situation, respectively (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004) The conception of context of situation and context of culture was first coined by Malinowski in 1923 and then has been developed towards perfection by Firth (1950), Dell Hymes (1967), Halliday and Hasan (1985),

Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) and Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) The important role of two types of contexts was emphasized at the early days they were created Malinowski (1923) stated that both types of contexts are needed for people to gain sufficient understanding of the text He also supposed that based on the context of situation, people can guess the meaning of the text and vice versa (Halliday & Hasan, 1985) Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) emphasized that three elements of context of situation which are field, tenor and mode determine different use of language This thesis deals with two strands of meaning in song lyrics (a genre of text); hence, it is necessary to discuss levels of context and its relation to language in this thesis

Regarding two types of contexts, although Malinowski (1923) did not precisely formulate the nature of two types of contexts, he pioneered in identifying the critical roles of contexts in language Inspired by his work, other linguists continued to develop the notion of context It can be said that among of linguists, Halliday made major contributions to clarifying the notion of two types of contexts and their relation to language When examining the aspects composed of the context of culture, he suggested that the context of culture includes various semiotic systems but all members in the same community can interpret it This type of context is the context for meaning potential (language as a system) (Halliday, 1999)

While the context of culture is an abstract notion, the context of situation can be specifically investigated through three sub-concepts of: field, tenor and mode (Hasan, 1973; Halliday, 1978; Martin, 1992; Eggins, 1994; Halliday & Mathiessen,

2014) Three elements above are also the framework set up to describe the situation of a text (Halliday & Hasan, 1985)

- Field is equated with the question “What‟s going on in the situation?” or describes the external reality

- Tenor answers the question “Who is taking part in the conversation?” or establishes the relationships between those taking part in the conversation

- Mode deals with the question “What role is being played by language?”, in other words; mode shows the means that the communication happens

Actually, the relationship between the context of culture (genre), the context of situation (register) and language has been illustrated in a lot of works by different systemic linguists In his form of model, Halliday showed the process of realization specifically

Figure 2.1 The relation between language and social context

Two types of relationship illustrated in the figure include instantiation and realization As can be observed from the figure, text that is the instance of language instantiates languages as system; in other words, system is instantiated in text At the same time, context of situation (the context of the instance of language) that refers to the instances of context of culture instantiates context of culture To put it differently, context of culture is instantiated in context of situation Hence, the relationship between context of culture and context of situation and that between language as system and language as text is instantiation As aforementioned, the context of situation determines the meaning of text and enables listeners/readers to have a better understanding of the text Therefore, it can be said that the context of situation lies behind each text or the context of situation is realized through text The context of situation is the instance of the context of culture; text is the instance of the language Hence, the context of culture lies behind language as system or the context of culture is realized through system The relationship between context of culture and language as system and that between context of situation and language as a text is realization

To have a better comprehension about the relationship between pairs: situation – culture and text – system, the readers can refer to the analogy pair “the weather – the climate” that Halliday and Mathiessen (2014) took as an illustrative example The weather can be understood as external conditions including the temperature, wind, rain Hence, the climate is based on a long-term pattern of the weather or a temporary change in the climate can be called the weather Hence, the climate is a deep insight into the weather for a long time; hence, it is instantiated by the weather Similarly, the relation between situation – culture and text – system can be inferred

It can be concluded that the study of song lyrics must be associated with the context because language operates in context and cannot be separated from context

The discussion of language levels in this part is indispensable because levels of language do not operate separately The “stratification” or level is one of main concerns in linguistics during the 1960s, which deals with organizing language into levels The notion of levels was illuminated by Firth (1957) but it has just been formulated in hierarchy since Halliday‟s theory in 1961 In their book (2014), Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) illustrated a model to explain different levels of language as well as the relationship between levels

Language is a systemic resource that is organized in three different levels or strata Each level is related to each other by means of realization

- Semantics is the resource for meaning It is realised through lexicogrammar and relates upwards to context

- Lexicogrammar is the resource for wording meaning It is realized through phonology and relates upwards to semantics

- Phonology is the resource for sound wording and relates upwards to lexicogrammar

The relation between different strata of languages described above indicates that lexicogrammar is the realization of semantics In this research, the images of mother are depicted through experiential and interpersonal meanings (semantics) which are realized in Transitivity and Mood resources (lexicogrammar) Therefore, to explore the experiential and interpersonal meanings, the researcher must investigate lexicogrammars of Transitivity and Mood resources

2.1.4 Clause simplex as unit of analysis

There are several reasons why clause simplex (the clause) is chosen as the unit of analysis in the research Firstly, the clause is seen as the highest unit in terms of grammatical rank To put it differently, it carries all three language metafunctions of language (construing the world, enacting social roles, and presenting information) or three lines of meaning including experiential meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning Next, the clause supplies an obvious indication of the distinct line of structures associated with different metafunctions The experiential meaning or the outer experience of human being is represented by TRANSITIVITY system: processes, participants and circumstances Through MOOD system (Mood and Modality), the clause is structured as an interactive event that is called interpersonal meaning In relation to textual meaning, THEME and RHEME are taken into account Thirdly, text is seen as a metafunction construct (Halliday & Hasan, 1985) while the clause can manifest all three metafunctions of language Therefore, the clause is considered as an effective tool for text analysis and there is no need for a higher grammatical unit for the analysis To avoid the misunderstanding while

13 dividing clauses in a clause complex, one should bear in mind that the clause complex is logical combination of clauses Two main kinds of relationship between clauses in the clause complex is paratactic or hypotactic, in which there is a core clause combining with coordinate clauses or subordinate clauses

The very first question that can be put forward is that why it is “metafunctions” but not “function” only The word “function” in traditional perspective can be understood as a synonym of the word “use” It implies different ways people use language People use language for different purposes that have been grouped by numerous linguists The different classification of functions of languages is exemplified below (Halliday & Hasan, 1985)

- Buhler (1934): expressive, conative, and representational

- Briton (1970): transactional, expressive and poetic

- Morris (1967): information talking, explanatory talking, groom talking, and mood talking

Halliday and Hasan (1985) also illustrated several linguistic classifications by some linguists in the following figure

Figure 2.3 Functional theories of languages

Because the classifications above also equal the use of language and they are not linguistic terms; therefore, the term “metafunction” is employed as a way of suggesting that function is of essence through overall theory The figure below illustrates metafunction as an integral part (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014)

Figure 2.4 demonstrates the integrity of metafunction in the overall theory Three main functions are suggested: ideational, interpersonal and textual Firstly, language construes our outer and inner experience and we call it the ideational metafunction The ideational metafunction involves two other components: that of experiential meaning in the clause, and that of logical meaning between clauses in clause complexes Secondly, while construing, language also establishes our personal and social relationships with other people around us This function of language is called interpersonal metafunction Whether the construing and establishing is successful or not depends on how the discursive flow is cohesive and continuous It means that the speaker or the writer has to decide sequences of discourse We call it textual metafunction (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014)

2.1.6 Rationale for adopting SFL as the theoretical framework

There have been a lot of models of language functions applied to text analysis; however, SFL has been chosen as the theoretical framework for the study for some

16 reasons Firstly, SFL is a comprehensive model and the vast applicability of SFL to different disciplines has been discussed by a lot of people For example, Cordeiro

The notion of transitivity system in English and Vietnamese

In this part, the researcher investigates elements in Transitivity system in English and Vietnamese The investigation of Transitivity system reasons how this system contributes to constructing the images of mother in English and Vietnamese peace and war mother song lyrics

The images of mother are revealed through experiential meaning; hence; in the part, the experiential meaning not the logical meaning will be presented The experiential meaning is realized through Transitivity system The Transitivity of a clause is its process type Each process type constitutes a distinct model or schema for construing a particular domain of experience The primary options in process type include material, mental, and relational In addition, three subtypes of process are the borderlines of primary types: behavioural, verbal and existential In this part, the process types in English and Vietnamese are briefly introduced with three main points: general structure, typical features of each type and illustrative examples extracted from song lyrics in both languages In addition, some noticeable differences between process types in English and Vietnamese are also mentioned Regarding the process types in English, they can be illustrated in the following figure

Figure 2.5 The grammar of experience: types of process in English

When analyzing language for its experiential functions, it is possible to break down a clause into three functional elements of Participant, Process and Circumstance Halliday (1985, 1994 and elsewhere) and Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) state that:

- The participants involved in the process

- Circumstance associated with the process

Participants and process are inherent elements while circumstantial element is optional According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2014), such elements mentioned above are realized by groups or phrases as illustrated in Table 2.1

Table 2.1.Typical experiential function of group and phrases classes

As can be seen from Figure 2.5, Material process is the process of “doing and happening” which has the general structure: Actor + Process + other Participants

A noun, a nominal group or even a non-finite clause can serve as an Actor while the process is realized by a verbal group with the direction to Actor (the “happening” process, intransitive material clause) or to another participant (the “doing” process, transitive material clause) Let us see the examples extracted from song lyrics below

Actor Process: material Circumstance of location

She fixes all the broken things

Pronoun Transitive verb Nominal group

(Song “Mother”, Jennifer Netters & Kristian Bush)

It is clear in the example that the process of “doing” can be answered by the question “What does she do?” and “What does she do to all the broken things?”

The Actor “She” is a pronoun Additionally, material process is also the process of

“happening” The example “She fixes all the broken things” can be rewritten “All the broken things are fixed by her”; therefore, the question can be changed into

“What happened to all the broken things?”

All the broken things are fixed by her

Goal Process: material Actor Therefore, in terms of voice, like all other process types in transitivity system, a material process can be manifested in either middle voice (She stands here) or in the

20 effective voice (She fixes all the broken things) It can also be present in the active voice (She fixes all the broken things) or the passive voice (All the broken things are fixed by her)

Beside two basic participants (Actor and Goal), there are other participants in the material clause, namely: Scope, Recipient & Client Scope can be an entity (the domain of the process taking place) or the process itself with a different name (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) Recipient and Client share the common point in that both benefit from the performance of the process The following examples will clarify these points above

When I get home to dad and you

Actor Process: material Scope Circumstance of location (Song “Christmas in Vietnam”, Eleanor Wells)

You give me the strength that I need

Actor Process: material Recipient Goal

(Song “Mother”, Dona Lewis) Mental process is the second primary choice It is the process of sensing The general structure of mental process is Senser + Process + Phenomenon Based on Table 2.2 of the difference between “material” and “mental” clause, the characteristics of mental process can be inferred

Table 2.2 Properties differentiating “material” and “mental” clauses

Different from Actor in Material process, Senser that is realized by a nominal group should be human or any entity endowed with “consciousness” While Goal in Material process is a thing, Phenomenon in the Mental process can be either a thing, an act or a fact Four main sub-types of Mental process include “perceptive” (perceive, see, notice, hear, feel, taste ), “cognitive” (think, believe, suppose, expect ), “desiderative” (want, wish, would like ) or “emotive” (like, fancy, love ) These mental verbs can fall in two types: “like” type or “please” type that is shown in Table 2.3

Here is an example of mental process of “like” type from data

Because you believed in me

(Song “A mother’s love”, Jim Brickman)

The last primary choice is Relational process, the process of being, having and being at Three different cases of relational process combining with its two modes create the following subtypes as shown in Table 2.4

Table 2.4 The principal types of relational process

Type Mode (i) Attributive (ii) Identifying intensive Sarah is wise Tome is the leader; the leader is

Tom circumstantial The fair is on a

Tomorrow is the 10 th The 10 th is tomorrow possessive Peter has a piano The piano is Peter‟s

Discussing relational process, we especially notice four criteria proposed by Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) to distinguish between two modes: attributive and identifying

(i) The nominal group that functions as an Attribute is a class of thing and indefinite

(ii) The lexical verbs belong to the ascriptive class

(iii) The questions that are put forward for clauses begin with What? How?

(iv) The clauses are not reversible

Four criteria are an effective tool for the researcher during the analysis process of clauses

The former part has given an overview of three primary process types As mentioned above, three subtypes emerging due to the unclear cut among three main types are behavioural, verbal and existential The borderline between material and mental processes is the behavioral process, the one that represents outer manifestation of inner workings, the acting out of the process of consciousness and physiological states The general structure of behavioural process is: Behaver + Process + Range/Phenomenon

I am crying for my child

Behaver (Beh) Process: behavioral (Pro: beh) Circumstance (Circ)

(Song “You will be there”, the Southern Bells)

Between the process of mental and relational is the verbal process It is the process

23 of saying The general structure is Sayer + Process + other participants The participants of the process are Sayer (participant who speak), Receiver (the one to whom the verbalization is addressed), Verbiage (the content or a name of the verbalization itself), and Target (the entity that is targeted by the process of saying) Verbal process is classified into two main types including activity and semiosis (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014)

Table 2.5 Examples of verbs serving as Process in verbal clauses

Here is an example extracted from song lyrics

Someday you ‟ll say that word

(Song “Goodbye’s saddest words”, Jobert John Matt Lange)

Between the relational process and the material process is existential process, by which a certain phenomenon is recognized/ seen to “be”- to exist, or to happen In this type of process, there is generally a participant, the Existent and one or two optional circumstantial elements with the general structure There + to be + Existent “There” has no representational functional but this word functions as the indicator of existence The participant Existent can be an entity (person, object ) or even an event

Let us see an example extracted from an English peace mother song

There is no other love like a mother's love for her child

Process: existential Existent Circumstance of manner

(comparison) (Song “Goodbye’s saddest words”, Jobert John Matt Lange)

The notion of mood system in English and Vietnamese

In addition to Transitivity system, Mood system also contributes to building the images of mother This part supplies details of Mood system and how this system takes part in constructing the images of mother in English and Vietnamese peace and war mother songs

In addition to construing human experience, language also helps to establish our social relationship with other people around us, which is called interpersonal meaning (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) When taking part in a conversation, participants actually assign themselves a speech role Two most fundamental speech roles are “giving (inviting to receive)” and “demanding (inviting to give)”

(Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) The commodity in “giving” and “demanding” process is either “goods & services” or “information” These speech roles combining with types of commodity create four primary speech functions named

“offer”, “statement”, “command” and “question” as illustrated in Figure 2.8

Figure 2.8 Giving or demanding, goods & services or information

When we exchange information, the clause will take the form of a proposition A proposition is something that can be argued When we exchange goods and services, the clause will take the form of a proposal While we argue something IS or IS NOT in the proposition, we argue something HAPPEN or DOESN‟T HAPPEN in a proposal (Eggins, 1994) The grammatical system that realizes these speech functions above is MOOD system The grammatical category used to exchange information is indicative There are two subtypes in indicative: (i) the expression of statement is declarative; (ii) the expression of question is interrogative Another primary mood type contrasting with declarative is imperative (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) Figure 2.9 shows MOOD system in English

Figure 2.9 Mood system in English

Following are some examples of different types in MOOD system

Did they forget Pearl Harbor and Korea too?

What are you fighting for? Interrogative: Wh-

(Song “What are you fighting for?”, Phil Ochs & Song “A mother’s salute to

In addition to two main choices of Mood – Indicative and Imperative, Halliday and

Matthiessen (2014) supplements a sub-type of declarative: exclamative clause

Normally, the exclamative clauses in English begin with Wh-element (What or

How) in a nominal or adverbial group Let us see an example below

There are two main elements in MOOD system: The Mood element and the

Residue The Mood is the component whose function in the clause is to carry the syntactic burden of the exchange and to carry argument forward Two parts in the

Mood are the Subject and the Finite operator

- The Subject is the nominal component of the Mood; it is the thing by reference to which a proposition can be affirmed In traditional grammar, Subject plays grammatical role only with no semantic significance However, in SFL, the Subject is that element in which the particular kind of validity is being invested (Halliday &

- The Finite is the verbal element in the Mood, which has the function of making the proposition down to the earth so that something can be argued about Two ways to

32 make a proposition finite are reference of specific time of speaking and reference of the speaker‟s judgment The reference of specific time of speaking is called primary tense and the reference of the speaker‟s judgement is called modality

Primary tense can be past, present or future while modality can be the assessment (likely/unlikely; desirable/undesirable) Modality will be discussed more specifically below

As mentioned above, beside the Mood element, the remainder of the clause is called the Residue It consists of three functional components: The Predicator, the Complement and the Adjunct (Hoang, 2006: 55) Below is an example Mood structure

(Song “What are you fighting for?”, Phil Ochs)

It is obvious that at any time when a speaker interacts with another, it means that he or she wants to exchange information or influence his or her attitude/behavior on a listener In other word, a speech is constructed from every language to exchange some meaning When speech roles interact with types of commodities, we have four general speech roles: giving goods and services = offer, giving information statement, demanding goods and services = command, and demanding = questions (Hoang, 2006: 54) Hence, languages in the world share similarities in terms of MOOD options and Vietnamese is not the exception Thai (2004) and Diep (2013) agreed that there are three main types of Mood in a Vietnamese clause: (i) Declarative, (ii) Imperative, and (iii) Polar/Nonpolar interrogative Thai (2004) presented basic Mood options in the following figure

Figure 2.11 Basic Mood options in Vietnamese

Followings are some examples of Mood expression in Vietnamese

Mẹ yêu thương con hơn yêu cuộc sống Declarative

Mother loves love me than her life Declarative

Mẹ có biết con yêu mẹ nhiều? Interrogative polar (Yes/No)

Do you know that I love you so much? Interrogative polar (Yes/No)

Mẹ đừng mãi ra đi Imperative

Mother, don‟t go away forever Imperative

(Song “Mẹ yêu (Dear mother)”, Phương Uyên)

Additionally, Diep (2013) also added exclamative clause to the Mood types in Vietnamese interpersonal clause

However, for the languages that have finite elements such as English, Mood has a particular structure including Subject and Finite Vietnamese language does not have finite element; hence, verbs do not change their forms with different tenses Therefore, other elements need to be takin into consideration for identifying Mood types According to Thai (2004), particles are crucial to classifying Mood types He has listed common particles in Mood types as in Table 2.7, Table 2.8 and Table 2.9

In this research, such particles to distinguish Mood types in Vietnamese are also

Sao mà Cái đời nó tù túng… thế!

