This textbook, Techniques for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages TESOL, aims at providing TESOL students with a general overview on classroom language teaching skills for bo
TEACHING VOCABULARY
BACKGROUND TO TEACHING VOCABULARY
Vocabulary is the core of a language, so the teaching of vocabulary is important for English language teaching and learning (e.g., Nation, 2013; Schmitt, 2000; Thornbury, 2007) It is to:
- Provide learners a bridge to learn other language skills
- Provide learners with a tool that will allow them to become independent readers
- Help learners to understand new words they encounter as they read
- Help learners to understand others and express themselves
Learners can learn vocabulary implicitly and explicitly However, although they learn vocabulary explicitly more often than implicitly, the implicit learning helps learners to remember vocabulary longer than the explicit one
1.1.2 Factors affecting the vocabulary teaching
The vocabulary teaching depends on a number of conditions, namely Motivation, Noticing, Retrieval, Creative use, and Retention (Nation, 2013)
- Motivation: L motivation and interest play an important role in helping
When learners are motivated to learn and interested in learning vocabulary, they can learn vocabulary well When learners have a clear-learning goal and the learning activity is really motivating, they can learn
- Noticing: Noticing refers to the learning activity that helps learners to pay attention to the new words, raise their awareness of new words, and involve them in negotiating the meanings of new words with their peers and/or teacher Therefore, when learners have a high level of noticing, their vocabulary learning can be enhanced
- Retrieval: Retrieval refers to the learning activity in which the remembered words can be retrieved Retrieval can be receptive or productive The former can be from listening and reading, while the latter can be from speaking and writing Additionally, the vocabulary retrieval depends on other factors such as the types (e.g., exercise, game, test), forms, repetition and duration of learning activities
- Creative use: Creative use refers to the learning activity which helps learners to use the learned vocabulary differently from the previous forms It can be receptive or productive The former is that learners meet the learned vocabulary in new ways in the process of listening and reading; the former is that learners have to use the learned words in the new contexts in the process of speaking and writing (Wittrock, 1974, 1991; as cited in Nation, 2013)
- Retention: Words that are easy to be learned can be easily retained The vocabulary teaching activities using examples, visual aids and imagining, and linking form and meaning can help learners to remember words and then retain words easily Words with a low learning burden (i.e., little attention) can be easily remembered and then easily retained, while words with a heavy learning burden (i.e., much attention) are hard to be remembered and retained
There are different viewpoints on when to teach vocabulary However, the teacher should decide when to teach vocabulary, depending on the teaching syllabus, types of lesson and teaching purposes, so the vocabulary teaching can take place as the whole lesson, separate lot, integrated phase and opportunistic teaching:
- The whole lesson: For some purposes, teachers can teach vocabulary in the sequence of the whole lesson This type of vocabulary teaching is suitable for young learners
- The separate lot: This type of vocabulary teaching takes place quickly at different lesson sequences Teachers can spend a few minutes helping learners with particular words This type of vocabulary teaching can take place before learners do the tasks of language skills (e.g., reading, listening, speaking or writing)
- The integrated phase: This type of vocabulary teaching takes place as an integral part of a lesson This type of vocabulary teaching can take place during or after learners do the tasks of language skills (e.g., reading, listening, speaking or writing)
- The opportunistic teaching: When teaching language skills or introducing grammar, teachers may stop what they are doing and spend some time on particular words This type of vocabulary teaching can be teaching new words or reviewing the learned ones
The vocabulary teaching should focus on three aspects of vocabulary: form, meaning and use (Nation, 2013)
- Form: The form of a word includes spoken form (how the word is pronounced), written form (how the word is written) and word parts (how the word is made up)
- Meaning: It refers to the concepts, referents and associations of a word
- Use: It refers to grammatical functions, collocations and constraints on use of a word The three aspects of vocabulary can be presented in both receptive and productive dimensions
Table 1.1: Three aspects of vocabulary in receptive and productive dimensions (Nation, 2013, p.49) Aspect Component Receptive knowledge Productive knowledge
Spoken What does the word sound like?
How is the word pronounced?
Written What does the word look like?
How is the word written and spelled?
Word parts What parts are recognized in this word?
What word parts are needed to express the meaning?
What meaning does this word form signal?
What word form can be used to express this meaning?
What is included in this concept?
What items can the concept refer to?
What other words does this make people think of?
What other words could people use instead of this one?
In what patterns does the word occur?
In what patterns must people use this word?
What words or types of words occur with this one?
