Đề tài nghiên cứu khoa học cấp cơ sở: Incorporating computer-Assisted language learning and brain-based teaching into ESP training at BUH

NGÂN HÀNG NHÀ NƯỚC VIỆT NAM TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGÂN HÀNG TP.HCM

ĐỀ TÀI NGHIÊN CỨU KHOA HỌC CẤP CƠ SỞ

Incorporating Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Brain-Based

Teaching into ESP Training at BUH

CHỦ NHIỆM ĐỀ TÀI: NGUYỄN NGỌC PHƯƠNG DUNG

NĂM 2020

NGÂN HÀNG NHÀ NƯỚC VIỆT NAM TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGÂN HÀNG TP.HCM

ĐỀ TÀI NGHIÊN CỨU KHOA HỌC CẤP CƠ SỞ

Incorporating Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Brain-Based

Teaching into ESP Training at BUH

CHỦ NHIỆM ĐỀ TÀI: NGUYỄN NGỌC PHƯƠNG DUNG THƯ KÝ: NGUYỄN QUANG NHẬT

NĂM 2020

NGÂN HÀNG NHÀ NƯỚC VIỆT NAM TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGÂN HÀNG TP.HCM

BÁO CÁO NGHIÊN CỨU KHOA HỌC CẤP CƠ SỞ

Incorporating Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL) Partially Flipped

Classroom and Brain-based Teaching into ESP Training at Banking University HCMC

CHỦ NHIỆM ĐỀ TÀI: NGUYỄN NGỌC PHƯƠNG DUNG THƯ KÝ: NGUYỄN QUANG NHẬT

NĂM 2020

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ABSTRACT

Taking cognizance of challenges of 21st-century learning and the ubiquitous technologies available, this paper reported on an ESP course applying computer-assisted language learning partially flipped learning as out-of-class activities and brain-based teaching for in-class activities in a Vietnamese ESP (Banking and Finance) module The study aimed at (1) exploring the beneficial impacts of this instructional combination towards learners‟ perceived academic performance and (2) investigating learners‟ perceptions towards this suggested model Forty junior students at Banking University, Vietnam participated in the experimental study from February to May of 2018-2019 academic year Quantitative data were collected through questionnaires and pre/post - tests comparison Data analysis revealed that this model could not only improve learners‟ academic achievements but also bring about enhanced confidence and engagement towards the ESP training process

Keywords: ESP, computer-assisted language learning (CALL), partially flipped,

brain-based teaching, performance, attitudes, Vietnam

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this research study represents our own work and it has not been previously submitted to Banking University of Ho Chi Minh City or any other institutions in application for admission to a degree, diploma or other qualifications

Nguyen Ngoc Phuong Dung August, 2020

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1:Introduction 1

1.1.Definition of key terms 1

1.2.Problem statements and rationale of the study 2

1.3.Research questions 4

1.4.Research objectives 5

1.5.Conceptual framework 5

1.6.Scope of the study 6

1.7.Summary 7

1.8.LITERATURE REVIEW 8

CHAPTER 2:Introduction 8

2.1.ESP training 8

2.2.2.2.1 Definition of ESP training 8

2.2.2 ESP training in the Vietnamese context 10

2.2.3 ESP training at BUH 12

Brain-based teaching 14

2.3.2.3.1 Definition of brain-based teaching 14

2.3.2 Principles of brain-based teaching 15

2.3.3 Beneficial impacts and the rationale for using brain-based teaching in ESP education 16

Flipped classroom 192.4.

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2.4.1 Definition of flipped classroom 19

2.4.2 Variances of the flipped classroom 19

2.4.3 Elements of flipped classrooms 22

2.4.4 Theoretical frameworks for flipped classrooms 25

2.4.5 Learning effectiveness of flipped classrooms 26

Summary 34

2.5.METHODOLOGY 35

CHAPTER 3:Introduction 35

3.1.Variables 35

3.2.Hypothesis 35

3.3.Research sampling and participants 36

3.4.Procedure of the study 38

3.5.3.5.1 The online platform 38

3.5.2 Procedure of the experimental class 39

3.6 Research instruments 41

3.7 Reliability and Validity of the Methodology 42

3.8 Ethical Issues and Considerations 43

3.9 Methodological limitations 44

3.10 Summary 44

RESULTS AND FINDINGS 46

CHAPTER 4:4.1 Introduction 46

4.2 Students‟ academic performance 46

5.2 The model enhanced learners‟ performance with improved grades 59

5.3 The model facilitated learners‟ positive attitudes and confidence 61

5.4 Conclusion 64

CONCLUSION 65

CHAPTER 6:6.1 Research overview 65

6.2 Theoretical contributions of the study 66

6.3 Practical implications 67

6.4 Limitations of the study 68

6.5 Recommendations for further study 69

6.6 Conclusion 70

REFERENCES 71

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1: Conceptual framework 6

Figure 2-1: Stages and elements of the flipped classroom model 24

Figure 3-1: Online platform of the ESP class 39

Figure 4-1: Mean plot of post-test results between four classes (n=162) 51

Figure 4-2: Benefits of the Engagement (n=40) 53

Figure 4-3: Benefits of the Acquisition (n=40) 54

Figure 4-4: Benefits of Elaboration stage (n=40) 54

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3-1: Distribution of participants 36

Table 4-1: Analysis of pre-test results (N=162) 46

Table 4-2: Descriptive analysis of post-test results (n=162) 48

Table 4-3: The Homogeneity tests results (n=162) 49

Table 4-4: One-way ANOVA analysis of post-test results (n=162) 49

Table 4-5: Multiple Comparison (n=162) 50

Table 4-6: Student‟s overall perceptions (n=40) 51

Table 4-7: Benefits of Portfolio and Preparatory tasks, and Group Discussion (n=40) 52

Table 4-8: Roles of the Framing step (n=40) 53

Table 4-9: Students‟ satisfaction with their progress (n=40) 55

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INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1:

Introduction 1.1.