Phần dưBiểu thức thức

34 considered Table 2.7, Table 2.8 and Table 2.9 illustrate common particles in polar and non-polar interrogative as well as the normal positions of interrogative particles in Vietnamese interrogative clauses

The next table presents particles identifying Vietnamese imperative clauses and the position of imperative particle in the clauses

It can be seen that Table 2.7, Table 2.8 and Table 2.9 above show in details common particles in the interrogative and the imperative In addition to the particles of two mood types above, Diep Quang Ban (2013: 30) also included exclamation particles Specifically, exclamation expressions consist of words or phrases such as ô, ôi, úi, chà, trời đất ơi

Figure 2.13 Examples of Mood types in Vietnamese clauses

Until now, the primary choices of mood in English and Vietnamese have been investigated The exploration of mood types in peace and war mother song lyrics

37 reveals the relationship between main characters in each song and the way they communicate together Specifically, in mother song lyrics, it is the relationship between mothers and their children For example, in a song, if the dominant type is declarative, it means that the writer or the main characters in the song would like to narrate a story, inform listeners/readers or declare something In a different case, if there is presence of interrogative type, there is the interactivity between the characters in the song

As illustrated in Figure 2.9, Mood is involved with polarity (Yes or No) However, there are not only two poles but other “intermediate possibilities” between them which is called Modality or the assessment/the judgement of the speaker In a mother song, the presence of Modality shows the judgment or the attitude of the main characters (the mother or the child) Along with process types in Transitivity system, this partially shows inner thoughts or feeling of the mother or the child

 In a proposition, two main kinds of “intermediate possibilities” are “degree of possibilities” (possibly/probably/certainly) and “degree of usuality”

(sometimes/usually/always) Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) distinguished them from other types Modality by naming them Modalization This can be expressed by a finite modal operator, by a modal adjunct or by both

 In a proposal, based on the speech function of “demanding” or “offering”,

Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) divided into “degree of obligation” (allowed to/supposed to/required to) and “degree of inclination” (willing to/anxious to/determined to) This second choice in Modality is called Modulation This can be expressed by a finite operator or by an expansion of the Predicator through verbal group complexing

- By a passive verb: You‟re supposed to do that

- By an adjective: I‟m anxious to help them

Figure 2.14 Modality (Adapted from Halliday and Matthiessen, 2014: 182)

Hence, finite modal operators and mood adjuncts of modality are two main elements that constitute modality in MOOD system Halliday classified finite modal operators into three degree: low, median and high that can be illustrated in Table 2.10 below

He also arranged adverbs serving as mood adjuncts of modality into median, high and low degree

Table 2.11 Adverbs serving as mood Adjuncts of modality

The images of mother

Before the discussion on the images of mother is made, a number of definitions or concepts of images will be introduced According to Mostert (2005), visual images

41 are literally seen as ways of communication through eyes and he emphasized that

“They may be symbols, and they may also serve the identification of the image with its model or prototype” (Mostert, 2005:3).” In the sense of this concept, he proposed that writing is also a form of visual system that represents speech Therefore, writing shares some aspects of the image and through the reading of written texts, one person can find implicit meaning in them

From another perspective, Kress and van Leeuwen (1996) saw the link between images and speech acts described by Halliday (1985): “…images can be seen by viewers as referencing actual acts of interaction in talk.” (As cited in Machin, 2010)

The mother image has become the focus of numerous works in different fields such as literature, art or music In reviewing the literature, the researcher finds out that the images of mother are mostly generalized through literary works in both English and Vietnamese The typical images of mother in literary works in both English and Vietnamese are presented in the following part

The most related research by Nguyen (2012) named “Transitivity Analysis of

“Heroic mother” by Hoa Pham” adopts Halliday‟s theory of transitivity system to explore the role of linguistic choices in transitivity in constructing the personality of the main character, the “heroic mother” The transitivity analysis gives readers easier access to the meaning of the story as well as helps the readers gain a better understanding of the image of mother in the story As other heroic mothers, the mother in the story made “silent contribution” and fought for the liberty of their country However, during the peace time, mothers‟ sacrifice in wartime seems to fade into oblivion and is not highly appreciated by the younger generation Transitivity model is deployed as an effective tool to represent the image of mother in the story Nevertheless, Nguyen (2012) explored only one aspect of meanings in text; therefore, to some extent, the representation of mother in the story is not well- rounded enough

Another thesis is thesis “Vietnamese women‟s representation in TV commercials related to Lunar New Year: a critical discourse analysis” (2016) by Nguyen Hong

Lien Theoretical framework adopted in the research is Critical Discourse Analysis and Analytical frameworks for the research include Fairclough‟s, Halliday‟s and Kress & van Leeuwen Halliday‟s model in terms of Transitivity, Mood and Theme was adopted to give verbal examination of women in these advertisements Through the exploration of a number of commercials, the thesis reaches the conclusion that Vietnamese mothers have been illustrated in six roles: a family cook, a teacher and a caretaker of the children, a caretaker of family members, and a household chores performer, a loving portrayal of parenthood to the children and a subordinate partner of their men Despite different names in roles, the images of woman are still attached to their family Due to acting as a part of analytical frameworks in the study, the analysis of verbal data from the perspective of Halliday‟s model is not fully detailed

In English, two books that should be mentioned are “Images of Mothers in Literature for Young Adults” (Maxwell, 1994) and “Representing motherhood: images of mothers in contemporary young adult literature” (Nadine Ropke, 2006)

In the first book, Maxwell gave a detailed examination on the characteristics of mother in contemporary times as well as established similarities and differences of the images of mother in real life and in fictions by examining 33 selected books The characteristics of mother are described in various roles In the second book, Ropke attempted to examine how the images of mothers are portrayed in young adult literature In the past, the dominant representation of mother was restricted to

“domestic labor” and “child caring” nowadays, they free themselves from home restrictions and more independent Another work is the thesis by Taslima Tanjim

(2016) “Portrayal of motherhood by female authors in American literature in the light of The Awakening, Herland and The Narrow House.” The research examines women in three works, who are stepping into motherhood period The research adopted Adrienne Rich and Sara Ruddick‟s theories related to motherhood as the theoretical framework The findings of the research suggest that some of mothers are well-prepared and self-conscious of hardship of the new period; some of them

43 are not No matter how they are, motherhood means dedication and is full of sacrifice In Vietnamese, in-depth research works with a large scale on the images of mother have not been conducted so far except some researches concerning the image of women in general The first research that is under review is the doctoral thesis “Hình tượng người phụ nữ mới trong một số tác phẩm tiêu biểu của tự lực văn đoàn và văn học Hàn Quốc thời Nhật thuộc” (2020) by Bang Jeong Yun This doctoral thesis aims at comparing and contrasting the images of woman in Vietnamese and Korean literature at the early 20 th century Especially, the research emphasizes the image of new woman who is making great attempts to liberate themselves from old ideology in both countries Vietnam and Korea It should be noted that although the books above made comparison of the images of mother and generalized a number certain images of mother, none of them were carried out in the lens of SFL

To sum up, the research on the images of mother under the light of SFL are limited This makes the study become distinctive and it is likely to contribute towards better understanding of SFL model in text analysis.

The lyrics in songs

Before discussing the lyrics in songs, we would like to briefly introduce some typical definitions of songs According to Peake (1980), song is a piece of music for accompanied or unaccompanied voice/voices Hornby (1990) indicated that a song is a piece of music with words that is sung Words or accompanied voices mentioned in the definitions above, actually, are lyrics Griffee (1996) also defined the song lyrics as pieces of music that have words

One question put forward is whether song lyrics are a genre of text or not Halliday and Hasan conceptualized text as “any passage, spoken or written, whatever length, that does form a unified whole” (as cited in Hoang, 2018, p.3) If a song is sung, it is under spoken form If it is read, it is under written form Each song is considered as a story that the writer wants to tell to the audience or a message that the researcher wants to deliver to the audience Therefore, it can be concluded that song lyrics are a genre of text

Along with melody and chords, lyrics are one of three important elements of a song There have a large number of researches on the role of song lyrics in language teaching, which have been mentioned in the preceding sections An investigation into different researches shows that most of researchers agree on the role of song lyrics in delivering the communication of a song to the audience Happy or sad lyrics, to some extent, positively or negatively affect the well-being of the listeners/readers Despite being subject to pressure when going with music, the words in songs or lyrics still have their internal discipline in communicating with the masses (Booth, 2009) It means that the words in songs must carry certain meanings to convey messages to the audience It is not exaggerated to say that lyrics in songs can determine the theme, the character and the mission of a song (Masning Zahro, 2010) According to Machin (2010), “lyrics are one way an artist tells us how to listen to them, how to put meanings into their music Lyrics are not only about artists telling stories but also communicating discourses about their identity.” It is the reason why Machin (2010) proposed to explore song lyrics layer by layer: from activity schema (the plot) or what happens in the song lyrics, participants, action and agency to settings and circumstances to reveal the hidden meaning or value in songs.

Previous related studies

In the world, three distinct researches can be said to be relevant to this doctoral thesis The first study taken for review is A comparative study of ideational meaning between the song lyrics written by the most popular American song writers in 1990 and Indonesian song writers in 2000s – A study based on SFL by Ratih

Wulan Sari (2009) The research aims at describing the ideational meaning in love song lyrics written by the most popular American and Indonesian songwriter‟s in1990s and 2000s, respectively Then the researcher attempted to find out similarities and differences of the ideational meaning in love song lyrics by American and Indonesian writers Three questions that are put forward to fulfil the aims of study are:

1 How is the ideational meaning realized in the love song lyrics written by American songs writers?

2 How is the ideational meaning realized in the love song lyrics written by Indonesian song writers?

3 What are the differences and similarities between the love songs lyrics written by the most popular American song writers in 1990s and Indonesian song writers in 2000s?

The main approach employed in the research is claimed to be a mostly qualitative research and the researcher adopted the descriptive method, the qualitative method and the comparative method The descriptive and qualitative methods were used to collect data, classify data, analyze data, interpret data and draw the conclusion Two songs in each language were selected (Valentine & I don‟t want to miss a thing in American; Fallin‟ in love & Secret Admirer in Indonesian) In addition, the comparative method was a tool that helped the researcher to compare song lyrics in two languages After analyzing and synthesizing data, the researcher arrived at the following conclusions:

- For the two songs by American writers, material process is mostly used in the first song while the number of mental processes is the highest in the second song However, in terms of logical meaning, the two songs have more clause simplexes than complexes

- For the two songs by Indonesian writers, relational process is dominant and the number of clause simplexes is higher than that of complexes in both songs

- In the writer‟s opinion, the reason for the similarity in terms of logical meaning is because the song writers wanted their songs to be understandable for listeners The differences in the use of the transitivity system may be due to cultural factors

- Hence, the research mentioned above has examined one aspect of metafunctions and made a comparison between two love songs in American English and two in Indonesian However, there are some gaps that need further studies Firstly, the

46 number of songs selected is four; the theme is about love; and only one strand of meaning (ideational meaning) is explored in the four songs The further studies can fill the gap by investigating songs in different themes in terms of other aspects of metafunctions with a larger number Secondly, the similarities and differences between two songs in American and two songs in Indonesian have not been specifically presented Moreover, the reasons behind the similarities and differences seem to be arbitrary The researcher supposes that different culture partially leads to the differences However, he/she presents no explanation or firm evidence for that The second study under review is Interpersonal Meaning Analysis of Muse Song

Lyrics in Black Holes & Relevation‟s Album (A Study Based on Systemic Functional

Linguistics) by Rowiatun Amri Marhamah (2014)

The study aims at examining interpersonal meaning realized through Mood system in three songs of the Album To describe Mood types and Modality in three songs of the album, the researcher has raised three questions as the following

According to the researcher, the thesis is a descriptive qualitative research The descriptive method was used to collect data, classify data, analyze data, interpret data and draw conclusion about the data The qualitative was used to analyze in words The findings show that the number of declarative types is dominant in two songs (Supermassive Black Hole & Map of Problematique) while the number of imperative clauses is the highest in the third song (Hoodoo) With regard to

Modality, there are a few modal finites used in three songs To sum up, only a strand of meanings (interpersonal meaning) is exploited and in the scale of one album There is no clear comparison in the research

The third study is Ta‟s (2016) Mother Image in English and Vietnamese Songs – a

Literary Analysis Using Transitivity System in Systemic Functional Linguistics Perspective The study was conducted as an attempt to understand more about mother image from SFL perspective At the same time, the thesis illustrates similarities and differences of mother image in English and Vietnamese songs Two questions put forward to address the problem are:

1 How are mothers depicted in English and Vietnamese songs from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics?

2 What are the linguistic means to express such meanings?

The descriptive method was used to describe mothers through transitivity system, mood patterns and then synthesizes the result to find out the similarities and differences in the depiction of mother images in the two languages

In fulfilling the focuses of the study, the comparative method was applied to present prominent features of mother images in English and Vietnamese

The study covers the aspect of experiential meaning out of three strands of meanings The thesis provides conclusions on the images to which mothers in the two cultures are compared, and these images are closely associated with cultural and historical factors One of the biggest limitations of this study is that although cultural and historical factors are mentioned as possible reasons for differences, there is no rational evidence to prove such conclusion

Three studies mentioned above have provided us with a different view of song lyrics from SFL perspective Except the third research, none of other researches have investigated song lyrics about the theme of mother The first research and the third research are comparative one; however, both researches explore one of three aspects of metafunctional meanings Although the second research discusses the

48 passionate love song lyrics and analyzes three aspects of metafunctional meanings, it only deals with three songs, which cannot give a general conclusion of love song lyrics Therefore, further research should be carried out to explore song lyrics about mother in terms of different strands of meaning in the light of SFL.

Summary

This chapter is regarded as essential to the whole doctoral thesis because it not only supplies an informative picture of SFL (the development of SFL, the key points directly involving the study) but expounds the key terms in the title The central points of SFL consisting of level of context, level of language, the relation between two and two strands of meaning in the scope of the study are explained with illustrative figures The fundamental differences between the notions of Transitivity and Mood resources between two languages are also explicated In addition, a presentation of the images of mother in different genres and related studies was made, which helps the readers better understand the representation of the mother in previous studies

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research design

This is a comparative study on the images of mother in song lyrics in English and Vietnamese Before the conclusions about similarities and differences of the mother images in song lyrics of two languages are made, it is necessary to produce, describe and evaluate statistics on Transitivity resources and Mood resources Therefore, the methods have been adopted in this research including comparative, quantitative, qualitative and descriptive, of which comparative is the main method According to Knufer and McLellan (1996), the descriptive method involves either quantitative or qualitative This method is concerned with collecting data in numerical form and using visual aids such as tables, charts or figures to assist readers in better understanding “the data distribution” After that, an in-depth description can be provided, which helps readers comprehend its inferences from numerical data It is the reason why Knufer and McLellan (1996) stated,

“Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the same study” (p.1196)

The comparative research can be traced back to a long history in numerous disciplines including social sciences such as education, communication, politics etc The writing on comparative method has gained its popularity since the late 60s with works of linguists (Holt & Turner 1970, Lijphart 1971, Smelser 1973, Ragin 1987, Tarrow 2004, Mills 2006, Sa‟ei 2013, Smelser 2013)

Although linguists have offered different definitions of comparative study, most of them seem to have reached the agreement that the principal aim of a comparative research is to explore the similarities and differences of entities studied

The underlying goal of comparative analysis is to search for similarity and variance

comparison is an approach often seen as a method of the explicit contrasting of two or more cases to explore parallels and differences

Recently, there has been an increase in comparative studies between English and Vietnamese at doctoral level Do (2007) conducted a comparative study entitled

“Thematic structure in English and Vietnamese - A comparative study from the systemic functional perspective” His work focuses on investigating similarities and differences between thematic structure in English and Vietnamese The study places a restriction on studying thematic structures in texts from grammar books in English or Vietnamese or imaginary texts After that, Nguyen (2018) completed the doctoral thesis “Đặc điểm ngôn ngữ của các văn bản thuyết minh bảo tàng trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt từ quan điểm ngôn ngữ học chức năng hệ thống (Linguistic Features of Museum Texts in English and Vietnamese from the Point of View of Systematic Functional Linguistics)”, which covers three aspects of linguistic features of English and Vietnamese museum texts in the light of SFL

In addition, comparativists also agree that comparative research includes quantitative or qualitative comparison of social entities (Mills, 2006: 621) In other words, the comparative method embraces “aspects of both quantitative and qualitative methods” (Rubinson & Ragin, 2009) It explains why Sa‟ei (2013) divided comparative analysis into three types: quantitative, qualitative and fuzzy Peter Lor (2011) illustrated the relationship between methodological choices in comparative studies in the following figure

Figure 3.1 Relationship of comparative methodological choices to metatheory

Hence, it can be seen that one can adopt quantitative, qualitative or both in their descriptive comparative study.