What words or types of words must people use with this one?
Where, when, and how often would people expect to meet this word?
Where, when, and how often can people use this word?
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING VOCABULARY
There are basic principles of teaching vocabulary as follows:
- The teacher should choose useful words
- The teacher should let the learners do the work
- The teacher should focus on different aspects of a word
- The teacher should use visual aids to teach words
- The teacher should provide meaningful learning opportunities
- The teacher should provide different opportunities to review the learned words (repetition)
- The teacher should implement a regular testing schedule
- The teacher should be patient with their learners.
PROCEDURE FOR TEACHING VOCABULARY
There are three stages for teaching vocabulary (Molinsky, Bliss & Dianne, 1994):
- Previewing the vocabulary: Within this stage, the teacher should activate
The teacher should introduce the word by saying it out loud
- Presenting the vocabulary: The teacher should write the word on the board, read it and ask the class to repeat it chorally and individually Then, the teacher can explain the meaning and use of the word
- Practicing the vocabulary: The teacher should help learners to practice the vocabulary in pairs, groups or as a class.
TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING VOCABULARY
There are different groups of techniques and activities for teaching vocabulary, namely techniques and activities for introducing, practicing and reviewing the vocabulary
1.4.1 Techniques and activities for introducing vocabulary
Common techniques and activities for introducing vocabulary are using visual images (e.g., Realia, Pictures, Masking, Drawing), using gestures and actions (e.g., Mime, Gesture, Facial expression, Action), using words in context (e.g., Dialogues, Role play, Drama, Stories, Songs, Rhymes & poems, Videos), showing lexical relations (e.g., Synonyms, Antonyms, Collocation, Prefixes and suffixes) and other techniques (e.g., Using a dictionary, Explaining, Describing, Defining the context, Translating)
Description: This activity is to help to introduce vocabulary (actions, places, feelings, etc.), topics and situations
Instruction: The teacher can draw simple pictures to illustrate the concept or meaning of the vocabulary
Figure 1.1: Simple drawings (Credit: Pinterest) Mine and gesture
Description: This activity is to help to make the vocabulary easy to be understood
The teacher can use some simple movements to convey the concept or meaning of the vocabulary
Instruction: The teacher can use their hands and body to illustrate the concept or meaning of the vocabulary
1.4.2 Techniques and activities for practicing vocabulary
Common techniques and activities for practicing vocabulary are using games and exercises (e.g., Giving directions, Picture dictation, Labeling words, Searching words, Sequencing words, Guessing words, Eliminating words, Classifying words, Matching words, Slapping the word)
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice vocabulary relevant to giving directions
Instruction: The teacher can ask learners to work in pairs Learner A asks learner
B for directions to places s/he wants to go Learner B gives directions to learner B Two learners can swap their roles
Figure 1.2: Giving directions (Credit: Learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org)
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice the learned vocabulary It can help learners to expand the vocabulary and practice spelling
Instruction: The teacher can ask learners to play the wordsearch individually, in pairs or groups Learners have to search the words up, down, forward and backward to find the hidden words
Figure 1.3: Searching word worksheet (Credit: freeprintable.com)
1.4.3 Techniques and activities for reviewing vocabulary
Common techniques and activities for practicing vocabulary are using games and exercises (e.g., Word search, Picture labeling, Bingo, Dominoes, Puzzles, Charts or survey for their peers, Run to the board, Crosswords, Hangman, Memory challenge) Crossword
Description: This activity is to help learners to review the learned vocabulary It can help learners to improve their vocabulary
Instruction: The teacher can ask learners to play the crossword puzzles in pairs or groups Learners have to write the words from the clues (across and down)
Figure 1.4: Crossword worksheet (Credit: dreamstime.com)
Description: This game is to help learners to review the learned vocabulary
Instruction: The teacher can divide the class into groups The teacher gives the clues, then learners have to guess the letters to reveal the word or phrase The parts of the hangman will be shown if learners guess the wrong letters The winner is the one who can guess the hidden word/phrase
Figure 1.5: Hangman game (Credit: manythings.org/hmf/)
Description: This game is to help learners to review the learned vocabulary
Instruction: The teacher can divide the class into groups Each group is given a topic All the learners in each group take turn to write words relevant to the given topic in a set time The group who has the most words will win the game