This chapter provides the basis for undertaking this research study The first section introduces key term definitions upon which the foundation of this study was made Then, it describes the problem statements and rationale for the study The next sections highlight research questions and research objectives Afterwards, a conceptual background is presented with an aim to place their relevance to ESP training Finally, the chapter discusses the scope of the study

Definition of key terms 1.2.

ESP (English for Specific Purposes) is a branch of English teaching to native English learners who study English for a vocational purpose

non-ESP training is a profession-oriented discipline to prepare trainees for the labour market

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is an approach to language learning in which technological tools are implemented as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of materials for interactive elements and better learning outcomes

Flipped learning is a pedagogical approach in which class time explores topics in greater depth for meaningful practice, while educational technologies are adopted to deliver contents outside of the classroom

Computer-assisted language learning partially flipped classroom refers to a guiding framework with various group work and individual activities for both in-class and out-of-class settings Therefore, the model aims to yield beneficial impacts on learners‟ academic performance and to bring positive attitudes into the classroom

Brain-based teaching is a strategy in which learning materials and activities are aligned with the brain‟s natural processes and functions to help students encode, recall and connect ideas more efficiently for optimize learning

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Traditional classrooms (conventional classrooms or contemporary classrooms), in this context, refer to familiar formats where students come to the classroom with homework correction and hear lectures with examples and exercises relating the new knowledge Lectures could be delivered by the teacher or from their peer presentations, and students have opportunities to ask questions or answer the questions related to the examples and the instructor might also attempt to make the lectures as interactive as possible with learner-centered educational methods Then, the teacher hands out exercises/ tasks, followed by in-class practice and teacher‟s correction or suggested answers Finally, the students practice what they are taught with higher-order learning skills at home This is not limited to whether instructors implement innovative pedagogical approaches inside and outside their classes as long as these methods are different from the instructional design of the experimental class

Learning effectiveness is the degree to which the model is successful in producing desired pedagogical results In this context, the effectiveness is measured by academic performance reflecting student‟s depth of knowledge and skills gained through a semester by using the final exam scores

Perceptions are the emotional feelings of the students towards the implementation of a specific pedagogical method, and are measured by the students‟ attitudes towards the effectiveness of different elements of the suggested teaching model

Problem statements and rationale of the study 1.3.

ESP (English for Specific Purposes) education is a complex environment in which graduates are supposed to have sufficient specialist knowledge and language skills to participate in a wide range of domestic and international activities Since Vietnam aimed to integrate into the world economy and international cultural exchange, the practice of these ESP courses has attracted certain attentions of both educational researchers and educators in recent years Although English training in

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Vietnam has undergone a shift from Grammar-Translation Method to Communicative Approaches and even Blended-Language Learning with the support of modern technology, activities which could enhance learners‟ autonomy outside the classroom and students‟ interactive collaborations during in-class sessions to reach academic achievements are still limited in many Vietnamese ESP classes (Nguyen, 2015) Therefore, with a view to making the learning environment more interactive and ESP training more effective, this study incorporated the classroom model combining technology-assisted language learning for out-of-class activities and brain-based teaching for face-to-face sessions in an ESP (English for Banking and Finance) module As a result, students might be better positioned to apply knowledge into their test papers as well as enhanced their positive perceptions

Four reasons were attributed to the conduct of this study First, a review of recent literature shows negative results could be found in some reports in terms of the learning effeciveness of the CALL flipped classroom For example, the study conducted by Harrington et al (2015), who compared learning outcomes of 82 students in a medical surgical course taught with flipped and traditional methods, noted that there were no statistical differences as measured quantitatively through exams (p-value = 0.7) One year later, Guy and Marquis‟s (2016) adopted quasi-experimental study to compare 433 business-major students‟ average final grades in two modes and stated that students in the flipped classroom only performed slightly better than those in a traditional lecture-based instructional method (83% and 82% respectively) Especially, Gundlach et al (2015) asserted that students in conventional classes could perform better than those in flipped formats Therefore, more studies should be conducted to examine the current state of knowledge on the effectiveness of this method Second, some research studies claim that sciences and engineering disciplines may be more suitable for flipping learning than social-sciences subjects (Johnson, Bender, & Oldham, 2015) Therefore, it raises a

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question if flipped classrooms are appropriate for ESP education since this is also a social sciences subject and profession-oriented practice Third, many studies discuss what benefits can be obtained from flipping classrooms, but fell short of defining an instructional framework that could guide the design of in-class activities for deep conceptual understanding and/or procedural fluency In other words, the questions of what instructional framework should be used in planning the flipped classroom approach, how to mobilize learners to engage in the learning process, and what techniques can foster interactive and collaborative environment inside and outside of classroom are still left unanswered Hence, further research is needed to shed light on how in-class instructional designs were actually implemented and favoured by participants Finally, an implementation of the flipped model into ESP teaching is still in its infancy, especially in Vietnamese setting where educators are under the pressure of building test-taking skills as well as performance-oriented activities classes (Nguyen, 2015) Therefore, a better application of technology-based elements of flipped classroom into the ESP classroom should be measured in a coherent manner As a result, in this study, a detailed model of in-class activities revealed how classroom time was used for engaging in integrated activities, discussing subject-specific concepts, clarifying complicated information, language building, and test-taking practice Meanwhile, technology as a mediational tool was adopted to show how out-of-class tasks were structured to enhance learners‟ autonomy and academic performance

Research questions 1.4.