Research methods

The quantitative method has been used to count the number of process types, participants in the dominant process types, circumstantial types (in Transitivity system) and mood types, modality types (in Mood system) in mother song lyrics in English and Vietnamese After that, the descriptive and qualitative methods have been used to describe how Transitivity resources and Mood resources are employed in the songs and make implications from numerical data Then, the comparative method has been adopted to uncover the similarities and differences between mother song lyrics in English and Vietnamese Through this procedure, the images of mother are revealed

The research explores the results of Transitivity resources that realizes experiential meaning and Mood resources that realizes interpersonal meaning Transitivity resources are concerned with process types, participants and circumstances while Mood resources are related to mood and modality patterns The song lyrics of 50 war and peace songs in English and Vietnamese were first broken into clause simplexes In terms of Transitivity resources, the data are analyzed for the function of the elements of the clauses including process types, participants and circumstances

In terms of Mood resource, mood and modality patterns were analyzed Then the number and percentage of process types, circumstances, mood and modality patterns were counted From the obtained results, the researcher has made the description of the types of experiential meaning and interpersonal meaning used in these songs through analyzing clauses and calculating the percent of clause types Then the researcher has given the evaluation of the dominant choices of Transitivity resources (process types, participants and circumstances) and Mood resources (mood and modality patterns) taken by the composers of songs in depicting the images of mothers Therefore, it is effective to employ descriptive methodology in this step The researcher has shown the similarities and differences in terms of experiential and interpersonal meanings Hence, it can be seen that the descriptive method reinforces the understanding and interpretation of the number or percentage after quantitative analysis

In an attempt to find out similarities and differences in experiential and interpersonal meanings employed in English and Vietnamese songs, comparative analysis is used The underlying goal of comparative analysis is to search for similarities and variances Comparisons not only uncover differences between social entities, but also reveal unique aspects of a particular entity that would be virtually impossible to detect otherwise (Mills, 2006) Nguyen Thien Giap (2010) also agrees that the overarching aim of comparative study is to discover similarities and differences of compared languages He also adds that in a comparative study, one language is considered as the base and the other as comparative one SFL by Halliday was adopted as the theoretical framework for this study and Halliday chose English as the language to study Therefore, in this research English is chosen as the base and Vietnamese is the comparative language.

Data compilation and data processing

In this part, the collection of data is presented in details

One of the concerning factors in the research is the number of songs to be analyzed This is a decisive factor in giving a broader or finer conclusion Within the scope of this study, 50 mother songs (25 in each language) were chosen Within 50 song

53 lyrics, 1234 clause simplexes are selected The sources for searching songs are mostly prestigious websites and book songs that will be listed in Appendix section

A close reading of the songs was implemented to choose song lyrics The choice of songs was based on theme The data chosen are English and Vietnamese song lyrics about mother Firstly, mother songs are not only the songs with a word meaning

“mother” in the title but the songs with contents about maternal figures

Specifically, mother songs are concerned with:

- the images of mother through mothers‟ activities, thoughts or love for their children

- the images of mother expressed through the children‟s thoughts, emotions or gratefulness for their mothers

Secondly, they are song lyrics involving the images of mother in war and peace time An effort has been made to attribute the number of songs relatively equally in different periods of time (e.g., 1945 – 1975, 1975 – 1997, 1997 – 2008 and 2008 –

2019) The reason for this effort is due to the researcher‟s awareness of the nature of language Language is a constantly developing and living entity This characteristic is reflected not only in spoken language but in written forms such as literary works, speeches or even musical compositions When choosing song lyrics about mother in war or peace time, the researcher aims at being able to achieve a comprehensive view about mother in song lyrics The songs about mother in war time are called war mother song lyrics and the songs about mother in peace time are called peace mother song lyrics

For the songs that were set to music from poems, the year of composition is the year of composing the poem For the songs that the composers are unknown, names of singers are enclosed with the extraction

Based on the criteria presented above, the data collection will follow two steps below

Step 1: Mother songs were searched through different sources In this step, relevant information about songs was also collected, which facilitated the researcher in

54 better understanding the content of the songs The relevant information included the composer, the year of composing, and the story behind the song or the context of writing the song Following are a number of popular websites which are frequently visited and searched for lyrics by users https://rateyourmusic.com/list/JBrummer/vietnam-war-song-project/ https://www.townandcountrymag.com/leisure/arts-and-culture/g26929813/mothers- day-songs/ https://www.ranker.com/list/the-best-songs-with-mother-in-the-title/ranker-music https://www.greatamericancountry.com/living/lifestyles/top-20-country-songs- about-mom https://countrymusicnation.com/10-unforgettable-country-songs-about-moms https://www.wideopencountry.com/10-country-songs-about-moms-for-mothers- day/ https://spinditty.com/playlists/Songs-About-Mothers https://wkdq.com/20-country-songs-about-mom/ https://www.heraldextra.com/entertainment/music/mother-s-day-tribute-songs- about-moms-that-will-make/collection_52e1b50f-3569-5287-a70b- b4b5866f3288.html#17 https://genius.com/Dolly-parton-to-daddy-lyrics https://www.songfacts.com/ https://lyricfind.com/ https://lyric.tkaraoke.com/ http://www.lyrics.vn/

Step 2: The close reading was carried out for the researcher to familiarize with the song lyrics before selecting and classifying

Step 3: The song lyrics were selected and classified on the basis of theme (the images of mother in war and the images of mother in peace) Purposive sampling technique was employed in this step Only the song lyrics that were suitable with

55 the theme about mother were selected The songs that had ambiguous words or lyrics were not included in the list.

Data analysis

As mentioned earlier, the unit of analysis for this study is clause simplex To identify the clause simplexes, the researcher bases the identification on lexicogrammar criteria From the point of view of experiential metafunction that is realized through transitivity resource and interpersonal metafunction that is realized through mood system, each clause has only one process (material, mental, relational, behavioural, verbal and existential) and one MOOD (indicative or imperative) (Hoang, 2012) Hence, each clause is separated with another based on the number of process and MOOD

The researcher conducted the study using Transitivity and Mood resources using Halliday‟s framework to answer two main questions The results of Transitivity and Mood resources gathered from English and Vietnamese songs were analyzed to figure out the images of mother The analysis was conducted by examining Transitivity and Mood resources, which realize experiential and interpersonal meanings in English and Vietnamese song lyrics The experiential meaning provided a detailed account of the representation of mother through Transitivity resources including process types, participant roles and circumstantial elements The interpersonal meaning gave an analysis of the relationship between participants in the songs and the attitude or the judgement of participants through Mood resources consisting of mood and modality patterns Then the data were investigated quantitatively as mentioned in the preceding pages The quantitative and descriptive results reveal how language was used to depict the images of mother

Specifically, Transitivity resources indicate how the activity is represented in three points: (i) what type of process signifies the activity, (ii) which participants get involved, and (iii) in which circumstance the activity takes place The process of

56 quantitative analysis has shown the dominant process type in which the mother or the child takes part in Afterwards, the researcher has described and made implications of the role of the mother or how the mother is represented in such process types by the descriptive method

Similarly, Mood resources concerning mood and modality patterns function as an investigation into the relationship between participants and their attitude Mood types reveals the stated of interaction with social distance between the participants while modality patterns help us know the attitude or the judgement of the speaker or writer In mother song lyrics, Mood resources provide the details of the interactivity between participants including the composer – the audience and the mother – the child in each song The number of mood type and modality type is counted through the quantitative analysis The results of this process enable the researcher to fully understand the dominant type of interactivity and the attitude or the judgement expressed through modality type

The results collected from the quantitative method allow the researcher to compare the dominant process type, mood type and modality type in English and Vietnamese song lyrics The quantitative results are seen as the base for the evaluation of the mother‟s roles depicted in English and Vietnamese song lyrics that is carried out through the descriptive method After the comparison in terms of the dominant process type, mood type and modality type are made, the researcher continues to compare the images of mother in two languages

To sum up, analyzing the patterns of Transitivity and Mood resources reveals how the song lyrics construct the images of mother Let us see the analysis in terms of experiential meaning and interpersonal meaning below to understand these points above fully

Your healing hands smooth away the pain

Declarative (Song “Mama’s hands”, Queen Naija)

In terms of experiential meaning, the representation of the mother in the example above is manifested through material process In this process, the actor is the mother‟s hand, a close image of mothers The activity is realized with an abstract verb “smooth away” and the goal affected is “the pain” This material process shows that mothers‟ hands not only take care of their children by concrete daily activities but comfort their minds by relieving their pain In terms of interpersonal meaning, the mood type in the clause is declarative In this case, the writer or the speaker (the son) does not want to ask any information or order something He/she would like to convey a message to readers/listeners that mothers are protectors and sources of spiritual support

Hence, it can be concluded that Transitivity and Mood analysis using Halliday‟s model is adequate for the purpose of the study

Following is the model of analytical framework for the research

Figure 3.2 Analytical framework for the research 3.4.2 Baseline data analysis

The data consisting of 50 songs are counted for the number of words, and then they are analyzed for the number of clause simplexes The procedure of counting is done with the support of Microsoft Excel and rechecked manually In addition, the analysis of Field, Tenor and Mode of 50 songs in general are also illustrated in this section clause simplexes in song lyrics in EMSL &

VMSL experiential meaning process types participants circumstances interpersonal meaning mood types modality Lexicogrammar criteria

Quantitative = count process types, participant, circumstantial types

Descriptive & qualitative = describe & make implications

Descriptive & qualitative = describe & make implications

= compare two sets of data in EMSL

Songs /Number Number of songs

In terms of field, all of fifty songs depict the images of mother Twenty-two out of fifty songs are about mother in war and the remaining number of songs portrays the mother in peace There are some differences in the way of depicting the images of mother in English and Vietnamese, which have been deeply discussed in the latter parts of the research

Tenor establishes two types of communication: the communication between the writer and the listeners/readers, and the communication between the mothers and the children in each song

In the case of songs, mode is conceived in two forms, both written and spoken communication When the songs are sung, they are manifested in spoken form If they are read, they are in written form

The analysis of Transitivity and Mood resources in clause simplexes in English and Vietnamese war and peace mother songs followed the following steps:

Step 1: The data in the forms of clause simplexes from mother songs‟ lyrics in 50 songs in English and Vietnamese were selected Total sampling technique was adopted in this step All clause simplexes were analyzed except these following cases:

- The chorus was not analyzed and counted again

- The elements that do not have internal structure were not included in the analysis because they serve to ensure the continuity of the text They are not language but protolanguage (Exclamations: Wow! Yuck! Aha! Ouch! Calls: Charlie! You there! Madam! Greetings: Hello! Good morning! You very good health, Alarms: Look out! Quick! Careful! Keep off )

Step 2: The mother songs in English and Vietnamese were analyzed for baseline information (the number of clause simplexes)

The researcher uses the following notional conventions in her analysis

 Double strokes // to indicate the boundary of the clause simplex

 Double square brackets [[ ]] to indicate the boundary of the embedded clause

 Arabic numbers 1, 2 to indicate the number of clause simplex

Step 3: The mother songs in English and Vietnamese were analyzed for

Transitivity, Mood & Modality to uncover the experiential and interpersonal meaning

Step 4: The number of clause simplexes, process types, mood types and modality were counted

Step 5: The findings were used to make comparison between song lyrics in English and Vietnamese

Step 6: After similarities and differences were established, the images of mother in two languages were generalized Simultaneously, the possible reasons for similarities and differences were discussed.

Glosses and symbols

In this part, we explain the symbols, abbreviations that we use in the explanatory texts

First, each clause of the song lyrics is contracted as EW1.2, EP1.2, VW1.2 or VW.2 Two initial letters stand for language of song and the period (war or peace)

The two next numbers represent the ordinal of the song and the clause in that song For example, “EW1.10” means English war song – the first song and the tenth clause in the songs Similarly, in Vietnamese, each clause is encoded like “VP1.2” - Vietnamese peace song – the first song and the second clause in that song

Second, names of systems such as system of MOOD or system of TRANSITIVITY are capitalized MOOD or TRANSITIVITY

Thirdly, names of functions are written in the abbreviation form in parentheses if there is not enough space; for example, Subject (Subj), Senser (Sen), etc The list

60 of abbreviation was provided in the section Keys to Abbreviation at the first pages of the paper

Next, the presentation of English examples is organized in three lines The first line is lyrics from songs; the second line is the configuration of functions of each element in a clause simplex; and the third line provides the information of the name of composer/singer and the name of song For Vietnamese examples, the second line provides the English translation The third line serves as an examination of elements in the clause and the fourth line presents the name of song and the composer.

Reliability and validity of the study

A number of techniques were employed to ensure reliability and validity of the study First, the detailed account of data, data collection, data analysis as well as the sources which data were gathered from are provided Second, multiple methods of data analysis (methods triangulation) were used which enhance reliability along with internal validity Third, the presentation of research methodology and rational justification shown in this chapter draw a clear picture of methods employed in the study Fourth, data were selected from various sources and double-checked In addition, the full and rich description of data (1234 clause simplexes) contributes to external validity.

TRANSITIVITY AND MOOD RESOURCES FOUND IN

Transitivity resources found in English and Vietnamese war mother song lyrics

In this part, the findings of Transitivity resources found in English and Vietnamese war songs are presented Specifically, the number and the percentage of process types are demonstrated from Table 4.1 to Table 4.6 (Percentage rounded to nearest figure)

4.1.1 Transitivity resources in English war mother song lyrics

The number and the percentage of process types in English war mother song lyrics are illustrated in Table 4.1

Table 4.1 Process types in English war mother song lyrics

As can be seen in Table 4.1, the total number of clause simplexes of English war songs analyzed is 253 Of 253 clause simplexes, material clauses comprise the largest proportion with 40% Relational clauses rank the second and make up 21% Mental clauses constitute the third largest percentage of total processes (19%) Next, verbal clauses account for 11% while behavioural and existential clauses have

Types of process/Songs Material Behavioural Mental Relational Verbal Existential Total

62 the same percentage (5% for each)

Through the observation, the writer figures out that material processes employed in the songs not only construes the “doing” but the “happening” In addition, verbs serving as material processes appear to be both concrete and abstract kinds Following are two examples from eleven English war songs demonstrating the above observation The further discussion has been made in the latter parts of the study

But I send you all my love from VN

Actor Pro: material Recipient Scope Circ: loc

(spatial) (Song “Merry Christmas from Vietnam”, The Sullivan Family)

EW6.4 is extracted from the song which is the letter from the soldier to his mother on Christmas day As can be seen in the EW6.4, the verb “send” makes a material transitive clause and it is a concrete verb

In EW11.4, a mother is waiting for her son‟s returning and she describes things at home

EW11.4 and the weeds are growing high

Actor Pro: material Circ: man (quality) (Song “From Sai Gon to Little Rock”, Charlie C Freeman)

In this case of EW11.4, the verb “grow” is an abstract verb forming a material intransitive clause

A brief glance reveals that material clauses are of three types: (i) describing the happening of things around; (ii) describing the participation of soldiers in the war; and in particular; (iii) describing some activities of mothers at home Among them, some material processes focus on portraying the engagement of soldiers in the war Their engagement is shown in the letters to their mothers or through their mothers‟ narration

Among six subtypes of relational process, the subtype found in the songs is mostly intensive attributive with thirty occurrences Noticeably, the intensive attributive clauses are used frequently to depict the subjective sensations of mothers and soldiers as well as objective properties of things This use of the intensive attributive type belongs to the third subgroup: domain of attribution that describes the inner experience (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) Let us see two examples below

EW9.12 is a mother‟s words for her son while EW4.4 depicts a soldier‟s emotion EW9.12

Carrier Pro: relational (intensive attributive) Attribute

(Song “My son”, Jan Howard)

I 'm so homesick for the good old

Carrier Pro: relational (intensive attributive)

Attribute Circumstance of cause (Song “It’s for God, country and you mom”, Earnest Tubb)

Two examples EW9.12 and EW4.4 above illustrate a mother‟s feeling and a soldier‟ sharing in the letter to his/her mother In the first example, the attribute “proud” describes the mother‟s feeling about her son She recalls the memories of her son and cannot forget that her good boy used to be her pride Back to the present, she has to bear the pain of losing her child who was asked to join the army Being stuck in the war with the lack of food, drink, etc., the soldier thinks about his mother who is reliable to confide in everything Although the example does not directly depict the image of mother, the mother is still the focus because in the most miserable moment, the soldier turns towards his mother as the spiritual support The soldier also thinks about his country that is totally different from a strange place that they are get stuck in

In addition, the observation also witnesses the presence of intensive identifying, possessive attributive and circumstantial attributive Such subtypes continue to

64 clarify the situation of the soldiers and the mothers waiting for their sons The following examples will give us a better understanding

EW5.12 when Christmas time meant everything to our family

Identified Pro: relational (intensive identifying)

(Song “Christmas in Vietnam”, Eleanor Wells)

In this case, the intensive identifying clause states that Christmas time is the most meaningful moment to the soldier in particular and all his family members It is understandable because like Tet holiday in Vietnam, Christmas is the gathering occasion in America

In the next example, a possessive attributive clause portrays the image of the mother crying for her child

She had a tear in her eye

Possessor Pro: relational (possessive attributive)

(Song “Vietnam/ You will be there”, the Southern Bells)

This image has become an obsession with listeners/readers The mother does not cry out in pain but she just cries a little, which is shown in the possessed thing “a tear”

It maybe because she knows that tears cannot bring her child back or maybe she has cried too much

Moving to mental process, the difference between mental and relational processes is not substantial because the percentage of mental clauses are only 2% less than that of relational clauses Out of four subtypes of mental process (perceptive, cognitive, desiderative and emotive), cognitive subtype is seen most in eleven songs with the occurrences of 26 times The common verbs of this subtype are “know, remember, forget, wonder, understand, believe ” Additionally, three other subtypes are also found in eleven songs Each subtype is deployed to describe the

65 inner experience of the characters in the songs While the emotive subtype enables mothers and soldiers to express their feelings or emotions directly, the desiderative type shows mothers or soldiers‟ strong desire Following are some typical examples extracted from the songs

Do you think of the cost?