1 Should the teachers teach vocabulary explicitly or implicitly? Why?
2 What are the conditions for the vocabulary learning?
3 What is the role of repetition in teaching vocabulary?
4 Among three aspects of vocabulary, which one is the most important? Why?
1 Ways in teaching vocabulary: In Nation, I S P (1994) New ways in teaching vocabulary Alexandria, VA: TESOL Press
2 Strategies for teaching vocabulary: In Molinsky, S J., Bliss B., & Dianne, T
(1994) Handbook of vocabulary teaching strategies New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents
3 Teaching vocabulary: in Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited.
TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
BACKGROUND TO TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
Pronunciation plays an important role in English language teaching and learning, and training learners to have a native-like accent is ideal but no longer a goal Although some learners can acquire good or reasonable pronunciation without overt pronunciation teaching, it cannot be denied the importance of pronunciation teaching Due to language differences, each language has its ways for pronunciation (Harmer,
2007), so pronunciation teaching can help learners to:
- Be aware of different sounds and sound features and improve their speaking
- Avoid ambiguity in pronouncing words
- Learn how to pronounce words more efficiently and systematically
- Self-correct and reduce their pronunciation mistakes
- Develop the strategies for pronunciation practice
2.1.2 Factors affecting the pronunciation teaching
The pronunciation teaching and learning depends on a number of factors, namely the mother tongue, age, amount of exposure, phonetic ability, attitude and motivation (Kenworthy, 1988, pp.4-8)
- The mother tongue mother tongue The unique features o way they pronounce English
- Age better they may learn pronunciation However, it depends much on the other factors (e.g., mother tongue, amount of exposure, phonetic ability, attitude and motivation)
- Amount of exposure pronunciation skills The more learners expose to English, the better they can have good pronunciation However, other factors such as types of English that learners are exposed to and how learners respond to chances to listen and use English
- Phonetic ability: Different learners may have different abilities to learn pronunciation Some can discriminate and mimic sounds better than others Therefore, learners with good phonetic ability can benefit from different kinds of pronunciation training
- Attitude and motivation pronunciation is another factor that affects their pronunciation learning Learners who show positive attitudes toward English tend to acquire/learn pronunciation better than those with negative feelings Additionally, learners who are highly motivated to gain a native-like accent tend to develop more accurate pronunciation
Teachers should be aware of the importance of teaching pronunciation and factors affecting the pronunciation learning Therefore, it is advisable that teachers should be aware of their roles in teaching pronunciation They can help learners to select what to hear and to make sounds, provide them feedback, assess their pronunciation and show them what to proceed Also, teachers should help learners to be aware of the importance of learning pronunciation
The teacher should decide when to teach pronunciation It depends on the teaching syllabus, types of lesson and teaching purposes, so the pronunciation teaching can take place as the whole lesson, separate lot, integrated phase and opportunistic teaching (Harmer, 2007, pp 251-252):
- The whole lesson: For some purposes, teachers are required to teach pronunciation in the sequence of the whole lesson Accordingly, teachers should plan the lesson with different activities in various stages
- The separate lot: This type of pronunciation teaching takes place quickly at different lesson sequences Teachers can spend a few minutes helping learners with particular types of pronunciation This type of teaching can be useful as it does not last too long, and teachers can focus on the types of pronunciation learners are weak at
- The integrated phase: This type of pronunciation teaching takes place as an integral part of a lesson When teachers present words and phrases, they can focus on how the taught words and phrases are read
- The opportunistic teaching: When teaching vocabulary and grammar, teachers may stop what they are doing and spend some time on a particular pronunciation issue This can help learners to solve their pronunciation problems
The pronunciation teaching can involve the teaching of sounds, stress and rhythm, intonation, and connected speech (e.g., Kenworthy, 1988; Ur, 1991; Kelly, 2000; Harmer, 2007)
- Sounds (phonemes): The teacher can focus on a particular sound or contrasted sounds, so s/he can help learners to understand how the sounds are made and spelt The teacher can use the phonemic chart to show how the sounds are pronounced in relation to the mouth shape
Figure 2.1: The phonemic chart (Underhill, 2005; cited in Harmer, 2007, p.255)
- Stress and rhythm: The teacher can teach stress in individual words, phrases and sentences S/he can highlight the stressed syllables in writing by using capital letters (e.g., TEAcher) and a short vertical line before the stressed syllable (e.g., teacher: / ti t (r)/) The teacher can help learners with rhythm at levels of phrases and sentences S/he can highlight the rhythm by using hand motions and hand clapping
- Intonation: The teacher should help learners to be aware of the changes in pitch to convey the meaning The following example indicates different meanings of
A: How does she look like?