This study aimed to answer two following questions:

1 To what extent does this model influence on students‟ English competence as compared to traditional classes?

2 What are learners‟ perceptions towards the effectiveness of this model?

To help answer research question 1, the following hypotheses were adopted:

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The null hypostudy (H0): There is no significant difference between experimental

and control class‟ achievement as measured through the final exam scores

Alternative hypostudy (H1): There is a significant difference between the

performance of the experimental class and that of the control class in an ESP

course as measured through the final exam scores

Research objectives 1.5.

This study aims to:

1 Investigate the effectiveness of the CALL partially flipped classroom and based teaching towards learners‟ academic performance and attitudes in an ESP class at BUH

brain-2 Provide an in-depth insight into how to apply the flipped classroom model in ESP education with a detailed framework of brain-based teaching to make the training process interesting and meaningful

3 Contribute to theoretical research in flipped learning and brain-based teaching on how these methods can be employed with a detailed instructional design

Conceptual framework 1.6.

This study was built upon 2 main cores: computer-assisted partially flipped learning for out-of-class activities and brain-based teaching for in-class instructions Figure 1-1 illustrates this relationship as follows

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The flipped classroom as part of a blended learning model was employed to improve out-of-class educational efficacy in the Vietnamese ESP classroom Students first gained exposure to new knowledge via watching videos, which provided a distinct advantage for learners who performed at different paces Class time was then used for learning-centred activities that build on the pre-class work and brain-based teaching rather than the traditional instructor-led lecture sessions With this method, certain activities were allocated to homework tasks with the aid of technology, while deeper learning activities were implemented in the classroom following the structure of brain-based teaching In other words, technology is inclined to be an integrative and mediational tool for the training process, and interactions between students and teachers created by brain-based teaching are of great significance with thin the in-class procedure

Scope of the study 1.7.

The scope of this study is to investigate Vietnamese undergraduate students‟ perceptions and the effectiveness of the suggested learning model implementing CALL partially flipped classroom model and brain-based teaching in an ESP course Therefore, it is meaningful to examine whether the suggested model could enhance learners‟ performance through final test results, in what ways

Figure 1-1: Conceptual framework

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it leveraged students‟ attitudes, and what elements were useful to make students put more efforts into their work for better learning outcomes

Summary 1.8.

In short, ESP students need a learning environment with more class time for skills practice and collaborative learning experience However, the current delivery in Vietnam could not promote active learning as well as fails to foster learners‟ engagement Furthermore, the limited class time poses challenges for instructors to cover the required contents as well provide adequate practice for skills mastery Therefore, this research implemented a suggested model as an opt solution to tackle these issues It was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of the partially flipped model and brain-based teaching in an ESP module at the tertiary level, to explore whether it could bring fruitful benefits during the implementation when students practiced the concepts learnt in the out-of-class video lectures and through meaningful in-class activities under the guidance of teachers and the support of peers

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LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTER 2:

Introduction 2.1.

This chapter contains three main parts First, it provides a brief overview of ESP training and the current status of this discipline in the Vietnamese context as well at Banking University Then, the chapter provides information about the brain-based teaching and its beneficial impacts in educational setting Finally, it contains an examination of existing literature related to the flipped learning, including definitions, variances, its components, theoretical backgrounds and the effectiveness of this method on leaners‟ performance as well as attitudes

ESP training 2.2.

2.2.1 Definition of ESP training

English for Specific Purposes, an area of English language learning emerging since 1960s with participants across a wide range of academic, occupational and business categories (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), can be defined as “a learner-centred approach which motivates learners through addressing their specific needs in learning the language” (Ibrahim, 2010, cited in Nguyen, 2015, p 227) ESP training This means ESP training is an applied sub-branch within the ELT discipline with the purpose of educating high-quality employee to meet the ever-changing market needs Although some early voices expressed skepticism about the usefulness of ESP training programs (e.g Pilley, 1962), formal ESP training has been an indispensable part in many institutions, either in form of tertiary degrees and vocational diplomas In those programmes, ESP training works as a means to cope with the globalisation of the economy, to attract foreign investments, and to ensure knowledge transfer between languages and cultures As a result, this institutionalisation of ESP training has achieved great progress around the

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world and many ESP academics are looking for methods to teach this subject efficiently

Research scholars share the ideas that ESP training should be:

• process-oriented: more emphasis should be put on the process rather than the products so that learners can acquire professional expertise and

necessary competencies (Brown, 2016)

• competence-based: pedagogy should be supported by well-grounded theories and research studies to enhance learners‟ language proficiency to function collaboratively within a team, and work responsibly to complete

the tasks (Alharby, 2005)