Circumstance of matter (Circ: matr) (Song “What do you win when you win a war”, Gene Stridel)

The mother in the song above put a question to her son who was asked to join the war The mother asked her child to consider about the cost of the war In essence, whichever side wins a war has to pay the price In another example with a mental desiderative verb, the mother longs for her son‟s returning home

Son, I want you home right away

(Song “From Sai Gon to Little Rock”, Charlie C Freeman)

In this case, the emotive verb “want” expresses the mother‟s great desire for the return of her son The circumstance of manner “right away” more emphasizes this desire The role of circumstances is discussed in the next pages In the desperate plight, the mother is the first person the soldier thinks about This is illustrated in the mental process in the example below

EW11.15 and I miss you most of all at super time

(Song “From Sai Gon to Little Rock”, Charlie C Freeman)

With regard to verbal process, the investigation of eleven English war songs

66 reveals that verbs of both subgroups (activity and semiosis) are served as verbal process in the songs Of two subtypes, the semiosis makes up a larger proportion with verbs such as “tell, say, inform ” It is used when the soldier or the mother intends to say something like in the following example

Process: verbal Recipient (Song “It’s a time in U.S.A”, Sister Maggies Merkson)

In addition, the activity (targeting) subtype is also used when the mother speaks to God to hope that someday her son will be back home In the below example, the verbal process is realized with verb “pray”

Mood and modality resources found in English and Vietnamese war mother song

This part presents the results of Mood types and Modality types found in English and Vietnamese song lyrics Specifically, the number and the percentage of mood types and modality types are demonstrated from Table 4.7 to Table 4.10 (Percentage rounded to nearest figure)

4.2.1 Mood and Modality resources in English war mother song lyrics

In this part, the findings of mood and modality types used in English war songs will be presented

4.2.1.1 Mood types in English war mother song lyrics

Mood types in the song lyrics are analyzed for declarative, interrogative and imperative Besides, another mood type that will be added in this analysis (Halliday

& Matthiessen, 2014) is exclamative The number and the percentage of mood types in the song lyrics are shown in Table 4.7 (Percentage rounded to nearest figure)

Table 4.7 Mood types in English war mother song lyrics

Mood types/Songs Declarative Interrogative Imperative Exclamative Total

Table 4.7 above show that declarative clauses take up the largest proportion (81%) in the total clauses of eleven English war songs Declarative clauses are identified by the order of Subject and Finite in the Mood structure In declarative type, this order is shown as Subject^Finite^(Predicator) It can be seen that the composers use declarative clauses to state, declare or provide information The Subject in a declarative clause is likely to be a nominal element (a noun or a pronoun) or even a clause Through the investigation of 253 declarative clauses in English war songs, it is found out that the Subjects in such clauses are mostly nominal elements Noticeable, the most common pronouns are “I, you, we, they” Two pronouns “I”,

“we” and “you” are used when there is an exchange between soldiers and mothers

Especially, these occurrences are seen in the letters Two extracts from two songs clarify this point

EW5.7 + EW5.8 + EW5.9 but I 'm here

Subject (Subj) Finite (Fin) Circumstance

(Song “Christmas in Vietnam”, Eleanor Wells)

Subj Fin Pred to make it through the swamps

We 've lost all of our gear

(Compl) (Song “To mom – with glory”, Jimmy Coates)

From two examples above, it can be seen that they are the words of a soldiers who is writing to his mother to tell what has happened to him and his comrades in the battle The main character in the song is also the narrator, which makes the readers/listeners have the feeling they are directly listening to the soldier‟s sharing

In addition, nouns, proper nouns, nominal groups or demonstrative pronouns such as “there, this, that” also function as Subject in declarative clauses when the main characters in songs or the writer would like to narrate or inform readers or listeners what is happening around

But Arkansas is a long away from here

Conj Subj Fin Compl Adjunct

(Song “From Sai Gon to Little Rock”, Charlie C Freeman)

The less dominant Mood types are imperative and interrogative ones There is a slight difference in the number and percentage of the two types (10% for imperative and 9% for interrogative)

According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2014), the imperative has a different system of PERSON from the indicative including declarative and interrogative It is because the mood of this type is the exchanging “goods and services”, not giving or demanding information The Subject in imperative types comes in two modes:

“you” type and “you and me” type Mostly, in 25 imperative clauses examined, the imperative falls into the first type In the clauses of the first type, the person is UNMARKED In other words, the subject of such clauses is absent and can be inferred from the context of the song As mentioned in the theoretical framework, the imperative is used to command or offer In eleven English war songs, a number of imperative clauses are used as the command of the soldiers sent for mothers or from mothers/soldiers to the god The following examples will be taken to clarify the point

Oh Mama tell them what we 're fighting for

Call Finite/Predicator Complement 1 Complement 2

(Song “What are you fighting for”, Phil Ochs)

Lord, take care of my child

Call Predicator Complement (Song “It’s a time in U.S.A”, Sister Maggies Merkson)

It is not difficult to realize that the UNMARKED subject for the examples above is

“you” In the EW3.13, the soldier is asking his mother to tell people in his country about the reason he is fighting while in the EW8.3, the mother is asking the Lord to protect her child fighting in the war

The typical realization of the second type is “Let‟s” It can be a command or an offer

EW10.15 let‟s give a big hand for the boys game

(Song “What do you win when you win a war”, Gene Stridel)

In this case of EW10.15, “let‟s” can be interpreted as both “you and me”

The last mood type found in English war song is interrogative type The order of Subject and Finite in this type is different from the declarative There is a switch between Subject and Finite The interrogative is subdivided into two subtypes:

Yes/No or Wh (polar or non-polar) Both subtypes are seen in English war song lyrics One point that needs to be mentioned again is the difference between two subtypes The polar one indicates a level of uncertainty for the questioner while the non-polar one, aside from the missing information, indicates the certainty

Let us see the example of polar type below In the song, the mother is suspicious about the nature of the war She continuously questions the soldier about the way they congratulate themselves on the victory It seems there is nothing to do except

85 counting the bombed houses or tear drops of the mothers who lost their children in the war

Do you count the filled?

Finite Subject Predicator Complement do you count tears killed?

(Song “What do you win when you win a war”, Gene Stridel)

In the next example of non-polar type, the writer asks the woman about the reason for crying In this case, the addressee would like to get the explanation from the woman

Why are you crying woman?

Circ Fin Subj Pred Vocative

(Song “Vietnam/ You will be there”, the Southern Bells)

There is no exclamative clause found in the English war song lyrics, which is often used to express emotions such as surprise, happiness or worry It shows that the writers do not make use of this mood type as a means in conveying the main characters‟ emotion in the song lyrics

In general, with relation to Mood types in English war songs, it can be concluded that the declarative is the dominant type because in each song, the main character mainly wants to narrate or express his/her thoughts and feelings In some cases, there is one-sided exchange, a humble number of interrogative and imperative types are employed Despite being used with a small number, such types contribute to the depiction of the mother in the songs

4.2.1.2 Modality in English war song lyrics

Modality is analyzed for modalization and modulation Modalization is further analyzed for probability and usuality, and modulation for obligation and inclination The number and percentage of modalization and modulation are represented in Table 4.8 (Percentage rounded to nearest figure)

Table 4.8 Modality types in English war mother song lyrics

Table 4.8 shows that there is occurrence of both modalization and modulation in eleven English war song lyrics However, in modalization, there is no occurrence of modalization expressing usuality In modulation, there is no occurrence of modulation expressing inclination Therefore, the next discussion will focus on the instances of possibility of modalization and obligation of modulation

Summary

The chapter has shown the results of Transitivity resources (process types, circumstantial elements) and Mood resources (mood and modality types) found in English and Vietnamese war song lyrics

In English war mother song lyrics

In terms of Transitivity resources, material process constitutes the major part of song lyrics Material clauses are mostly employed to describe the engagement of soldiers in war; some certain activities of mothers and the movement of things Circumstance of location accounts for the highest number to provide information about time of place of processes In terms of Mood resources, the declarative is the dominant mood type Modality type expressing probability and obligation is employed with a humble number The statistics in terms of Transitivity resources and Mood resources allows the researcher to make preliminary conclusions about the images mother in English war mother song lyrics Although mothers in English war mother song lyrics do not directly engage in battle, they are still spiritual support for their children, the soldiers in the battles In addition, they raise their voice to disapprove the battles and ask for their children‟s coming back home

In Vietnamese war mother song lyrics

With regard to Transitivity resources, material clauses take up the highest proportion in song lyrics This type of clause is mostly used to describe mothers‟ contribution in war Circumstance of location is employed to clarify processes in terms of time and place Regarding Mood resources, Vietnamese war song lyrics are mainly composed of declarative clauses Modality expressing probability and obligation is used with a small number The numerical information allows the researcher to make preliminary conclusions about the depiction of the images of mother in Vietnamese war song lyrics They are represented as the great contributor to the battle with their direct participation Additionally, for the mothers who stay in the frontline, they always turn their heart towards their children in the battle

TRANSITIVITY AND MOOD RESOURCES FOUND IN

Transitivity resources found in English and Vietnamese peace mother song

This part focuses on illustrating the findings of process types found in English and Vietnamese peace songs Six process types in Table 5.1 include material process, behavioural process, mental process, relational process, verbal process and existential process

5.1.1 Transitivity resources in English peace mother song lyrics

Table 5.1 present the number and the percentage of process types in English peace songs (Percentage rounded to nearest figure)

Table 5.1 Process types in English peace mother song lyrics

The analysis of clauses shows that all six types of process are employed in English peace songs to represent the images of mother Table 5.1 demonstrates that of 372 clauses, the material has the largest number (124, 33%) Ranked the second is the

Types of process/Songs Material Behavioural Mental Relational Verbal Existential Total

97 relational with 111 clauses (30%) The third highest number is the mental with 75 instances (20%) Next to the mental is the verbal with 34 clauses (9%) Ranked the fifth is the behavioural with 20 clauses (5%) At the bottom list is the existential with 8 occurrences (2%)

There are a number of points to note here Firstly, the highest frequency of material clauses coincides with the expectation of the researcher Material clauses occur in all songs to express physical and tangible actions of both mothers and their children For mothers, such physical actions, actually, are their care they save for their children and what they do to supply their children with a better life The following examples illustrate this point

You worked two jobs to keep a roof up over our heads

Actor Pro: material Scope Circ: cse (purpose)

(embedded clause) (Song “Turn to you”, Justin Bierber)

Actor Pro: material Circ: loc (spatial)

It can be seen in the EP2.7 + EP2.8 the material verbs show physical and specific actions of the mother for her child In addition to concrete physical actions expressed through material clauses, there are occurrences of abstract doings and happenings Normally, the Goal or Scope followed by the abstract material verbs is also an abstract noun The common verbs in this case are “give, bring, comfort ” or phrasal verbs such as “smooth away, brush away.”

You give me the strength that I need

Actor Pro: material Recipient Goal

Actor Pro: material Recipient Goal you gave me love

Actor Pro: material Recipient Goal

And brush away all of my little fear

Pro: material Goal (Song “Every day is mother’s day to me”, Tim Mc Morris)

Secondly, the second rank of relational clauses is predictable A close examination reveals that all three types of the relational happen in English peace songs including intensive, possessive and circumstantial Of all three types, the dominant subtype is the intensive with 80 instances falling in two modes attributive and identifying According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2014), identifying clauses provide the entity an identity In the case of intensive identifying clauses in English peace songs, such clauses are employed to identify the images of mother by different identities In other words, the image of mother is expanded to different images Here are some typical examples from songs to illustrate the point

You are my light in the dark

Identified Pro: rel (intensive identifying)

(temporal) (Song “Mother”, Dona Lewis)

You 're the driving force in my life

Identified Pro: rel (intensive identifying)

Identifier Cir: loc (spatial) (Song “A song for mama”, Babyface)

You are to me the greatest love of all

Identified Pro: rel (intensive identifying)

Circumstance of angle (Circ: ang)

(Song “Goodbye’s saddest words”, Jobert John)

It can be seen that the mother is compared with the greatest and the most important thing in life Hence, intensive identifying clauses contribute to the emphasis on the role of the mother in the children‟s life

With regard to the intensive attributive, according to Halliday and Matthiessen

(2014), this type assigns the entity certain attributes and can be classified as three subtypes as mentioned in the previous part A close examination reveals that intensive attributive clauses are mostly used to describe the state of mothers or their children in the past or in current time Besides, a number of clauses of this type are also used to describe things The attribute is normally an epithet or sometimes an indefinite nominal group Following are some examples extracted from the songs

EP6.3 + EP6.4 when I was young

Carrier Pro: rel (intensive attributive)

Carrier Pro: rel (intensive attributive)

(Song “Thank you Mom”, Good Charlote)

Thirdly, the third highest proportion of the mental is also in accordance with our expectation Four subtypes of mental clauses are present in songs consisting of perceptive, cognitive, emotive and desiderative The cognitive subtype accounts for the largest number with 33 instances of 75 mental clauses This subtype is commonly realized with verbs such as “know, think, believe, understand ” The next ranks are perceptive, desiderative and emotive with respective numbers of 19,

15 and 8 Two typical perceptive verbs found in the songs are “hear, see” while the

100 common verbs of the desiderative are “want, need, hope” Of the verbs realizing emotive, 6 instances are “love”, 2 are “miss, admire.” The following examples will bring a clearer picture of mental clauses in these songs

Senser Pro: ment (cognitive) Circ: ext (frequency)

If I could hear my mother

Senser Pro: ment (perceptive) Phen

(Song “Mother pray”, Ben Harper)

EP4.4 cause I don't need that much for me

(Song “A mother’s prayer”, Jim Brickman)

And I will always love you

(Song “Goodbye’s saddest words”, Jobert John Matt Lange)

Finally, three other types including the verbal, the behavioural and the existential are less dominant and take up smaller numbers of total clauses In fourteen English peace songs, verbal clauses are realized through verbs “pray, ask, whisper, say, promise, tell, swear, disagree, thank.” Of the verbs mentioned, two used with the high frequency are pray and thank Especially, there are 11 instances of thank found in all songs and 6 instances of pray out of 34 verbal verbs

And I thank you for teaching me

Sayer Pro: verbal Rec Circ: cse (purpose)

(Song “A mother’s love”, Jim Brickman)

I 'll always thank you more than you would know

Sayer Pro: verbal Target Circ: man (comparison)

(Song “Thank you Mom”, Good Charlote)

With this targeting verbal, the children express their gratitude for the sacrifice and care of their mothers

I pray for angels by your side

Sayer Pro: verbal Circ: cse

(Song “A mother’s prayer”, Jim Brickman)

EP4.19 and pray for peace

Pro: verbal Verbiage (Song “A mother’s prayer”, Jim Brickman)

In regard to the behavioural, three subtypes of this process are found in these songs The near-mental is realized through verbs such as dream, look, watch, and listen The verbs cry, smile, and smile are listed in the near-verbal subtype Lastly, the verbs in the songs such as sing or sit expressing pastimes or body postures are subdivided into the near-material subgroup

The last discussion is for the existential As Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) pointed out, this type of process is not common in discourse Normally, this type occurs in narrative discourse to introduce the existence of things enclosed with circumstantial elements of place or time In English songs investigated, the only structure adopted to realize this type begins with There that has no representational function in Transitivity system

There 's no safer place I've found than the shoulder of her white night gown

(Song “Mother like mine”, The Band Perry)

The existential process in negative form shows that the safest place is beside the mother

With reference to the inherent participants, the percentage of the agents in the name of mother in English peace song lyrics ranks the first (65%)

Table 5.2 Agents in material clauses in English war mother song lyrics

Regarding English peace songs, of fourteen songs, twelves of them are narrated by the child and the remaining is from the mother to her child In twelves songs, the children express their gratefulness to their mother by reciting the merits of their mothers Like in the EP2.8 and EP2.9, the concrete material verb “take” and the abstract verb “show” recount things the mother did to her child

Songs The child The mother The other agent Total

Total 29 (23%) 80 (65%) 15 (12%) 124 (100%) Agents in material clauses in English peace song lyrics

EP2.9 show me the way

The last discussion in this part focuses on the circumstantial elements

Table 5.3 Circumstantial types in English peace song lyrics

The findings in Table 5.3 above reveals that the circumstance of location is the dominant type employed in English peace songs The circumstance of cause accounts for the second highest number with 34 instances found in the songs Rank the second and the third are the circumstance of manner and extent Besides, the circumstance of accompaniment and contingency are also found in the songs with a modest number

Types of circumstance Circ: ext Circ: loc Circ: man Circ: cse Circ: cont Circ: accomp Circ: rl Circ: mat Circ: ang Total

5.1.2 Transitivity resources in Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

Table 5.4 Process types in Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

As can be seen from Table 5.4, relational clauses take up the largest proportion with

Mood and modality found in English and Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics 112 1 Mood and Modality resources in English peace mother song lyrics

5.2 Mood and modality found in English and Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

The findings of mood and modality types in English and Vietnamese peace song lyrics are presented in this part The number and percentage of mood type and modality type are shown in Table 5.7 (Percentage rounded to the nearest figure)

5.2.1 Mood and Modality resources in English peace mother song lyrics

5.2.1.1 Mood types in English peace mother song lyrics

Table 5.7 Mood types in English peace mother song lyrics

As with English war song lyrics, the declarative continues to be the major mood type in fourteen English peace songs with 372 clauses taking up 97% of the total clauses A small number of imperative and interrogative clauses are employed in these songs and both constitute the remaining percentage (3%) There is no