B3: She is very BEAU -tiful
- Connected speech: The teacher can highlight the linking speech (adding or joining sounds between words) and the change of sounds of words such as elision (losing sounds) and assimilation (changing sounds) For example:
Linking speech: Look at him /l k t m / Elision: next please -> / nekspli:z/
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
There are basic principles of teaching pronunciation as follows:
- The teacher should let learners listen to the new target language before providing the written form
- The teacher should use natural language themselves in the classroom
- The teacher should let learners listen to authentic speech as much as possible
- The teacher should help learners to recognize the sounds before producing them
- The teacher should integrate the teaching of pronunciation into grammar, vocabulary, listening and speaking activities
- The teacher should use visual aids to demonstrate how the sounds are produced.
PROCEDURE FOR TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
There are three stages for teaching pronunciation
- Imitation: Within this stage, the teacher should help learners to recognize the sounds and imitate them S/he can use the authentic speech (e.g., recordings from television, radio or the internet)
- Explanation: As for this stage, the teacher should explain how to pronounce the sounds by reviewing the mouth shapes, lips and tongues (e.g., visual aids)
- Practice: The final stage provides learners with opportunities to practice the learned sounds, and the teacher can give f
TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
Some common techniques and activities for teaching pronunciation are as follows: Homophone
Description: Homophones are words that are pronounced exactly the same but differ in meanings and spellings
Instruction: There are different activities (e.g., memory, I have who has, and dictation) for teachers to introduce and practice homophones
Figure 2.2: Homophone cards (Credit: blog.maketaketeach.com/)
Description: A minimal pair is a pair of words that have one different sound (e.g., a vowel or a consonant)
Instruction: There are different activities (e.g., bingo, dictation, odd one out, run- and-grab, whispering, Slapping the word, etc.) for teachers to introduce and practice homophones
Figure 2.3: Minimal pairs cards (Credit: testyyettrying.blogspot.com) Tongue twister
Description: Tongue twisters are phrases or sentences that are difficult to say correctly They can be used as a warm-up or at the end of a lesson They help learners to practice difficult English sounds
Instruction: There are different activities (e.g., contest, race, bingo, etc.) for teachers to introduce and practice tongue twisters The teacher should introduce learners and help them how to read the tongue twisters, then learners should practice reading tongue twisters individually The teacher can teach learners how to create their own tongue twisters
Figure 2.4: Tongue twisters cards (Credit: britishcouncil.org/learnenglishkids) Jazz chant
Description: Jazz chants are fragments of authentic language aiming at natural rhythm (e.g., rhythm, stress, and intonation pattern) which reflects a native peech in natural conversation They can be used for introducing the natural stress and intonation (Graham, 2006)
Level: All levels (young learners)
Instruction: There are different activities (e.g., syllable practice etc.) for teachers to introduce and practice jazz chants
Figure 2.5: Jazz Chant (Tieng Anh 2, Hoang et al., 2017, p.10)
Description: Word stress patterns can help learners to focus on short sentences using standard word stress patterns
Instruction: There are different activities (e.g., Bingo, singing, using a mirror, recordings, reading aloud etc.) for teachers to introduce and practice word stress patterns
Figure 2.6: Word Stress Pattern (Credit: eleclassroom.com/)
Description: Sentence stress and intonation can help learners to advance their language at a high level
Instruction: There are different activities (e.g., dictation, singing, using a mirror, recordings, reading aloud etc.) for teachers to introduce and practice sentence stress and intonation
Figure 2.6: Word Stress Pattern (Credit: Oxford University Press)