• profession-oriented: students should be exposed to authentic

materials and real-life work conditions during the training that can help

them continue progressing and learning after they graduate (Chostelidou,

2010)

• task-based: activities should be designed to improve learner‟s competences so that life-long learning skills could be sought through the effective use of knowledge and skill in professional and vocational tasks

(Lundstrom, 1996)

• learner-centred: students should be the main components within the teaching and learning process and all activities should aim to boost their autonomy and make them accountable for their own learning (Dehnad et al.,

2010)

• social-constructivist: collaborative learning environments should be

fostered so that students could interact with peers and teachers while completing tasks and gradually penetrate into the professional community (Živković, 2016)

Yet, there are still significant gaps between ESP pedagogy and life practice Research into ESP teaching, for instance, continues to focus

real-10

mainly on the products, particularly on the accuracy of terminologies and grammatical structures (Nguyen, 2015) Moreover, though researchers have explored various topics on ESP methodology, a framework with detailed procedure implementing effective learning theories for an improvement in ESP training programs has not been widely discussed Hence, this study in an attempt to introduce an exemplary model for ESP teaching might solve these two gaps

Due to the open-door policy and recent integration into the international economy, the socio-economic, scientific as well as cultural exchanges between Vietnam and foreign countries have led to a great demand for competent employees in different areas ESP training, thus, has become an integral component in most programs at higher education More importantly, when Vietnam officially joined WTO in 2006, attitudes towards ESP training in Vietnam have undergone deep transformations both in the professional world and that of scholarly research As a result, many language faculties acknowledge the actual requirements of their prospective graduates to keep up with the market needs However, it is a reality that most educators who engage in ESP field normally hold a degree in modern languages and lack the specific domain knowledge

Research into ESP teaching asserted that this discipline aims to meet learners‟ needs of professional and vocational purposes so that graduates can integrate into the international and local working environment effectively (Chostelidou, 2010) Since Vietnam joined in the WTO and aimed to integrate into the world economy as well as international cultural exchanges, the emergence of ESP training in Vietnam has required many educators to make instructional changes to foster deeper learning, critical thinking skills, and independent learning styles to keep up with the market

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demands (Nguyen, 2017) However, a review of recent literature shows that this approach does not bring about fruitful benefits due to a number of challenges posed to learners and practitioners (e.g Nguyen, 2017; Tran, 2013) In a clearer sense, the professional knowledge and skills necessary for this practice continue to increase, yet the hours available for education are limited Moreover, the differences in instructors‟ experience and subject-matter knowledge pose certain challenges in providing a consistent curriculum with effective educational strategies in this complex setting Therefore, innovative approaches for ESP training, which account for the exponential growth in professional knowledge and time constraints of the curriculum, while adapting to the dynamic environment of this practice and making better use of teacher and learners‟ time, are needed

Another issue is that many Vietnamese lecturers still struggle to adopt approaches that can support the development of active learning styles (Pham, 2016) According to Entwistle and Ramsden, students need to be supported to “move away from learning approaches characterized by the mere memorization toward deeper learning strategies so that they can fully understand underlying principles and concepts of the subject matter” (1983, p 15) Although there have been a few scholars having done research on ESP teaching methodology that support active learning such as inquiry-based teaching, project-based learning and learning-based review sessions, this area is still in its infancy in Vietnam (Pham & Ta, 2016) Besides, many Vietnamese ESP instructors still stick closely to traditional methods, i.e providing grammatical structures as well as vocabulary, lecture-based formats, and silent in-class practice, which not only hinders students‟ performance but also de-motivates them For example, Nguyen Thi To Hoa and Pham Thi Tuyet Mai (2016) found that nearly 66.02% of 362 third-year students from 11 universities in Hanoi assessed that their training

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programmes did not provide sufficient knowledge and skills in this discipline and they do not feel confident about their English competency This group of researchers maintained that most ESP practitioners favored monotonous in-class training and offered few real-life activities that reflected the true discipline Hence, there is a need to change the current situation of ESP training in Vietnam

Finally, though some scholars study the teaching of ESP from the perspective of computer-aided instructions (Bonsignori, 2018; İlin, Kutlu, & Kutluay, 2013; Kutlu, 2013) and certain sites are also established for ESP community sharing (e.g http://www.esplearning.com/, https://github.com learning-unlimited/ESP-Website), these studies inevitably have some limitations such as imbalance of resources that learners can enjoy and the adaptability of online resources with the curriculum contents In addition, physical in-class interactions are needed for collaborative learning environments as well as dissemination of content knowledge to develop profession-oriented competence in language exchange Therefore, a better application of technology into the ESP classroom (i.e flipping) might be beneficial since this method can integrate features of the Internet with the advantages of physical classroom activities

2.2.3 ESP training at BUH

Banking University Ho Chi Minh City has been involved in ESP education since 1995 The broader context in which the researchers presented this study includes the challenges for public institutions which are facing diminishing government support, competition from professional ESP courses in other universities, and continued critique by industry about the

school‟s inability to prepare students for the real world (The „BlackBox‟ Survey of the Proficiency Output Standards of BUH‟s Graduates from the Perspectives of Employees, 2015) More specifically, this study is conducted

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in a Vietnamese public university that is coming to terms with a total 50% financial cut to the university sector in 2018 from the State Bank of Vietnam The rationale given was that the financial burden of higher education should be borne by the institutions and the students