Mood types/Songs Declarative Interrogative Imperative Exclamative Total

113 occurrence of the exclamative in all songs

Declarative clauses are employed to give the listeners/readers the information of what the mothers do for children or state the love the children declare for their mothers Each song is like a story told by the child or the mother Therefore, each of them is a narrative discourse A cursory glance reveals that explicit Subjects in these songs are mostly of two groups: pronouns or nouns/noun phrases Four common pronouns playing as Subject are I, you, we, she This point is predictable because the teller in each story is the child or the mother; hence, the pronoun “I” means the child or the mother Although the interaction in all song is one-sided, the pronoun “you” still appears in the song as the exchange of confidences between a mother and a child “We” denotes both the mother and the child while “she” is used when the teller wants to tell the listeners/readers about his or her mother For example, in the song Mother (Dona Lewis, 1996), two primary Subjects employed in the song are I and You When listening to the song or reading the lyrics, the listeners/readers feel like listening or reading a one-sided exchange of a child towards his/her mother

Subj Fin/Pred Compl Dec 15

And when you hear me calling your name

Conjunctive Adjunct Subj Fin/Pred Compl

Subj Fin/Pred Compl Dec 17

In addition to such pronouns, other nouns, noun phrases, gerund or to infinitive also play the role of Subjects in these songs

The imperative clauses also add to the interactive process between the mother and the child This type of clause shows some requirement from the asker (the mother or

114 the son) In English, typical elements that help the analyst recognize this mood type are the verb let and the auxiliary verb do or don‟t (unmarked form)

(Song “Two of us”, Louis Tom Linson)

There are only two instances of the interrogative in one song with polar subtype In this case, the children ask for the confirmation from their mother

Don‟t you think twice „bout what‟s wrong or right

Fin Subj Pred Circ Compl

In a nutshell, it can be concluded that in fourteen English peace songs, the declarative is still the primary mood type while two other mood types (imperative and interrogative only take up a small number) The interaction occurring in these songs is one-sided, which is initiated by the child or by the mother

5.2.1.2 Modality in English peace song lyrics

Table 5.8 Modality types in English peace mother song lyrics

As Table 5.8 shows, there is no occurrence of modalization expressing usuality and modulation expressing inclination in the songs The number of obligation expressions is four By comparison, that of probability expressions is much higher with 68 instances

Of the four instances of obligation, three of which are of high value and the remaining one is of median value The high value one is expressed with modal operator “must” while the median one is realized with modal operator “should” The probability is subdivided into three subgroups low, median and high value The group of low value is realized through modal operators can, could, might With such choices of modal operators, the sayer shows the low level of certainty in his/her statement For instance, when the child recalls the sweet memories with his/her mother, he/she wishes that he/she could hear, see or feel past things come back right there However, the usage of low value modal operators reveals that the probability of happening is not strong This emphasizes the child‟s profound regret

If I could hear my mother

Mod 2: modal operator/low/probability

If I could hear her tender voice as then

Mod 3: modal operator/low/probability

(Song “Mother pray”, Ben Harper)

The high value of probability is not much There are two instances only in negative form cannot and could not With these choices of modal operators, the writer/sayer implies the probability of occurrence is difficult, if not say nearly impossible

And you could not ignore the love you

Mod 2: Modal operator/high/probability

(embedded) Dec 22 (Song “Turn to you”, Justin Bierber)

In general, it can be concluded that the use of modality in the songs is purposive To some extent, the modality expressions contribute to the message the researchers would like to convey to the listeners/readers In other words, the employment of modality expressions is effective in interpersonal meaning at semantic level

5.2.2 Mood and modality resources in Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics 5.2.2.1 Mood types in Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

Table 5.9 Mood types in Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

As can be shown from Table 5.9 above, four mood types are employed in Vietnamese war songs Like the choice of mood types in Vietnamese war songs, the declarative type is principally in the songs with a high proportion of 96% The interrogative, imperative and exclamative come the second, third and fourth rank, respectively (2%, 2%, and 1%)

Mood types/Songs Declarative Interrogative Imperative Exclamative Total

Declarative clauses are employed to tell the story about the mother in each song or supply the listeners/readers with an exchange of confidences between the mother and her child The explicit Subjects in the songs are pronouns or nominal groups Two frequent pronouns play as Subjects are con and mẹ, which is totally comprehensible

The interrogative occurs 6 times with both types (polar and non-polar) found in these songs The polar interrogative clauses are identified with particles such as có, chăng, hay By probing this kind of interrogative, the questioner would like to ask for the confirmation Below are some examples of the polar extracted from the songs

(Song “Tự khúc mẹ ru (Lullaby)”, Vũ Khắc Tuận)

(Song “Mẹ yêu (Dear mother)”, Phương Uyên)

As can be seen from the examples, the interactive process between the mother and the child is realized through the interrogative mood type In the cases above, both the mother and the child are waiting for the confirmation Yes/No from the child/the mother

The only instance of polar interrogative is recognized with the particle ra sao (How?)

Mẹ yêu ơi con sẽ ra sao

Inter 2 (Song “Tìm về với mẹ (Find a way back to my mother)”, Phan Đinh Tùng)

Moving on to the imperative, as the imperative in Vietnamese war songs, this mood type in Vietnamese peace song is realized through particles such as xin, hãy, đừng

Subj Mood Adjunct Pred Imp 1

(Song “Con nợ mẹ (I owe my mother)”, Trịnh Đình Quang)

In Vietnamese, the exclamative, to some extent, looks like the declarative However, this mood type can be distinguished from the declarative by particles such as ôi, quá, lắm

VP10.12 Đau lòng, đau lòng mẹ lắm con ơi

Heart-broken mother so much dear

Compl Subj Excl ptcl Call

Excl 1 (Song “Tự khúc mẹ ru (Lullaby)”, Vũ Khắc Tuận)

5.2.2.2 Modality in Vietnamese peace songs

Table 5.10 Modality types in Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

As can be observed from Table 5.10, the percentage of modality in Vietnamese peace songs is not considerable Specifically, there are two instances of modalization expressing probability (1%) and seven instances of modalization expressing usuality (2%) in the songs The modalization of probability occurs in one song expressed with “không thể” that is under negative form at high value Below are two instances extracted from the song

Con không thể về với gia đình nữa rồi

I can‟t come back with our family

Kiếp này con không thể nói

Circ Subj Mod F2 (modalization – probability) Pred

(Song “Con nợ mẹ (I owe my mother)”, Trịnh Đình Quang)

In the song, the son owes his mother an apology because instead of repaying his mother for her deed of giving birth to and nurturing him, he has made a serious mistake It is the reason why the modalization of probability is used at high degree of certainty

Regarding the modalization of usuality, all of instances are mood adjunct of temporality that is realized with the word “luôn, luôn” (always) In English, it has another name adverb of frequency that denotes the percentage of occurrences is 100% Especially, in the songs, such modal meaning is used when the sayer/writer would like to confirm that whatever happens, the mother and the child will be together forever The following example will illustrate this point

Dù con lớn khôn vẫn luôn yêu mẹ mãi

Despite my growth always love mother forever

(Song “Ấu thơ (Childhood)”, Vũ Boòng)

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN TRANSITIVITY AND

Similarities and differences in transitivity and mood resources found in English

6.1.1 Similarities and differences in Transitivity resources in English and Vietnamese war mother song lyrics

Figure 6.1 Comparison of processes in English and Vietnamese war mother song lyrics

It is not difficult to see that all 6 types of processes are present in the song lyrics of the two languages Of those processes, material clauses comprise the largest percentage (40% in English war mother song lyrics and 46% in Vietnamese war

Material Behavioural Mental Relational Verbal Existential

122 mother song lyrics) The second rank and the third one in both languages are relational processes and mental processes, respectively However, there is a slight difference in the percentage of behavioural, verbal and existential processes In English, while behavioural and existential processes take up a small proportion (5% for each), in Vietnamese, they are verbal and existential processes (3% for each) Verbal clauses are found as many as 11% in English that ranks the fourth, but in Vietnamese this rank belongs to behavioural clauses (10%)

When material process in depicting the images of mother in wartime in both languages is taken into account, it is concluded that song lyrics share a quite few of similarities Verbs serving as material process in clauses in English and Vietnamese songs can be classified into three subgroups: (i) one that describes the happening of things around, (ii) one that describes the participation of soldiers in battles, and (iii) one that describes the outer experience of mothers Let us see some couples of examples from songs of both languages

(i) Verbs that describe the happening of things around

Ac Pro: mat Circ: man (quality)

(Song “To mom” – with glory, Jimmy Coates)

Nay én bay đầy trước ngõ

Now swallows fly fully in front of the alley

Ac Pro: mat Circ: man

Circ: loc (spatial) (Song “Xuân này con không về (I cannot go home this spring)”,

(ii) Verbs that describe the participation of soldiers in battles

EW3.14 that we 're fighting for the Blue

Ac Pro: mat Circ: cse

(What we are fighting for, Tom T Hall)

VW6.3 quần nhau với giặc fight against enemies

Pro: mat Circ: accomp (Song “Tấm áo chiến sĩ mẹ vá năm xưa (The soldiers’ shirts sewn by mother)”,

(iii) Verbs that describe the outer experience of mothers

She was reading a letter from her son far away

Ac Pro: mat Go Circ: loc Circ: loc

(Song “Christmas in Vietnam”, Eleanor Wells)

The old mother hoes soil

(Song “Bà mẹ Gio Linh (Gio Linh mother)”, Phạm Duy)

Apart from the similarities, there are differences pertaining to material process in songs of two languages as well In English, the verb “fight” is employed thirty- three times out of ninety-nine material clauses in describing the participation of soldiers in the battles Besides this verb, other common verbs with relatively high frequency are found in eleven songs such as “fire, shoot, do, write ” Differently, in Vietnamese song lyrics, the number of verbs used to describe the activities of the soldiers are few Furthermore, most verbs cannot stand alone but are followed by a scope or a goal

Ac Pro: mat Sco (process)

(Song “Bà mẹ Gio Linh (Gio Linh mother)”, Phạm Duy)

Ac Pro: mat Sco với các chị cầm chông sisters hold poles

(Song “Lời ru trên nương (Lullaby on the hilly field)”, Nguyễn Khoa Điềm)

The most remarkable difference between material clauses used in two languages is verbs describing mothers‟ involvement in the battles In English, mothers express their disapproval of the battle in Vietnam as well as their sons‟ engagement in the battle However, in Vietnamese, there are material clauses describing the mothers‟ direct participation in the battle There are two ways of supporting the battle from Vietnamese mothers A number of them try hard to produce more and more to support the front line while others take part in the battle directly

VW4.1 + VW4.2 + VW4.3 + VW4.4 gieo lúa sow rice

Pro: mat Go trồng khoai grow potatoes

Ngày qua ngày gặt hái

Pro: mat nuôi con raise children

(Song “Người mẹ miền Nam tay không đánh giặc (The Southern mother without weapons fighting against the enemy)”, Thuận Yến)

Mẹ giấu cả sư đoàn dưới đất

Mother hide the whole division underground

Ac Pro: mat Go Circ: loc (spatial)

(Song “Đất quê ta mênh mông (Our vast homeland)”, Hoàng Hiệp)

In eleven English songs, there are no material clauses giving an account of the mothers‟ immediate contribution to the battle One more thing that needs to be emphasized is the strong tie between main verbs and “co-verbs of direction” in Vietnamese material clauses “Co-verbs of direction” in Vietnamese are words such as “lên, xuống, ra, vào, đi ” Such combination is equivalent to phrasal or prepositional verb phrases in English (a verb with a preposition or an adverb)

Tay nâng lên rưng nước mắt đầy

Hands raise filling with tears

Ac Pro: mat Circ: man (quality)

Bộ đội kéo đến nhà chơi

The soldiers go to house to play

Ac Pro: mat Circ: loc

(Song “Bà mẹ Gio Linh (Gio Linh mother)”, Phạm Duy)

It is the reason why there is a difference in participants in the dominant process type of material The percentage of Agents in the name of the child is the highest (48%) in English war mother song lyrics while in Vietnamese, the percentage of Agents in the name of mother (41%) ranks the first This point is illustrated in Figure 6.2

Figure 6.2 Comparison of agents in material clauses in English and Vietnamese war mother song lyrics

The child The mother The other agent

The next point that needs to be discussed is relational processes used in both languages As described above, both languages have intensive attributive and intensive identifying subtypes in common Especially, the intensive attributive subtype appears in songs of both languages with the highest frequency In English, intensive attributive clauses are subdivided into three contrasts: (i) membership specification, (ii) phase of attribution, and (iii) domain of attribution while in Vietnamese, Hoang (1997, 2005, 2012) names three subtypes: (i) internal state process, (ii) alternative process and (iii) domain-specified process The process of analysis reveals that a number of intensive attributive clauses are used to construe

“inner experience” or “subjective sensations” of both soldiers and mothers This subtype belongs to domain of attribution in English and is labelled internal state process in Vietnamese

Car Pro: rel (intensive attributive)

(Song “To mom – with glory”, Jimmy Coates)

Mẹ mừng con đánh giặc hay

Mother happy because of your good fighting

Car Pro: rel (intensive attributive) Circ: cse (reason) (Song “Bà mẹ Gio Linh (Gio Linh mother)”, Phạm Duy)

As can be seen from the example above, when the attribute is an adjective, the presence of verb is optional Differently, in English it is obligatory so we see the verb “to be – am” in the examples

In addition, the intensive attributive clauses are also used to assign the carriers certain qualitative attributes In the case of war songs in English and Vietnamese, such clauses are used to describe the state of the battles or other related events Four illustrated examples are included in the subtype “phase of attribution” (alternative

127 process in Vietnamese) and “membership specification – quality” (domain-specified process in Vietnamese), respectively

EW1.19 our ammunition all got wet

Car Pro: rel (intensive attributive) Attr

(Song “To mom – with glory”, Jimmy Coates)

Môi thắm bết máu cờ

Red lips was filled with flag blood

Car Pro: rel (intensive attributive) Attr (Song “Bà mẹ Gio Linh (Gio Linh mother)”, Phạm Duy)

She 's not so little anymore

Car Pro: rel (intensive attributive)

(Song “My son”, Jan Howard)

VW5.11 mà lưng mẹ thì nhỏ

Car Attr (Pro: rel) (intensive attributive) (Song “Lời ru trên nương (Lullaby on the hilly field)”, Nguyễn Khoa Điềm)

However, there is no the presence of possessive attributive and circumstantial attributive subtypes in Vietnamese war song lyrics that are found in English war song lyrics

Speaking of mental process, this type is employed to express the inner thoughts and feelings of both mothers and soldiers Four subtypes of mental process are found in songs of both languages The equivalence of verbs in this type is rather obvious in both English and Vietnamese songs Let us take the following extracts as examples

Sen Pro: ment (cognitive) (Song “My son”, Jane Howard)

Nhớ những lúc mừng con lẫy rồi con ngồi

Remember the moments you know how to sit

(Song “Mẹ yêu con (Mother loves her child)”, Nguyễn Văn Tý)

Sen Pro: ment (emotive) Phen

(Song “What we are fighting for”, Tom T Hall)

VW1.39 thương nhớ đứa con xưa miss the child

(Song “Bà mẹ Gio Linh (Gio Linh mother)”, Phạm Duy)

Nevertheless, the number of cognitive subtypes is the largest in English, whereas the emotive clauses take up the largest proportion in Vietnamese

Thus far, the similarities and differences between three types of processes in English and Vietnamese war song lyrics have been discussed The next discussion focuses on three other types taking up smaller rates in the total clauses

In English, ranked after material, relational and mental processes is verbal process

In Vietnamese, this type of process ranks after behavioural process The observation on verbal clauses in two languages shows that there are occurrences of two subtypes of verbal process (activity and semiosis) in both languages

Mẹ nguyện cầu cho con sống rất say mê

I pray for you a passionate life

Sa Pro: vrb Circ: cse

Vrbge (Song “Bà mẹ Gio Linh (Gio Linh mother)”, Phạm Duy)

(Song “My son”, Jan Howard)

(Song “It’s for God, country and you mom”, Earnest Tubb)

VW4.30 hỏi đứa nào [[bắn chết con tao]] ask the person who killed my child

(Song “Người mẹ miền Nam tay không đánh giặc (The Southern mother without weapons fighting against the enemy)”, Thuận Yến)

However, the frequency of verbal clauses in English is higher than that in Vietnamese Typically, the verb “tell” repeats with the great frequency (10 per 27 verbal processes) Noticeably, this verb mostly contributes to the narrative process or the interaction between soldiers and mothers through letters

Rec there are people marching in our streets

Pro: existl Existt Circ: loc (spatial) (Song “What we are fighting for”, Tom T Hall)

Sayer Pro: verbal Rec Vrbge

(Song “To mom – with glory”, Jimmy Coates)

In Vietnamese songs, there is no equivalent occurrence of the verb “tell” The interaction through letters between soldiers and mothers is expressed as a promise to come back from the battle someday

VW7.24 + VW7.25 hẹn ngày chiến thắng promise the victory day

(temporal) con sẽ về mẹ thân yêu ơi

I will come back dear mother

(Song “Về thăm mẹ” (Return home to visit my mother), Trần Chung)

Similarities and differences in transitivity and mood resources found in English

6.2.1 Similarities and differences in Transitivity resources in English and Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

This part makes a comparison between English and Vietnamese mother peace songs First and foremost, the similarities and differences in terms of the number of processes between songs in two languages will be shown through Figure 6.5

Figure 6.5 Comparison of process types in English and Vietnamese peace song lyrics

Figure 6.5 shows that the material and relational take up the major percentage of process types despite the difference in the rank between the two types In English, the material ranks the first while in Vietnamese the material ranks the second Ranked the third is the mental in both languages Another similarity found in English and Vietnamese peace songs is that at the bottom list is the existential However, there is a minor difference in the rank of the behavioural and verbal In