There is an annual enrolment of around 3000 local students for a four-year Bachelor program at BUH ESP is a compulsory subject with two modules (ESP1 and ESP2) The courses are mainly designed to provide a structured syllabus of ESP Practice for non-English majors, covering an extensive range of topics and text genres with Business-related resources winning heavy priority The ESP component at the undergraduate level constitutes part of a course book “The Business 2.0”, and is exercised at the rate of four hours (4 hours = 5 academic periods) a week Though there have been efforts to improve existing syllabuses, the traditional subject-matter orientation, methods of teaching, testing, and grading are still adopted there Existing syllabuses are facing difficulties due to the lack of qualified teachers, the absence of systematic teaching methods, and the insufficient time devoted to these syllabi Admittedly, traditional methodology is still being adopted in this institution with much attention focusing on time-consuming tasks, precise word usage and accuracy of the grammar The basic model is a teacher‟s correction of prior homework, followed by lectures on the new topics, and demonstration by examples, then students‟ in-class practice and finally teacher‟s comments Trinh Thi Anh Tu (2012) conducted a survey at 4 public universities in Ho Chi Minh City (including BUH) to explore students‟ attitudes toward ESP training The results showed that the graduates were not confident in their ability and they were not satisfied with the programmes because of monotonous teaching styles

In recent years, the Faculty of Foreign Languages at BUH has been implementing certain innovations to improve the ESP training process On

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the one hand, the product-oriented teaching method is gradually substituted by the process-oriented approach to enhance learner‟s competence Learners are geared towards professional strategies to deal with their problems and real-life practice, such as problem-based learning or project-based learning On the other hand, teachers are encouraged to exploit different factors to promote constructive, critical attitudes among learners and creativity in the classroom such as group work, peer review, and field strips ESP tasks are also complemented by the teaching of theoretical principles in the belief that learners need to know the underlying mechanisms to improve their skills Finally, blended-language learning with the support of modern technology (e.g Google classroom) is implemented for an improvement in the training process However, ESP training at BUH still need more attention

Brain-based teaching 2.3.

Brain-based learning is an approach based on the function of the human brain with reflection activities to facilitate complex conceptual knowledge and procedural fluency (Jensen, 2005) This means brain-based teaching focuses on the the idea that learning should be comprised of the total structure of a human being‟s physical, emotional, and spiritual activities to maximise the learning outcomes Moreover, learning inputs and resources should be real-life and authentic to reflect real-world difficulties and expectations As a result, since the brain progress and development is reliant on an individual‟s experiences, the challenge is for teachers to change their teaching techniques to provide suitable classroom settings accommodating how the brain learns, which will improve the brain functionality in processing and making data correctly, thus enhancing learners‟ internalisation and skills improvements (Salem, 2017)

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Research scholars share the idea that brain-based teaching has the following principles and characteristics First, all learning resources,

activities, and assignments should be interconnected so that learners could

benefit from these connections (Haghighi, 2013) This could be done by preloading/revising contents before the actual lessons to strengthen students‟ retention of important information Moreover, important information should be taught first so that learners could have the time to absorb the knowledge, then a wide exposure to collaborative practice could foster skills

proficiency Second, various learning experiences should be encouraged to

help students at their own developmental and cognitive level (Tüfekçi & Demirel, 2009) For instance, a combination of various assessment practice with multiple teaching strategies could maximise student performance significantly It requires the teacher to not only know the subject matter but also requires the teacher to know how to present the subject matter in various ways Third, both physical and intellectual activities should be exploited According to Jensen, “exercise increases the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor a protein that supports learning memory function, repair and maintenance of neural circuits, and the production of brain cells that are crucial to forming the connections the brain needs to learn" (2009, p 120) In fact, teaching physically and intellectually is actually re-endorsing the idea of Bloom‟s taxonomy which categorize learning domains as cognitive, affective and conative This can be done via presenting learning contents in interesting manner, creating learning-by-doing activities, combing kinesthetic and auto instructional teaching styles as well as facilitating gamifications, cooperative learning music, role playing, simulation and intellectual practices Finally, the brain-based teaching requires the teachers to frequently provide opportunities for

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meaning creation and self-discovery (Saleh & Subramaniam, 2018) This principle is based on the belief that learners are intrinsically motivated to make sense out of the world through what they experience with the senses When they verify the meanings out of real-life or simulated situations, they can confirm, comprehend, and retain the information longer Therefore, teachers should allow learners to experiment with learning content and activities, encourage them to take calculated risk to find out the truths, let them hypothesize for solution to a problem, as well as use electronic media and technological devices which makes learning lively

teaching in ESP education

Three main reasons underpinned the implementation of brain-based teaching during the in-class sessions First, this is a learner-centred approach based on how human brains structure and function with critical thinking and reflection activities to facilitate complex conceptual knowledge and procedural fluency (Jensen, 2005) In a clearer sense, ESP courses require learners not only to be more competent in their English proficiency but also to be able to use their domain knowlegde appropriately in simulated exercises or real-life practice For example, when students at Banking Univeristy learn how to be a teller and support their customers to open a bank account, they are required to be good at English in both listening and speaking skills In addition, they also have to provide appropriate information regarding the banking administrative forms (deposit slips/ withdrawal slips), interest rates, or banking procedures as if they were handling with real customers Therefore, learners have to use their brains critically and relfectively to be able to master both linguistic knowledge and procedural fluency in their subject matters, which could be mediated by brain-based teaching In short, the knowledge about how human brain

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functions and its effects on learning pave the way to revolutionize the teaching and learning process in a way that this approach emphasizes meaningful learning experiences and coherently systematic classroom procedure to foster deep learning and knowledge construction

Second, studies have revealed that brain-based instructions could faciliate students‟ learning performance and positive attitudes in certain ways For eample, in a study with forty third-year students in Turkey, Serap Tüfekçi and Melek Demirel (2009) asserted that the improvement in the experimental group could be attributed to this new method as participants not only gained higher post-test results than those in the control class but their learning abilities also developed significantly in terms of retention level, affective communication, sensitivity, and active participation Afterwards, Duman (2010) adopted a pre/post-test analysis to investigate the impact of brain-based teaching on the academic performance of 68 students at Mugla University, Turkey His findings revealed that this approach was more effective in leveraging students‟ achievements than the conventional approach although academic achievement did not vary much within the same experimental group Another study by Haghighi (2013) in Iran showed that 50 sophomore male students familiarized with brain-based learning approach could have a better achievement and retention Recently, Saleh and Subramaniam (2018) used the Physics Achievement Test to conduct a research with 90 students from two high schools in Malaysia Their results revealed that participants exposed to this new approach could obtain higher scores compared to those in the conventional teaching method, confirming the premise that brain-based learning was able to enhance learners‟ performance significantly As a result, it could be assumed that an implementation of brain-based approach into teaching Flipped ESP classes

brain-19

understanding the flipped classroom from students‟ perspectives They then can modify their teaching strategies to adapt to various learning needs or to promote student acceptance of flipped learning, thus developing more effective learning situations and enhance the current ESP teaching practices

Flipped classroom 2.4.

2.4.1 Definition of flipped classroom

„„Flipped learning‟‟ (a.k.a „„flipped classroom‟‟, „„inverted classroom‟‟, or „„flipped teaching‟‟) is a pedagogical approach whose definition can be found at the Flipped Learning Network as:

a pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the group learning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting group space is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning environment where the educator guides students as they apply concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter (2014, p 1)

This definition means that in a flipped classroom, students could have direct access to the knowledge outside the classroom at their own time, pace and convenience They have to prepare the lessons and follow the teacher‟s instructions at home to obtain basic knowledge about the subject matters Then, the physical class time is devoted to diving deeper into the learning materials, clarifications, and interactions for problem-solving activities

Various interpretations and differences in teaching contexts have resulted in three main variances of the flipped learning model, including “traditional” flip, “partial” flip, and “mastery-based” flip

The “Partially” Flipped Classroom 2.4.2.2

This structure is a less strict version of the traditional flipped model, in which only a portion of the course module is spent in a flipped classroom format (Springen, 2013) Learners are encouraged to watch videos outside of class hours, but video lessons could be utilised in multiple ways rather

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than a mere delivery of new knowledge It might be an introduction of new topics, a reinforcement of prior difficult concepts, a review of materials that have been practiced inside the classroom, or suggested ideas for the following in-class discussions Physical class time could involve the traditional lectured-based instructions or sometimes could be dedicated to the flipped format with problem-solving activities and individualised support based on learners‟ need In some cases, no special requirements are offered and no penalty is given to students who do not watch the videos because of some difficulties such as limited access to video streaming devices, heavy workload, and teacher‟s unfamiliarity with technology As such, Springen characterized this type of class structure as a partially flipped class because it is only a partial implementation of Sam and Bergmann‟s practice

The “Mastery-Based” Flipped Classroom 2.4.2.3

This format, also introduced by Sams and Bergmann, is an improved version of the previous traditional model to meet learners‟ needs as well as adapt to market requirements by putting a series of learning objectives into the design of video lectures (Bergmann & Sams, 2012b) In the mastery-based flipped classroom, it is not compulsory for students to watch videos every evening prior to class Instead, they are given the unit outlines, course requirements and objectives, assignments and other educational resources such as videos, worksheets, or grading sheets They are expected to complete their tasks within the course schedule at their own learning pace and at their personal discretion with the guidance from teachers and support from peers This method, however, is suitable for learners with high level of autonomy and for courses with short or medium time length (Bergmann & Sams, 2012b) In reality, no formal study has been carried out to test the effectiveness of this variance in a real physical classroom

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In short, there are three main variances of flipped learning, and within each model, teachers can use different strategies to tailor their instructions and teaching styles to learners‟ needs Hence, after reviewing the relevant literature, the classroom procedure in this study moved forwards to the traditional flipped class Learners were required to watch video lectures prior to the actual physical lessons and their preparations were checked by means of preparatory tasks, portfolios as well as online interactions In addition, teacher‟ self-made videos were used because no official videos could be found online in terms of Vietnamese-English translation

Estes et al (2014) and Zhai et al (2017) explained a flipped classroom could be divided into three stages, i.e pre-class preparation, in-class problem-solving activities, and post-class consolidation Therefore, this study followed the framework suggested by these authors with a three-stage design consisting of pre-class, in-class, and post-class activities