Material Behavioural Mental Relational Verbal Existential

English, the percentage of verbal process (9%) is higher than that of the behavioural (5%) Nevertheless, in Vietnamese, the percentage of verbal process (4%) is smaller than that of the behavioural (10%)

Firstly, a brief discussion centres on three dominant process types in English and Vietnamese including material, relational and mental process In terms of similarities, there are three notable points here With regard to material clauses, both lyrics in two languages adopt concrete and abstract verbs to describe tangible and intangible “doings” process of the mothers and children Concrete material verbs are found to portray physical and tangible actions of the mothers Actually, they are activities the mothers do on a regular basis to take care of their children Especially, of the songs we have selected in English and Vietnamese, the image of the mothers‟ hands become topical in two songs in each language To some extent, the mothers‟ hands symbolize the silent sacrifice Most of daily work is performed through the mothers‟ hands

Just hold on to mama's hand

Pro: mat Circ: loc (spatial)

Ac Pro: causative Affected hurt you

(Song “Mama’s hands”, Queen Naija)

VP13.4 + VP13.5 + VP13.6 Đôi bàn tay sớm khuya bao mùa lặng thầm chăm chút

Hands through all seasons silently take care

Circ: man Pro: mat Đôi bàn tay thắp lên bao nụ cười

Hands lighten a lot of smiles

(Song “Đôi tay mẹ (Mother’s hands)”, Thanh Phương)

Despite the difference in the expressions, it can be seen that the mothers‟ hands bring from specific to marvellous things for their children This point is realized through material clauses in both languages

With respect to relational clauses, all three subtypes are used in the song lyrics of the two languages, in which, the intensive comes the first More interestingly, the intensive identifying intensive clauses are deployed to compare the images of mother with different symbols In addition, the intensive identifying also contributes to affirming the sole role of the mothers to children and vice versa In English, this type is realized through the verb “is” or “is like” The similar expression in Vietnamese is “là” or “giống như” This point is shown in the following examples

You are my light in the dark

Id Pro; rel (intensive identifying)

(temporal) (Song “Mother”, Dona Lewis)

Mẹ là ánh sáng đời con lối con về vòng tay thương mến Mother is the light and the path I return to beloved hands

Car Pro: rel (intensive identifying)

(Song “Tìm về với mẹ (Go home with mom)”, Phan Đinh Tùng)

But at it's end, we 're still your boys

Car Pro: rel (intensive identifying)

Có thế nào vẫn luôn là con của mẹ

Whatever happens, always be my child

Idr (Song “Tự khúc mẹ ru (Lullaby)”, Vũ Khắc Tuận)

Regarding the mental process, this type construes the internal states of the mothers and the children in the song lyrics of both languages Three types of the mental are found in the songs of both languages with cognitive as the dominant types The prominent similarity is the presence of equivalent mental verbs found in English and Vietnamese peace songs For examples, some typical equivalent pairs in English and Vietnamese are “know-biết” (cognitive), “see-thấy” (perceptive),

“love-yêu” (emotive), and “hope-mong” (desiderative)

And I will always love you

(Song “Goodbye’s saddest words”, Jobert John Matt Lange Singer)

Mẹ yêu thương con hơn yêu cuộc sống

Mother loves me than her life

(Song “Mẹ yêu (Dear mother)”, Phương Uyên)

In terms of differences in these three types, we have found no sharp difference The second point concerns the similarity in the use of the verbal, the behavioural and the existential process As mentioned in the previous analysis, two prominent verbal verbs in English songs are pray and thank In Vietnamese songs, we also figure out the equivalent verbal verb with pray Let‟s see in the example below

I pray for angels by your side

Sa Pro: vrb Circ: cse Circ: loc

(Song “A mother’s prayer”, Jim Brickman)

VP7.20 con thành tâm khấn xin nguyện

Sa Circ: manner Pro: vrb

(Song “Nhớ ơn mẹ (Be grateful to mother)”, Phan Đinh Tùng)

Speaking of the similarity in the behavioural, three subtypes of the behavioural are found in both English and Vietnamese peace songs They are near-mental, near- verbal and near-material subtypes that are named in Vietnamese para-mental, para- verbal and para-material Regarding the last type – the existential, the structure there ^to be ^ existent in English is comparable to có/còn ^ existent in Vietnamese However, while in English, the writers merely use the structure with there, in

Vietnamese appears the other verbs realizing existential process such as thiếu, hằn lên

In both languages, the narrator of the story in each song is either the mother or the child It can be seen that the mother and the child take the central role in all these songs

Regarding the circumstantial elements, there is a slight difference between the two languages Although the circumstance of location takes up the high number in both languages, the circumstance of location is the highest one in English while in Vietnamese it is the circumstance of manner

6.2.2 Similarities and differences in Mood resources in English and Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

Figure 6.6 Comparison of mood types in English and Vietnamese peace song lyrics

Concerning the similarities between mood types used in English and Vietnamese peace songs, there are three notable points Firstly, all three mood types: the declarative, the interrogative and the imperative occur in song lyrics of the two languages Secondly, the declarative is the dominant mood type with the high percentage in each language (97% in English and 96% in Vietnamese) Thirdly, the declarative clauses in both languages are employed to either tell a story about the mother/the child or give information about the sentiment between the mother and the child In addition, regarding explicit Subjects, pronouns or nominal groups play as explicit Subjects in the declarative clauses Especially, the use of two pronouns I and You is repeated many times in English, which is equivalent to con/mẹ or mẹ/con in Vietnamese

With regard to differences, two types of interrogative are found in Vietnamese while there is only one type (polar one) in English Despite being used one time in Vietnamese song lyrics, the non-polar interrogative, to some extent, contributes to effectively convey the researcher‟s message to the listeners/readers With How- question, the child soldier wonders how his/her life will be without his/her mother This question seems to show the important role of the mother in each child‟s life Another difference is the employment of the exclamative There is no instance of this mood type in English; however, this mood type is present three times in Vietnamese As mentioned in the previous part, the exclamative is considered as a subtype of the declarative (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) with similar structure

Subject^Finite In Vietnamese, this mood type is identified by particles such as ôi, quá, lắm It is employed to express the emotion of the writer or the speaker Hence, the researchers in Vietnamese songs sometimes take advantage of this mood type to help the characters in their songs to convey their feelings

Con đây thật quá vô tâm

(Song “Tìm về với mẹ (Find a way back to my mother)”, Phan Đinh Tùng)

Figure 6.7 Comparison of modality between English and Vietnamese peace song lyrics

As can be seen from the Figure 6.7, the similarity between modality in the two languages is not considerable A minor similarity in modality two languages share is the use of the modalization expressing probability However, speaking of the frequency of the probability modality, there is a sharp difference between the songs in the two languages First, 67 instances of the probability are investigated in English song lyrics whereas this number in Vietnamese is two, a rather modest number As discussed in the previous part, the modalization expressing probability constitutes a part of lyrics in English peace songs The characters in the songs deploy it as a tool to convey their thoughts or feelings to the listeners/readers The modal operators of probability are used when the one-way interaction occurs When discussing modality in English peace songs, the researcher has illustrated two examples of how low and high probabilities make a major contribution to express the feelings or thoughts of the mothers or the children In this part, the probability of median value is taken as an example

We 'll be back along just a matter of time

Mod 2: Modal operator/median/probability

The declarative clause above is the soldiers-children‟s promise towards their mother The modal operator “will” shows that the children are not 100% sure about the day they return At least, their promise, to some extent, comforts their mother The second difference that is clear lies in the use of the obligation and the usuality expressions in English and Vietnamese peace songs Despite being not much, the obligation appears four times in English song while there is no instance of this modality type in Vietnamese.

Summary

The similarities and differences between Transitivity resource and Mood resource in English war song lyrics and those in Vietnamese war song lyrics, between Transitivity resource and Mood resource in English war song lyrics and those in Vietnamese peace song lyrics have been made in this chapter In English and Vietnamese war song lyrics, despite the relative resemblance in the rank of process types (material clauses as the highest one and existential clauses as the lowest type) and the dominant mood type (the declarative), the contents described of the dominant process type are not similar The percentage of modality expressions is rather humble and does not constitute the major part of lyrics although they are deployed in some cases The images of mother in song lyrics about mother in war of two languages are not the same The mother in English war mother song lyrics is depicted as the spiritual support and source of strength for their children in the battles; whereas, the mother in Vietnamese war mother song lyrics is the great contributor with direct engagement in the battles Despite of the differences, the images of mother in song lyrics of two languages are portrayed as the loving and

146 affectionate one In English and Vietnamese peace songs, the rank of process types is a little different Material process stays the first while this position is relational one in Vietnamese The declarative is still dominant mood type in both languages The difference in the images of mother in song lyrics of two languages is minor Both depict the mothers as the dedicated caregivers and irreplaceable people

DISCUSSION ON THE IMAGES OF MOTHER IN ENGLISH

The images of mother in English and Vietnamese war mother song lyrics

With regard to the images of mother in English war song lyrics, it can be concluded that the images of mother in English war song lyrics are reflected with three outstanding characteristics First, the mothers are represented as the pillar of strength and source of spiritual support for the soldiers whenever they are in trouble or in depressing situations This point is shown in the highest rank of material clauses (40%) when the soldiers tell their mothers about what happened to them in the frontline An investigation into the agents (Actors) in material clauses in English war song lyrics shows that the percentage of Actors in the name of child is the highest (48%) Although most of actors in these material clauses are the children, the images of mother are still vividly depicted Two main reasons are responsible for the high percentage of agents as the child expounded in chapter 6 In the letters that the soldiers write to their mothers, they share about what they are doing and what is happening to them or even revive the childhood memories Another reason is that in the songs with the voice of the mother, in addition to the activities she is involved in, she often recalls sweet memories of her child In her remembrance of her child, her child often plays the role of Actors in material clauses

Let us take a look at a couple of examples below, in which the child recalls sweet memories and tells his mother what he was experiencing

(Song “To mom – with glory, Jimmy Coates)

I „ve been transferred now to Vietnam

(Song “To mom”, Jimmy Coates)

In addition to material process, mental process (19%) assists the child in expressing his/her love to his/her mother The soldiers also dreadfully miss their mothers and their homes, especially when the family gets together at the end of day or on sacred occasions like Christmas Day

EW11.15 and I miss you most of all at super time

Subject Pro: mental (emotive) Phenomenon Circ: location

(temporal) (Song “From Sai Gon to Little Rock”, Charlie C Freeman)

It can be seen that the representation of mother as the pillar of strength and source of spiritual support in English war song lyrics is the most salient The contextual features, to some extent, can help to reason this point Let us reconsider the context situation of eleven English war mother song lyrics

- Field: A number of songs describe the miserable situation of the soldiers at the frontline They are asked to join army and fight in the battle that is far away from home The remaining depicts the situation of their mothers at home

- Tenor: The songs are the verbal exchanges between soldiers and their mothers through letters or vice versa, between the soldiers‟ mothers and them

- Mode: The songs are in written form if the lyrics are read and in spoken form if the songs are sung

Three of eleven songs are written on Christmas Day In terms of culture, it is a sacred occasion for people in Christian countries It is the time for every people to return home to get together whenever they are Hence, that the soldiers miss their mothers in arduous moments of their life firmly prove the mother‟s role

Second, the mothers are depicted as the loving and affectionate one The mothers‟ hearts always turn towards their soldiers in the battle Mental clauses (emotive and desiderative subtypes) are deployed for them to express their feelings of missing for their children and long for their children‟s return In addition, in the mother often recalls memories of her child in material clauses that describe his/her childhood activities Most of material and mental clauses mentioned above are expressed through declarative mood type (81%) Because the mothers desire for the return of their sons, they hold a slight hope that someday they will meet their sons again The reason we say it is a slight hope due to the modality expressing probability in the songs The probability expressions used to express the mothers‟ hope is at medium value, which shows the uncertainty of the mothers themselves

Son, I want you home right away

(Song “From Sai Gon to Little Rock”, Charlie C Freeman)

Third, the mothers act as the protectors for their children Their love for children is manifested by their protest against the war their children are forced to join In this aspect, the combination of verbal clauses (11%) along with interrogative clauses (9%) becomes an effective tool to depict the images of mother The mothers raise their voice to question the government or their son about the meaning of the war Despite that, they still pray for their children and pray to God to protect their children

(Song “My son”, Jan Howard)

Goal Actor Pro: material when you win a war

Actor Pro: material Scope (Song “What do you win when you win a war”, Green Stridel)

Next, the images of mother in Vietnamese war song lyrics will be generalized The discussion in the previous part reveals the image of Vietnamese mothers in wartime with three prominent features Different from the mother in English war song lyrics, the mother in Vietnamese song lyrics is characterized with her great devotion to their soldiers and their countries In other words, they are great contributors A high number of material clauses (46%) are used to display the mothers‟ participation in the war The mothers through different activities considerably contribute to the success of the resistance

Mẹ lội qua con suối dưới mưa bom không ngại

Mother goes through the stream under a rain of bomb unhesitatingly

(Song “Huyền thoại mẹ (The legend of mother)”, Trịnh Công Sơn)

They also consider the engagement in the war is their responsibility This point is shown through modality expressing obligation (1%) at high value that is discussed in the preceding pages

VW6.4 nên các mẹ già lại phải thức thâu đêm

So these old mothers must stay up overnight

Dec 6 (Song “Tấm áo chiến sĩ mẹ vá năm xưa (The soldiers’ shirts sewn by mother)”,

The cultural settings behind the songs can be accounted for this representation of mothers in Vietnamese war song lyrics When Vietnam was invaded by the enemy, all Vietnamese people regardless of the age or gender devote their life to protecting their country The mothers not only let their children take part in the battle but they also devote their life to liberating their country

Second, like mothers in English war song lyrics, they are loving and affectionate mothers Vietnamese mothers who stay in the rear yearn for the news of their children day and night Their love and affection for their children in the battle are expressed by means of mental (15%) and relational process (23%) The emotive subtype of mental process as well as the domain of attribution expressing subjective sensations of the relational process enables the mothers to express their thoughts and emotion

VW1.39 thương nhớ đứa con xưa miss the child

(Song “Bà mẹ Gio Linh (Gio Linh mother)”, Phạm Duy)

Lastly, the mothers are seen as the symbol of heroic sacrifice and the soldiers‟ strong motivation to fight in the war The writers take advantage of the relational process to demonstrate this aspect The images of mother are manifested in different aspects that become an indispensable part during the soldiers‟ journey to the battle

In terms of mood type, the declarative (96%) takes up the major part of song lyrics to depict the images of Vietnamese mother in wartime

Chỉ bên mẹ là mùa xuân thôi

Identified Pro: relational (intensive identifying) Identifier (Song “Mùa xuân của mẹ (Mother’s spring)”, Trịnh Lâm Ngân)

The generalizations above indicate that the most noticeable difference between the images of mother in English war song lyrics and the images of mother in Vietnamese war song lyrics is the mothers‟ significant engagement in the war to protect their children and their country The possible reason is because the difference in the historical background and the nature of the battle It is not irrational when the mothers in English war song lyrics express their objection to the war, which is mostly expressed through the process of verbal and interrogative clauses The mothers ask the government take their sons back and they beg even the Lord to protect their sons It can be said that the mothers in English war song lyrics are trying their best to save their children In addition, they continuously put the questions about the meaning of the war and ask the government for their sons to return home.

The images of mother in English and Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

The first discussion focuses on the images of mother in English peace song lyrics The analysis of Transitivity as well as Mood and Modality in English songs reveals two key features of the mothers in English peace songs Firstly, they are dedicated caregivers who take care of their children both physically and mentally This point is expressed through material clauses (33%) with concrete and abstract verbs Concrete material verbs reconstruct the mothers‟ activities or the jobs the mothers did to give their children a better life Simultaneously, abstract verbs show the mothers‟ care and protection in terms of spirit Let us see two examples below

You ‟d still work hard to help me see that everything is not as it appears

Circ: cause (purpose) (Song “Everyday is mother’s day to me”, Tim Mc Morris)

I developed a love [[that was so unconditional]]

(Song “Mama’s hands, Queen Naija)

Secondly, the mothers are an indispensable part in the children‟s lives This time the mothers are compared to the light; another time the mothers play as the motivation for the children to firmly stay on the journey of life The researchers adopt relational clauses (30%) to display this aspect In terms of mood types, like in English war song lyrics, the declarative (97%) continues to be the primary mood type in depicting the images of mother in English peace song lyrics A small number of modal elements are employed in English peace song lyrics and most of them are modality expressions of probability (18%); only 1% is modality expressions of obligation Although employed in a limited number, to some extent, modality assists the characters in the songs in expressing their attitudes or desire

You are my light in the dark

Identified Pro: rel (intensive identifying)

(temporal) (Song “Mother”, Dona Lewis)

The next discussion centres on the images of mother in Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics The analysis of Transitivity in Vietnamese songs provides linguistic evidence for the researcher to reach the conclusion about some prominent features of Vietnamese mothers in peace-time In the first place, the Vietnamese mothers devoted their youth and their life to bringing up their children This feature is depicted effectively through relational processes (35%) In relational clauses in Vietnamese peace songs, even when the Carrier (Identified) in the clause is not the mother, the focus of the clauses is still the mother It is because the domain or the Identifier (Attribute) targeted is the mother The composers have adopted a wide

154 range of epithets to ascribe precious values to the mothers, which are illustrated in the preceding pages Let us take a look at some of examples again

VP5.24 Ánh sao đêm cho con sáng soi là mẹ yêu

The star lightening me is dear mother

(Attribute) Identifier (Song “Mẹ yêu (Dear mother)”, Phương Uyên)

Ngày mưa tháng nắng mẹ tôi áo vai bạc màu

Rainy months, sunny days my mother shoulder pieaces worn-out

Cir: loc (temporal) domain Carrier Attribute (Pro: relational – intensive) (Song “Quang gánh mẹ tôi (Mother’s yoke), Lê Đức Hùng)

They are diligent women who are willing to accept a harsh life to bring a brighter future to their children In addition, material processes (32%) also clarify specific the mothers‟ actions in daily life to take care of their children Although the circumstantial element is optional in the process, in some cases of Vietnamese clauses, it is indispensable in completing the meaning of the clause To put it differently, without the circumstantial, the clause cannot convey the meaning to the readers/listeners fully As mentioned in the previous pages, the circumstantial elements provide the information about time, place, manner that enable the readers/listeners adequately understand the mothers‟ sacrifice Circumstance of location (31%) and circumstance of manner (~31%) are employed with the highest percentage and form a major part in song lyrics to portray the images of mother in Vietnamese peace songs

Quang gánh thân gầy đôi chân bước

With bamboo frame on thin body pairs of foot walk

Circ: accomp Actor Pro: material

(Song “Quang gánh mẹ tôi (Mother’s yoke)”, Lê Đức Hùng)

Sinh con ra trong bao nhiêu khó nhọc

Pro: material Scope particle Circ: manner (quality)

(Song “Mẹ yêu (Dear mother)”, Phương Uyên)

In the second place, like mothers in English songs, the Vietnamese mothers play a unique role in the heart of every child Besides comparing the mothers with other great images, the children in songs also confirm that their mother is the only one in this world This point is presented through relational process (35%) Furthermore, mental clauses (15%) are deployed for the children to express their profound gratitude to their mothers

Mẹ là ánh sáng đời con lối con về vòng tay thương mến Mother is the light and the path I return to beloved hands

(Song “Tìm về với mẹ (Find a way back to my mother)”, Phan Đinh Tùng)

VP4.9 lời ru mãi ghi nhớ âm thầm

(Song “Lời ru cho con (Lullaby for you)”, Nguyễn Xuân Phương)

The declarative (96%) is the dominant type in depicting the images of mother Both type of modality: modalization and modulation are employed in Vietnamese peace song lyrics but they comprise an extremely small number (2% of probability expression and 1% of usuality).