As regards pre-class activities, Estes et al (2014) asserted that an online learning platform should be created to ensure the consistency and interconnections of all activities Then, a preview of materials prior to the face-to-face sessions is necessary, including watching video lectures or other forms of computer-based instructions Finally, preparatory tasks should be given to check learners‟ understanding as well as to develop lower-order thinking skills Then, Zhai et.al (2017) insisted that students should be required to prepare lesson notes or portfolios as part of the pre-class activities, which will be checked later by the teachers to ensure preparations and make the lesson preview meaningful to learners Zhai et.al (2017) also confirmed that there might be some confusions or misunderstandings on the part of the learners at this stage; therefore, a

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Group Discussion or a Q&A Platform should be utilized so that learners can exchange ideas, ask for each other‟s support, and request assistance from teachers As a result, more out-of-class interactions will be established and the pre-viewed online lectures could be better understood

In terms of in-class activities, Estes et al (2014) believed that this step is the most important component and should be given considerable attention On the outset, teachers ought to do some revision exercises relating to the video lectures to check learner‟s preparations as well as to clear their confusions Then, problem-solving activities, case discussions, debates, simulations, presentations, micro-lectures, and other active-learning methods will be exploited to deepen and broaden students' understanding as well as to improve learning efficiency (Kong, 2015; Zhai et al., 2017) Individual work, pair work, and group work should be well incorporated to adapt to different learners‟ needs and preferences Moreover, peer review is a necessary step before teacher provides some suggested answers so that learners can not only get their personalized solutions but also learn more from peers‟ diverse answers, thus their perceived value would be enhanced

Finally, post-class activities involve learning assessments and practice of higher-level thinking such as projects and other forms of authentic exercises to determine the competencies achieved from the previous lessons

Figure 2.1 below illustrates the stages and elements of the flipped classroom based on the framework suggest by the above authors

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(Source: Adapted from Estes et al (2014) and Zhai et al (2017))

Stages and elements of the flipped classroom

computer-based preparation

activities

ELEMENTSTAGES

In-class interactive and problem-solving

activities

Post-class consolidation

activities

1 Revision practice

2 Active learning methods + authentic practice 3 Individual work + pair work + group work 4 Peer review

1 Further practice of higher-level thinking 2 Learning assessments

Figure 2-1: Stages and elements of the flipped classroom model

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2.4.4 Theoretical frameworks for flipped classrooms

The theoretical frameworks upon which the design of this study is built stem from two prominent theories, including socio-constructivism and active learning

Flipped classrooms and the Socio-constructivism 2.4.4.1

Flipped classrooms can cater for the socio-constructivism in the following ways First and foremost, flipped classrooms can create subject-related learning situations in accordance with contents and objectives of the course (Bergmann & Sams, 2012a) Thus, video lectures will continuously be renovated with authentic updated information and learning materials will be contextualized to be relevant to students‟ daily lives and specific needs Second, students‟ movement towards autonomy is guaranteed by implementing all activities from individual work to group work within and outside the classroom to construct their own understanding (Ouda & Ahmed, 2016) Lastly, it promotes the active participation of students in different task designs (multi-media, internet resources, interactions and in-class collaborative exercises) for proactive construction of conceptual understanding and procedural fluency (Gariou-Papalexiou et al., 2017) In summary, studies confirm that flipped classroom model contributes to the social-constructivist education by activating the group-learning environment to help learners construct personal meaning and mutual understanding (e.g Castilla-Cabanes et al., 2017; Thai et al., 2017)

Flipped classrooms and Active learning 2.4.4.2

Another principle supporting the flipped classroom is the theory of active learning, stating that real learning occurs when students could apply new concepts into real life rather than merely learning by heart (Bishop & Verleger, 2013; Hung, 2014) The model is supported by the active learning theory in the following manners On one hand, flipped learning creates

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opportunities in which learners can be meaningfully engaged in learning activities through interactions and worthwhile tasks By moving the contents outside of class and conducting flipped lectures, students can exert their engagement and autonomy to solve various problems through analysis, discussions and practice under their teachers‟ guidance On the other hand, the flipped classroom model underpinned by active learning theory can foster learners‟ dynamics and critical thinking skills, in which time spent in the classroom is an opportunity for students to better understand the reasoning, rather than the means of receiving information (Novais, Silva, & Muniz Jr., 2017) It means instructors in the flipped class enable opportunities for students to explore materials and investigate topics in depth, encouraging out-of-class internalization, reflection and self-study, all of which promote a deeper level of comprehension before class time As a result, this active-learning aspect stimulates learners‟ higher-order thinking and critical analysis In other words, flipped classroom is able to achieve the balance between knowledge delivery and dynamics aspects of students, focusing on developing students‟ critical thinking skills during class time while affording individual learning outside the physical classes

The flipped classrooms have effectively supported students' learning achievements in many ways

a On learners’ grades

First, effectiveness can be measured through the pre-test and post-test comparison since this indicates how well the students have understood the leanrning contents as well as master the required competences (Enfield, 2013; Kong, 2014) For example, Davies et al (2013) conducted a study to explore how technology usage in the flipped classroom might be utilised to effectively promote students' achievements in Information systems

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spreadsheet course By adopting a pre/posttest quasi-experimental design, their findings showed that technology enabled students to get significantly improved post-test scores compared to their pre-test scores with the Mean difference is 5.0 points The authors concluded that this approach was effective to help learners statistically improved their learning so that they could obtain such high scores in the final exam 2 years later, Della-Ratta (2015) used flipped classroom in an undergraduate nursing course to facilitate students‟ learning and improve performance on examinations With p-value of 0.023, the findings included significantly higher examination scores compared to the pre-test results were found as an outcome with this approach, thus, Della-Ratta recommended flipped pedagogy as a promising strategy to facilitate learning performance

Second, a comparison between the test results of flipped classroom and traditional classroom have also been conducted to prove the effectiveness of this innovative method For instance, Tune et al (2013) investigated the effectiveness of flipped classroom in a graduate physiology course at the Indiana University School of Medicine By measuring students‟ performance on examinations relating to healthcare topics, they revealed that students in the flipped course scored significantly higher (p =0.17 < 0.05) on weighted cumulative sections by an average of more than 12 percentage points compared to students in traditional class, thus, indicating this method is effective Kaushal Kumar Bhagat et al (2016) investigated the effects of flipped classrooms on learners with different achievement levels in learning mathematics concepts As a result, they found a significant difference in the learning achievement between the experimental and control groups with students using the flipped classroom performing better and a significant difference in the performance of low achievers in the two groups In a bigger project, Webb and Doman (2016)

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investigated the effectiveness of flipped classroom on learning outcomes in two contexts of Macau (China) and the US They conducted a 2-year quasi-experimental mixed-methods study with 25 students in the control group and 39 students in the experimental group Through the grammar test results, they found that gains on actual achievements were significant only for the experimental groups, and maintained that this viable methodology should be encouraged around the world Though the number 0 participants is too small to make broad generalizations, this is one of the very few study conducted in a long period of time (2 years) and in 2 different educational contexts (Macau and the US)

Lastly, formative assessments are also conducted and analysed to identify the effectiveness of flipped classroom model For instance, Kim et al (2014) conducted a study with 115 participants in 3 flipped classrooms of different subjects (engineering, social studies, and humanities) at the University of Southern California Participants‟ responses from survey, semi-structured interviews, and document analsyis revealed that the students thought highly of this teaching method as they could utilize their higher-order thinking skills and apply what they learned into formative tests to get satisfactory marks (85% of positive responses) Studenst also added that they could understand what needed to be done to overcome their deficiencies in learning (Mean =2.9 out of 4) This group of reserachers concluded that their results were quite positive with increased gains from learners‟ formative assessment feedbacks Additionally, according to the report of González-Gómez et al (2016) in a general science classroom with 52 Canadian students, they found that a 0.01 statistically significant level was found on all assessments (homework assignments, projects, and tests) with the flipped class students performing higher on average as well as increased individualized learning These t-test results are in line with the

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finding of Krumsvik and Jones (2016) in Norway, who looked at the performance of 23 high-school students in a high-school flipped classroom by using classroom observations with field notes and online test scores as data collection They reported that there were improvements in the students‟ performance (compared another non-flipped class) within in-class activities, quizzes and exercises, which they confirmed later with the high scores those students received on a final exam (p-value = 0.01)

However, negative results can also be found in some reports in terms of the learning effeciveness of this teaching method One example is the study conducted by Harrington, Bosch, Schoofs, Beel-Bates, and Anderson (2015), who compared learning outcomes of 82 nursing students in a medical surgical course taught with flipped and traditional methods, noting that there were no statistical differences as measured quantitatively through exams (p-value = 0.7) One year later, Guy and Marquis‟s (2016) adopted quasi-experimental study to compare 433 business-major students‟ average final grades in two modes and stated that students in the flipped classroom only performed slightly better than those in a traditional lecture-based instructional method (83% and 82% respectively) Recently, a quantitative, quasi-experimental study was conducted by Sirota (2017) to see whether the flipped classroom pedagogy could enhance students‟ academic performance in nursing pharmacology in comparison with traditional lecture instruction Her findings revealed that there was no significant difference in academic performance when comparing final exam grades of both classes (F = 0.907, p-value = 0.506; Wilk‟s Ʌ = 0.919, partial η2 = 0.081), and asserted that flipped classroom pedagogy might not be a totally effective method This conclusion is confirmed by similar mixed results of Betihavas et al (2016) or Filiz (2015) In fact, the aforementioned studies with unsatisfactory results failed to establish an effective working procedure for the

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implementation of flipped learning Pre-class work was mainly video watching without careful consideration of individualised learning, online collaboration, and teacher‟s guidance for self-regulated learning activities In-class activities (which should be diversified) were repetitive with discussions, mini-presentations, and problem-solving, but no information related to specific details on the actual tasks of various activities inside the classroom was provided In other words, activities and techniques which were used to facilitate collaborative environment did not receive proper attention As a result, absence of such information prevented the researchers to maximise the benefits of flipped learning and obtain their expected outcomes Therefore, academics share the idea that a systematic framework is necessary if more effectiveness could be obtained from implementation of the flipped classroom model (Betihavas et al., 2016; Jesurasa et al., 2017; Little, 2015; Novais et al., 2017)

In short, whereas some available studies conclude flipped classroom pedagogy to be effective in improving academic performance, other relevant research indicate the contrary Hence more studies with empirical evidence should be conducted to solve these inconsistencies

b On learners’ attitudes

A number of studies have been done to shed light on the perceived improvement of learners‟ attitudes towards the learning process and the subject they are studying

On the outset, a majority of studies show that students are generally satisfied with their learning process and would like to continue with this method in other courses One demonstration example of learners‟ satisfaction can be found in the study conducted by Chen et al (2014), who reported that students were satisfied with the class meeting, their attendance of the class improved, and they had opportunities for active learning He