Summary

Briefly, although all mothers save unconditional love for their children, in different contexts and different languages, they are depicted in different ways

In English war song lyrics, the images of mother are represented with three distinctive features: (i) the mother is the pillar of strength and spiritual support for

156 the children; (ii) the mother is the loving and affectionate one; (iii) the mother acts as the protector for their child In Vietnamese war songs, the mother is characterised with three features: (i) the mother is the great contributor to the victory of the war; (ii) the mother is the loving and affectionate one; (iii) the mother is depicted as the symbol of heroic sacrifice

With regard to peace song lyrics, in both English and Vietnamese peace song lyrics, the mother is depicted with two images: (i) the mother is portrayed as the dedicated caregivers who is willing to sacrifice their youth and whole life for their children; (ii) they are also unique symbols which cannot be replaced

CONCLUSION

Synopsis

8.1.1 Experiential and interpersonal resources to depict the images of mother in English and Vietnamese war mother song lyrics

Regarding Transitivity resources in English and Vietnamese war song lyrics, the researcher has provided the findings and discussion of process types in songs of each language It is clear from the findings that both languages share several similarities in terms of process types Firstly, all six types of process are found in songs of both languages, of which the material, the relational and the mental constitute the major part of the songs in both languages The material processes are used to describe the outer experience of both mothers and soldiers, and relational and the mental processes are used to describe the feeling and emotional state of mothers and soldiers-sons However, a number of differences in the use of Transitivity resources can be found in English and Vietnamese lyrics as well Although all six process types are found in song lyrics, the number of process subtypes of each is not the same The most noticeable difference is the focus of the material in each language Material clauses in English mainly depict the engagement of the soldiers in the war while material clauses in Vietnamese mostly portray the image of mother directly joining the war to protect their children, the soldiers and their country

In terms of mood and modality types in English and Vietnamese war song lyrics, it is clear from the account that both similarities and differences exist in song lyrics of the two languages With regard to mood types, the declarative takes up the highest percentage of all mood types in both languages In other words, declarative clauses constitute a major part of song lyrics The content of such clauses has been shown in the previous section Besides the declarative, the interrogative and the imperative are also found in the songs However, the image of mother is mostly depicted with declarative clauses that describe the mothers‟ devotion to the war to protect their children and country In English, declarative clauses give the listeners/readers

158 information about the inner sensations and the states of the mothers waiting for their children at home In addition, the interrogative also plays an important role in depicting the images of mother in English Despite not directly taking part in the war like Vietnamese mothers, American mothers raise their voice to express their disapproval of the war Concerning modality, modalization expressing probability and modulation expressing obligation are found in both languages However, the frequency of modality expressions in English is much higher in Vietnamese Such modality expressions occur when there is one-way interaction between the mothers and the soldiers

8.1.2 Experiential and interpersonal resources to depict the images of mother in English and Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics

Concerning Transitivity resources in English and Vietnamese peace song lyrics, the researcher has provided the findings and the description of process types in each language Then the researcher attempts to draw similarities as well as the differences after the description of Transitivity resources in each language A close examination reveals that there are considerable similarities in English and Vietnamese peace song lyrics Specifically, three dominant process types in English and Vietnamese peace song lyrics are the material, the relational and the mental The three process types focus on describing the mothers‟ sacrifice for their children on a regular basis Noticeably, a lot of similar images compared with the images of mother are found in both songs through relational clauses

In relation to mood types, like in English and Vietnamese war songs, the declarative is the dominant type in both languages However, in Vietnamese, despite a modest number of interrogative and exclamative clauses, they still significantly contribute to the content of songs It is because they help characters in the songs express their wonder as well as their inner feeling and emotion Regarding modality, once again, like in English war song lyrics, the writers in English peace songs use a high number of modality expressions during the interaction between the mothers and the children

8.1.3 The images of mother constructed in English and Vietnamese mother song lyrics

It can be concluded that through experiential and interpersonal meanings, the mother is represented with a number of images In English war mother song lyrics, the mother is depicted with three distinctive images: (i) the pillar of strength and the source of spiritual support; (ii) the protector; and (iii) the loving and affectionate one In Vietnamese war mother song lyrics, the images of mother are represented as (i) the great contributor; (ii) the loving and affectionate one; and (iii) the symbol of heroic sacrifice It can be seen that the remarkable difference between the images of mother in English and Vietnamese war song lyrics is the direct engagement in the battle, which contributes to different images In the battle, the mother in English war song lyrics is seen as the pillar of strength and the source of spiritual support; whereas, the mother in Vietnamese war mother song lyrics is represented as the great contributor and the symbol of heroic sacrifice Regarding the images of mother in English and Vietnamese peace mother song lyrics, the difference in depiction is minor Both of languages represent the mother as (i) the dedicated caregivers; and (ii) the unique symbols.

Limitations of the study

The study has investigated the images of mother in English and Vietnamese war and peace mother song lyrics Simultaneously, the resources including Transitivity and Mood used to depict the images of mother have been also shown Within a given time span and technical constraints, it is inevitable that there are a number certain of limitations on the study First, although two aspects of metafunctions (experiential and interpersonal meanings) were examined, all the elements in the two strands of meaning have not been fully investigated For example, in Transitivity resources, only participants in the dominant process type are examined The different participants in other types of process should be explored to achieve a well-rounded view of the roles of mother Second, the song lyrics in English and Vietnamese war and peace song lyrics are explored at the rank of clauses; therefore, different ranks

160 named Above, Below or Beyond Clause can be explored to give a deeper insight into the images of mother in English and Vietnamese war and peace song lyrics.

Implications and suggestions for future research

That SFL has been adopted as theoretical framework for this study has implied that SFL is a comprehensive model and an effective tool for text analysis, especially in English and Vietnamese In addition to song lyrics, researchers can apply SFL to different genres to shed the light on different aspects or linguistic features of a text

It is obvious from the description of the images of mother in English and Vietnamese song lyrics that a lot of different aspects in song lyrics in the two languages need to be further explored In this paper, the researcher only was able to examine two aspects of linguistic features including experiential and interpersonal meaning to reach the conclusion about the images of mother in English and Vietnamese songs Hence, more work should be done to investigate more delicate choices to make more general conclusion Due to time constraints, the selection of songs in the two languages is made at sufficient number with certain criteria This suggests that to have a more comprehensive view on the images of mother in both languages, enquiry into a larger number of songs and different aspects of SFL is needed

The research has been concerned with two strands of metafunctions at the rank of clause simplex in English and Vietnamese There are other ranks left unaccounted, which can become a matter for future research Specifically, the other research can be conducted with Below or Above Clause In addition, if possible, the researcher can discover other software that assist data collection and analysis procedure, which can help these processes be time-saving and more concise

In addition, the study has shown that these elements realizing three metafunctions of language play the crucial roles in achieving social purpose or connecting with listeners or readers This is the reason why a number of students are good at writing while the others are not Analysis of students‟ writing from SFL perspective is supposed to be an effective way to identify the problems they encounter Therefrom, teachers can suggest plans to improve their students‟ writing

(1) Ta, T.T.H (2016) So sánh hình ảnh người mẹ trong các bài hát tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt theo quan điểm ngôn ngữ học chức năng hệ thống Tạp chí KHXH & NV,

(2) Ta, T.T.H (2021) An Analysis of Songs about Mother by Nguyen Van Ty from Systemic Functional Linguistics Perspective VNU Journal of Foreign Studies,

37(4), 39-54 DOI: https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4688

(1) Ta, T.T.H (2015, November 30 – December 2), Mother in English and Vietnamese songs from systemic linguistics perspective [Conference presentation]

Inter-Academia Asia, Hotel Associa Shizuoka

(2) Ta, T.T.H (2017) The representation of mother image in English and Vietnamese songs from systemic linguistics perspective Proceedings of 2017 National Graduate Research Symposium on Linguistics, Foreign Language Education Interdisciplinary Fields,140-150 Hanoi, 2017 Hanoi: Vietnam

(3) Ta, T.T.H (2018) An analysis of interpersonal meaning used in selected mother songs by Trinh Cong Son Proceedings of 2018 International Graduate Research Symposium on Linguistics, Foreign Language Education Interdisciplinary Fields, 160-173 Hanoi, 2018 Hanoi: Vietnam

(4) Ta, T.T.H (2021) “Nhat ki cua me” by Nguyen Van Chung and the English Translation by Ta Nguyen Tan Truong – a Systemic Functional Comparison

Proceedings of 2021 National Conference on Linguistics, Foreign Language Education Interdisciplinary Fields, 803-814 Hanoi, 2021 Hanoi: Vietnam

1 Azarian, R (2015) Potentials and Limitations of Comparative Method in Social Science International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(4), 113-125

2 Bang, J.Y (2020) Hình tượng người phụ nữ mới trong một số tác phẩm tiêu biểu của tự lực văn đoàn và văn học Hàn Quốc thời Nhật thuộc [Doctoral thesis,

Hanoi National University of Education] Hanoi National University of Education

3 Booth, M.W (2009) The art of words in songs Quarterly Journal of

4 Bradshaw, I (1998) Figures of speech Retrieved from http://theologue.wordpress.com/tag/figures-of-speech/

5 Bui, T.N (2004) Khảo sát các động từ tình thái trong tiếng Việt [Doctoral thesis, University of Social Sciences and Humanities] Hanoi

6 Carter, R & Nash, W (1990) Seeing through language: a guide to styles of

English writing London: Basil Blackwell

7 Chowdhury, R (2019) Embarking on Research in the Social Sciences: Understanding Foundational Concepts VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 35 (1), 99-

8 Clough, P & Nutbrown, C (2012) A Student‟s Guide to Methodology

9 Cordeiro, C.M (2018) Using systemic functional linguistics as method in identifying semogenic strategies in intercultural communication: A study of the collocation of “time” and “different” by Swedish managers with international management experiences Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 47

10 Creswell, J.W (2014) Research design in qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods SAGE publications

11 Cu, D.T (1953) Phong cách học và đặc điểm từ vựng Tiếng Việt NXB Đại học và Trung học chuyên nghiệp: Hà Nội

12 Denzin, N.K & Lincoln, V.S (2005) Introduction: The discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research SAGE Publications

13 Diep, Q B (2005) Ngữ pháp tiếng Việt Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản giáo dục

14 Diep, Q B (2013) Ngữ pháp Việt Nam Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản Giáo dục

15 Do, T.M (2007) Thematic structure in English and Vietnmaese – A comparative study from the systemic functional perspective [Doctoral thesis,

College of Foreign Universities] National Library of Vietnam Publishing

16 Downing, A and Locke, P (1992) A University Course in English Grammar UK: Prentice Hall

17 Duovskiy, J (2013) Research Approach Retrieved from https://research- methodology.net/research-methodology/research-approach/

18 Eggins, S (1994) An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics

19 Eliyahu, A.B (2014) Understanding different types of research: What‟s the difference between qualitative and quantitative approaches? Retrieved from https://www.evidencebasedmentoring.org/on-methods-whats-the-difference- between-qualitative-and-quantitative-approaches/

20 Ethridge, D.E (2004) “Research Methodology in Applied Economics”

21 Fries, P.H (1995) Discourse in Society: Systemic Functional Perspective

In P Fries & M.Gregory (Eds.), Patterns of Information in Initial Position in English Norwood, New Jersy: Ablex Publishing Corporation

22 Garcia Montes, P.A., Sarge Barboza, A.M., & Lacharmes Olascoaga, A.I

(2014) Systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis as alternatives when dealing with texts PROFILE Issues in Teachers‟ Professional Development, 16 (2), 101-106

23 Gardner, H (1983) Music intelligence Harward University: USA

24 Gerot, L & Wignell, P (1994) Making Sense of Functional Grammar

25 Glass, G V., & Hopkins, K D (1984) Statistical methods in education and psychology Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prenctice Hall

26 Greene, J C (2007) Mixed methods in social inquiry San Francisco:

27 Halliday, M.A.K & Hasan, R (1985) Language, Context, and text: Aspects of Language in a Social-semiotic Perspective Victoria: Deakin University Press

28 Halliday, M.A.K & Martin, J R (1993) Writing Science London &

Washington DC: The Falmer Press

29 Halliday, M.A.K & Matthiessen, C M I M (1999) Construing Experience through Meaning: A Language-based Approach to Cognition London

30 Halliday, M.A.K & Matthiessen, C M I M (2004) An Introduction to Functional Grammar London E Arnold

Introduction to functional grammar (4 th ed.) University of Birmingham, UK

32 Halliday, M.A.K (1973) Explorations in the Functions of Language

33 Halliday, M.A.K (1978) Language as Social Semiotic: The Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London: Edward Arnold

34 Halliday, M.A.K (1991) The Notion of Context in Language Education In Thao Le & McCausland (Eds.) Language Education: Interaction and Development (pp 1-25) Proceedings of International Conferences Held in Ho Chi Minh City, 30 March – 1 April, 1991 Launceston: University of Tasmania

35 Halliday, M.A.K (1992) Systemic Theory In The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics London: Pergamon Press

36 Halliday, M.A.K (1994) An introduction to functional grammar Second Edition London: Edward Arnold

37 Halliday, M.A.K (1996) On Grammar and Grammatics In Hasan, R., C Cloran & D.G Butt (Eds.), Functional Description: Theory and Practice

38 Herawati, A (2010) Systemic Functional Linguistics as a basic theory in translating English wordplays HUMANORA, 1(2), 327-379

39 Hoang V.V (2018) “Bánh trôi nước” and three English Versions of Translation: A Systemic Functional Comparison VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 34(4), 1-35 DOI: 10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4279

40 Hoang, V.V (1997) An Experiential Grammar of the Vietnamese Clause: A

Functional Description [Doctoral disseration, Macquarie University] Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

41 Hoang, V.V (2005) Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm của cú tiếng Việt: Mô tả theo quan điểm chức năng hệ thống Social Sciences Publishing house

42 Hoang, V.V (2006) Introducing Discourse Analysis Hanoi: Vietnam

Education Publishing House Co., Ltd

43 Hoang, V.V (2012) An Experiential Grammar of the Vietnamese Clause

Vietnam Education Publishing House Limited Company

44 Hoang, V.V (2019) An Interpersonal Analysis of a Vietnamese Middle School Science Textbook In Discourses of Southeast Asia The M.A.K Halliday Library Functional Linguistics Series, pp 129-144 Rajandran, K and Manan, S

(eds.) Sringer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13- 9883_7

45 Hoang, V.V (2020) The Language of Vietnamese School Science Textbooks: A Transitivity Analysis of Seven Lessons (Texts) of Biology 8

Linguistics and the Human Sciences LHS VOL 14-1-2, 1-35 https://doi.org/10.1558/lhs.31751

46 Hoang, V.V (2021) “Metafunctions of Language” in Systemic Functional Linguistics: A Framework for the Interpretation of Meaning of Text in Social Context VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 37(4), 1-25 DOI: https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4750

47 Holt, R.T., & Turner, J.E (1970) The Methodology of Comparative Research: A Sypmosium from the Center for Comparative Studies in Technological Development and Social Change and the Department of Political Science

48 Istiqomah, A (2011) “A Systemic Functional Linguistics analysis on the passionate love song lyrics” Retrieved from http://repository.unej.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/10022/Amalia%20Istiqoma h%20(2)_1.pdf?sequence=1

49 Johnson, R B., & Onwuegbuzie, A J (2004), Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come Educational Researcher, 33, 14-16

50 Kachru, B (1985) "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle" In R Quirk and H Widowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (p11-36) Cambridge University Press

51 Kaplan, R.B (1966) Cultural thought patterns in Inter-cultural education

52 Karen (2009) Teaching foreign languages through songs Edinburgh:

53 Knupfer, N N., & McLellan, H (1996) Descriptive research methodologies

In D H Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp 1196–1212) New York: Macmillan

54 Kothari (2004) Research methodology methods and techniques New Age

55 Kusnierek, A (2016) The role of music and songs in teaching English vocabulary to students World Scientific News: WSN 43(1) 2016 (1-55)

56 Lakoff & Johnson (1920) Metaphor we live by John Benjamins

57 Leech.N.L (1969) A linguistic Guide to English Poetry London: Longman Ltd

58 Leedy, P D (1993) Practical research: planning and design New Jersey: Prentice-Hall

59 Lijphart, A (1971) Comparative Politics and Comparative Method The

American Political Science Review, 65(3), 682-693 https://doi.org/10.2307/1955513

60 Lor, P J (2011) International and Comparative Librarianship Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG

61 Machin, D (2010) Analysing popular music: image, sound, text SAGE

62 Malinowski, B (1923) The problem of meaning in primitive languages In:

C K Ogden and I.A Richards The meaning of meaning A study of the influence of language upon thought and the science of symbolism Supplement I London:

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner (Fourth edition revised 1936): 296-336

63 Martin, J.R (1985) Process and Text: Two Aspects of Human Semiosis

Systemic Perspectives on Discourse: Selected Theoretical Papers from the 9 th International Congress Vol.1 Benson, J.D & W.S Greaves (Eds.) Norwood, NJ:

64 Martin, J.R (1992) English Text: System and Structure John Benjamins

65 Martin, J.R., Matthiessen, C.M.I.M., & C Painter (1997) Working with Functional Grammar Arnold

66 Matthiessen, C (2010) Systemic functional linguistics developing Annual Review of Functional Linguistics, 2, 8-63

67 Matthiessen, C.M.I.M (1995) Lexicogrammatical Cartography: English Systems Tokyo: International Language Science Publishers

68 Mills, M., Bunt, G.G., & Bruijn, J (2006, September 1) Comparative Research: Persistent Problem and Promising Solutions Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0268580906067833

69 Mills, M., Van de Bunt, G.G., & De Bruijin, J (2006) Comparative research: Persistent problems and promising solutions International Sociology, 21(5) 619-631

70 Ngo, D P (2007) Hợp phần nghĩa liên nhân của câu trong ngữ pháp chức năng hệ thống Vietnam National University Press, Hanoi

71 Ngo, T N (2001) Một số phương tiện biểu hiện nghĩa tình thái trong câu ghép tiếng Việt [Doctoral thesis, University of Social Sciences and Humanities]

72 Nguyen, H (2004) Understanding English semantics VNU Publishing house

73 Nguyen, H L (2016) Vietnamese women‟s representation in TV commercials related to lunar new year: a critical discourse analysis [Master‟s thesis,

University of Languages and International Studies] University of Languages and International Studies

74 Nguyen, K L (2019) A contrast of modes expressing interpersonal meaning in English-Vietnamese patient information leaflets (applying the theory of Systemic Functional Linguistics) [Doctoral thesis, University of Social Sciences and Humanities] University of Social Sciences and Humanities

75 Nguyen, T M T (2013) Logico-semantic Relationship in English and Vietnamese Clause Complexes [Doctoral thesis, University of Languages and

International Studies] University of Languages and International Studies

76 Nguyen, T.H (2012) International Journal of English Linguistics

Transitivity Analysis of “Heroic mother” by Hoa Pham, 2(4), 85-100 Retrieved from https://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijel/article/view/17916

77 Nguyen, T.Q.H (2018) Đặc điểm ngôn ngữ của các văn bản thuyết minh bảo tàng trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt từ quan điểm ngôn ngữ học chức năng hệ thống

[Doctoral thesis, Graduate Academy of Social Sciences] Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences

78 Nunan, D (1992) Introducing Discourse Analysis Penguin: London

79 O‟Donnell, M (2012) Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics for Discourse Analysis Language, Function and Cognition, pp 1-8

80 Ragin, C.C & Rubinson, C (2009) The distinctiveness of comparative research In Landman, T & Robinson, N, The SAGE handbook of comparative politics SAGE publications

81 Ragin, C.C (1987) The comparative method: Moving beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies Berkeley, CA: University of California Press

82 Ratih Wulan Sari (2009) A comparative study of ideational meaning between the love song lyrics written by the most popular American song writers in 1990s and Indonesian song writers in 2000s (a study based on systemic functional linguistics) Retrieved from https://digilib.uns.ac.id/dokumen/detail/11105/A- comparative-study-of-ideational-meaning-between-the-love-song-lyrics-written-by- the-most-popular-american-song-writers-in-1990s-and-indonesian-song-writers-in- 2000s-a-study-based-on-systemic-functional-linguist

83 Ropke, N (2006) Representing motherhood: images of mothers in contemporary young adult literature GRIN Verlag

84 Rowiatun Amri Marhamah (2014) Interpersonal meaning analysis of Muse song lyrics in Black Holes & Relevation‟s album (A study based on Systemic

Functional Linguistics) Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33513175.pdf

85 Sa‟ei, A (2013) Comparative research method: Quantitative, historical and fuzzy analysis Journal of Social Sciences, 12(2), 10-50

87 Sha, L & Feifei, Y (2021) The Application of Systemic Functional Linguistics in Literary Text Teaching, Sino-US English Teaching, 1(18), 1-7

88 Smelser, N.J (1973) The methodology of comparative analysis In Warwick, D & Osherson, S (Eds.), Comparative Research Methods (45-52) Prentice Hall

89 Smelser, N.J (2013) Comparative Methods in the Social Sciences USA: Quid Pro Books

90 Suharsimi Arikunto (1998) Prosedur Penelitian: Suatu Pendekatan Praktek Retrieved from http://digilib.uinsby.ac.id/13313/5/Bab%203.pdf

91 Ta, T T H (2016) “Mother image in English and Vietnamese songs – a literary analysis using transitivity system in Systemic Functional Linguistics perspective” [Master‟s Thesis, University of Languages and International Studies]

University of Languages and International Studies

92 Tanjim, T (2016) Portrayal of motherhood by female authors in American literature in the light of The Awakening, Herland and The Narrow House [Master‟s thesis, BRAC University] BRAC University

93 Taylor, S (1985) Tracing the Origins of U.S Involvement in Vietnam OAH

Magazine of History, 1(1), 19-23 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25162449

94 Teng Y C (2013) Analysis of songs and rhymes in children English text books Retrieved from www.naer.edu.tw/ezfiles/0/1000/img/18/100-09.pdf

95 Thai, M.D (1998) A Systemic Functional Interpretation of Vietnamese Grammar [Doctoral thesis, Macquarie University] Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University, Sydney Australia

96 Thai, M.D (2004) Metafunctional profile of the grammar of Vietnamese

97 Thompson, G (1996) Introducing Functional Grammar New York, NY:

98 Vo, D Q (2005) Semantics Culture Information Publishing House

99 Zahro, M (2010) The use of song lyrics to improve the students‟ vocabulary of verb [Master‟s thesis, Walisongo State Institute for Islamic Studies Semarang] Walisongo State Institute for Islamic Studies Semarang

No English war mother songs

1 To mom with glory_before 1975 (Jimmy Coates)

2 A mother‟s salute to Lt Calley_before 1975

3 What are you fighting for? _1960 (Phil Ochs)

4 It‟s for God, country and your mom_1965(Earnest Tubb)

5 Christmas in Vietnam_1965 (Eleanor Wells)

6 Merry Christmas from Vietnam_1967 (Mc Sullivan Family)

7 Vietnam/You‟ll be there_1968 (the Southern Bell)

8 It‟s a time_1969 (Sister Maggies Mericson)

10 What do you win when you win a war_1971 (Green Stridel)

11 From Saigon to little rock_1972 (Charlie C Freeman)

5 Goodbye‟s saddest words_2002 (Jobert John Matt Lange)

6 Thank you, Mom_2000 (God Charlote)

8 Turn to you_2012 (Justin Bierber)

9 Two of us_2019 (Louis Tom Linson)

10 Everyday is mother‟s day to me_2011 (Tim Mc Morris)

14 Mother like mine_2013 (The Band Perry)

No Vietnamese war mother songs

1 Bà mẹ Gio Linh (Gio Linh mother) _1948 (Phạm Duy)

2 Mẹ yêu con (Mother loves her child) _1956 (Nguyễn Văn Tý)

3 Đất quê ta mênh mông (Our vast homeland) _1968 (Hoàng Hiệp)

4 Người mẹ miền Nam tay không đánh giặc (The Southern mother without weapons fighting against the enemy) _1969 (Thuận Yến)

5 Lời ru trên nương (Lullaby on the hilly fieldy field) _1971 (Nguyễn Khoa Điềm)

6 Tấm áo chiến sĩ mẹ vá năm xưa (The soldiers‟ shirts sewn by mother) _1973 (Nguyễn Văn Tý)

7 Về thăm mẹ (Return home to visit my mother) _1980 (Trần Chung)

8 Đất nước (My country) -1984 (Phạm Minh Tuấn)

9 Huyền thoại mẹ (The legend of mother) _1984 (Trịnh Công Sơn)

10 Xuân này con không về (I can‟t go home this spring) - in the 1960s (Trịnh Lâm Ngân)

11 Mùa xuân của mẹ (Mother‟s spring) _before 1975 (Trịnh Lâm Ngân)

1 Lời ru của mẹ (My mother‟s lullaby) _1992 (Vũ Trọng Tường)

2 Mẹ là quê hương (Mother is the hometown) _1990 (Nguyễn Quốc Việt)

3 Mẹ ngồi sàng gạo (Mother sifts rice) _1997 (Bắc Sơn)

4 Lời ru cho con (Lullaby for you) _1999/2001 (Xuân Phương)

5 Mẹ yêu (Dear mother) _1998 (Phương Uyên)

6 Tìm về với mẹ (Find a way back to my mother) _2004 (Phan Đinh Tùng)

7 Nhớ ơn mẹ (Be grateful to mother) _2009 (Phan Đinh Tùng)

8 Ấu thơ (Childhood)_2014 (Vũ Boong)

9 Quang gánh mẹ tôi (My mother‟s yoke) _2013 (Lê Đức Hùng)

10 Tự khúc mẹ ru (Mother‟s lullaby) _2013 (Vũ Khắc Tuận)

11 Vu lan nhớ mẹ (Miss mother on Vu Lan day) _2014 (Thiện Càn, Trần Văn Giỏi)

12 Con nợ mẹ (I owe my mother) _2014 (Trịnh Đình Quang)

13 Đôi tay mẹ (Mother‟s hands) _2013 (Thanh Phương)

14 Chưa bao giờ mẹ kể (My mother has never told me) _2017 (Châu Đăng Khoa)

APPENDIX 3 SAMPLE OF ENGLISH SONG ANALYSIS

"///Hello mom,(1) remember (2)//when I was a kid, (3)//when anything troubled me (4)//I would come to you (5)///I'd tell you my troubles, (6)//you'd give me advice (7)///But mom, it's a little different now (8)//since I've been in the army(9)// I'm on my own (10)///I've been transferred now to Vietnam, (11)//we are about 40 miles below Saigon (12)///I'm really worried now,(13)// I don't even know (14)// if we'll get there (15)///They've cut off all our road passages (16)//and we're trying (17)// to make it through the swamps (18)///We've lost all of our gear, (19)//our ammunition all got wet,(20)// our food supply is so low(21)// it is all about gone (22)///our commanding officer got killed two days ago (23)//and now I am left in charge (24)///But what even can a surgeon do(25)// when every direction we turn they are firing on us (26)///I've got some boys with me that have never seen combat before,(27)// they're scarred (28)///They're crying Mom (29)//I need you now, (30)//I'm shaking like a leaf, (31)//I can't even see the sky (32)///It's raining so hard, (33)//we are pinned behind bushes (34)//and we've been here the last 14 hours (35)///Mom we'll make it, (36)//we have to prove (37) //that we are the greatest nation //that ever was (38)///Let the voices ring out(39)// we want (40)//the whole world know what we are fighting for"

(To mom – with glory, Jimmy Coates)

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

Sayer Process: verbal Recipient Verbiage

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

Attribute Circumstan ce of location (temporal)

(8) since I „ve been in the army

Carrier Process: relational (circumstant ial attributive)

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

(10) I „ve been transferred now to Vietnam

Circumstan ce of location (Spatial)

Attribute Circumstan ce of location

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

Attribute Circumstan ce of location (temporal)

14 if we 'll get there

(15) They 've cut off all our road passages

(17) to make it through the swamps

Process: mental Goal Circumstan ce of location (spatial)

(18) We 've lost all of our gear

(19) our ammunitio n all got wet

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

(20) our food supply is so low

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

(21) it is all about gone

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

(22) our commandi ng officer got killed two days ago

(23) Now I am left in charge ( responsible)

Circumst ance of loc (temp)

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

(24) But what even can a surgeon do

Goal Actor Process:mat erial

(25) when every direction we turn they are firing on us

(26) I 've got some boys with me that have never seen combat

Carrier Process: relational (possessive attributive)

Attribute Circumstan ce of accompani ment

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

Phenomenon Circumstan ce of location (temporal)

(31) I can't even see the sky

(33) we are pinned behind bush es

(34) We 've been here the last 14

Carrier Process: relational (circumstantial attributive)

Attribute Circumstan ce of extent (temporal)

(35) Mom we 'll make it

(37) that we are the greatest nation that ever was

Identified Process: relational (intensive identifying)

(38) Let the voices ring out

(40) the whole world know what we are fighting for

SAMPLE OF VIETNAMESE SONG ANALYSIS

(1)///Gieo lúa (2)//trồng khoai (3)//ngày qua ngày gặt hái (4)//nuôi con.(5)// Mẹ những mong ấm lành mảnh áo.(6)// Nhưng chẳng được yên vì giặc Mỹ (7)//Chúng ngang nhiên tàn sát dân mình.(8)// Chà đạp lên tự do cuộc sống.(9)// Mẹ đã đứng lên (10)//Đôi bàn tay không cầm vũ khí.(11)// Chỉ có niềm tin và sức mạnh chân lý.(12)// Mẹ đã đi cùng với xóm làng.(13)// Chống [[giặc đốt nhà cướp bóc quê ta]]./// Mẹ đã đứng lên(14)// đạp hết bất công.(15)// Vũ khí trong tay là khối căm hờn.(16)// Với tình yêu quê hương đất nước lệnh tiến công cả nước xuống đường.(17)// Mẹ đã đi trong đám biểu tình cùng đứa con thơ.(18)// Vẫn bước hiên ngang trước nòng súng giặc.(19)/// Không thể ngồi yên(20)// nhìn [[quân thù tàn phá quê hương]].(21)// Nhìn [[núi sông chất chồng hờn oán]].(22)//Không thể ngồi yên vì giặc Mỹ (23)// Bát cơm ăn còn thấm máu đào.(24)// Cả Miền Nam lòng đau dạ xót (25)//Đem hờn căm(26)// biến thành vũ khí (27)//Yêu quý tự do (28)//vững vàng ý chí.(29)// Mẹ đã đi vào các bót đồn (30)///Hỏi tội đứa nào [[bắn chết con tao]] (31)// Với lòng dân kiên trung bất khuất mẹ đã đi vào các phố phường (32)/// Nằm trước xe tăng(33)// đánh lũ tay sai cúi đầu khiếp sợ (34)///Sông nước Cửu Long bốn mùa sóng vỗ (35)//thôi thúc dân làng(37)// vùng lên (38)//đấu tranh.(39)// Người mẹ Miền Nam kiên cường anh dũng.(40)// Chỉ có tay không mà chiến thắng kẻ thù.//

(Người mẹ miền Nam tay không đánh giặc – Thuận Yến)

(3) Ngày qua ngày gặt hái

(5) Mẹ những mong ấm lành mảnh áo

(6) Nhưng chẳng được yên vì giặc Mỹ

Attribute Circumstance of cause (reason)

(7) Chúng ngang nhiên tàn sát dân mình

Actor Circumstance of manner (quality)

(8) chà đạp lên tự do cuộc sống

(10) Đôi bàn tay không cầm vũ khí

(11) chỉ có niềm tin và sức mạnh chân lí

(12) Mẹ đã đi cùng với xóm làng

(13) chống giặc đốt nhà cướp bóc quê ta

(15) Vũ khí trong tay là khối căm hờn

Identified Process: relational (intensive identifying)

(16) Với tình yêu quê lệnh tiến công cả nước lên đường

(17) Mẹ đã đi trong đám biểu tình cùng đứa con thơ

(18) vẫn bước hiên ngang trước nòng súng giặc

Process: material Circumstance of manner (quality)

(20) nhìn quân thù tàn phá quê hương

(21) nhìn núi sông chất chồng hờn oán

(22) Không thể ngồi yên vì giặc Mỹ

Process: material Circumstance of manner (quality)

(23) Bát cơm ăn còn thấm máu đào

Carrier Process: relational (intensive attributive)

(24) Cả miền Nam lòng dạ đau xót

(26) hờn căm biến thành vũ khí

Identified Process: material (intensive identifying)

Attribute (Process: relational) (intensive attributive)

(29) Mẹ đã đi vào các bót đồn

(30) hỏi đứa nào bắn chết con tao

(31) Với lòng kiên trung bất khuất mẹ đã đi vào các phố phường

(35) Sông Cửu Long bốn mùa sóng vỗ

Domain Circumstance of location (temporal)