1 Why is it necessary to teach pronunciation?
2 What are the factors that affect the pronunciation learning?
3 What does the pronunciation teaching involve?
4 How much should teachers focus on the pronunciation teaching?
1 Teaching and learning pronunciation: in Kenworthy, J (1988) Teaching English pronunciation New York: Longman
2 Teaching pronunciation: In Kelly, G (2000) How to Teach Pronunciation
3 Teaching pronunciation: in Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited.
TEACHING GRAMMAR
BACKGROUND TO TEACHING GRAMMAR
The teaching of grammar is important for English language teaching and learning (e.g., Weaver, 1996; Thornbury, 2006; Folse, 2009) It is to help learners to:
- Communicate clearly, meaningfully and appropriately
- Avoid ambiguity in using grammar
- Learn grammar more efficiently and systematically
- Master other language skills effectively
- Self-correct and reduce their mistakes
3.1.2 Factors affecting the grammar teaching
The grammar teaching should consider the following factors (Thornbury, 2006):
- Economy: The shorter the grammar teaching is, the better it is
- Ease: The more easily the activity for teaching grammar is conducted, the better it is
- Efficacy: The grammar teaching depends much on motivation
It depends on the teaching syllabus, types of lesson and teaching purposes, so the grammar teaching can take place as the whole lesson, separate lot, integrated phase and opportunistic teaching:
- The whole lesson: For some purposes, teachers can teach grammar in the sequence of the whole lesson
- The separate lot: This type of grammar teaching takes place quickly at different lesson sequences Teachers can spend a few minutes helping learners with particular grammatical rules This type of grammar teaching can take place before learners do the tasks of language skills (e.g., reading, listening, speaking or writing)
- The integrated phase: This type of grammar teaching takes place as an integral part of a lesson This type of grammar teaching can take place during or after learners do the tasks of language skills (e.g., reading, listening, speaking or writing)
- The opportunistic teaching: When teaching language skills, teachers may stop what they are doing and spend some time on particular rules This type of grammar teaching can be teaching new rules or reviewing the learned ones
The grammar teaching should focus on three dimensions, namely form, meaning, and use (FMU) (Larsen-Freeman, 2003)
- Form (How is it formed?): It refers to the forms of a language including sounds, written symbols (Phonology/Graphology/Semiology), morphemes, function words and syntactic structures
- Meaning (What does it mean?): It refers to the semantics, i.e., the meaning encoded in language
- Use (When/Why is it used?): It refers to the pragmatics, i.e., what the speaker/writer means by the language (e.g., social functions: promising, inviting, apologizing; discourse patterns)
E.g., This, That, These, Those (Demonstratives)
- Form: This and that are the singular forms; these and those are the plural They can be used as adjectives or determiners or pronouns
- Meaning: They are used to point to something in the situation
- Use: They are used for reference purposes.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
There are basic principles of teaching grammar as follows:
- The teacher should teach rules that are simple and that do not have too many exceptions
- The teacher should not spend too much time on grammar points that do not appear very useful or important Just make the students aware of the special features
- The teacher should teach grammar in context
- The teacher should use charts, tables, diagrams, maps, drawing and realia to aid understanding
- The teacher should avoid difficult grammatical terminology as much as possible
- The teacher should allow enough opportunities for practice
- The teacher should not be frustrated by the studen inevitable in language learning.
APPROACHES TO TEACHING GRAMMAR
The common approaches to teach grammar are cover grammar teaching (or implicit grammar teaching; meaning-focused teaching; focus on form) and over grammar teaching (or explicit grammar teaching; form-focused teaching; focus on forms) (Thornbury, 2006)
Table 3.1: Cover grammar teaching vs over grammar teaching
Covert grammar teaching Overt grammar teaching
Students get involved in using the structure without paying attention to grammatical rules
The teacher explicitly explains the rules when presenting new language (grammatical rules are provided and explained)
Approaches: the activity and not grammatical rules, but they have opportunities to practice
(Learn grammatical rules through activities)
Approaches: Deductive vs inductive approaches
Activities: information gap; reading a text in which new grammar is introduced and practiced
Activities: choose correct words, word transformation; use the correct forms of verbs
Two approaches for teaching grammar overtly are as follows (Thornbury, 2006):
- Deductive grammar teaching approach: The teacher starts with the presentation of the rules of a grammar point, and then s/he gives examples in which the rules are used (From rules to examples)
- Inductive grammar teaching approach: The teacher starts with examples from which s/he can draw up the rules of a grammar point (From examples to rules).
PROCEDURE FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR
The procedure for teaching grammar can follow the Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP) model which can focus on an accuracy to fluency sequence (Thornbury, 2006)
- Presentation: For this stage, the teacher should introduce the grammar deductively or inductively
- Practice: The teacher should get learners to practice in a controlled way This stage helps learners to use the grammar accurately
- Production: For the final state, the teacher should let learners use new grammar meaningfully in a freer way This stage helps learners to use the grammar fluently.
TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR
In accordance with the PPP mode, there are different groups of techniques and activities for teaching grammar, namely techniques and activities for presenting, practicing and producing the grammar
3.5.1 Techniques and activities for presenting grammar
The common techniques and activities for presenting grammar are Using realia, pictures, songs, Situation, Authentic text, Reading, Timeline, Direct explanation, Tables and so on
Description: This activity is to help learners to focus on the grammar point from a given reading text
Instruction: The teacher can choose a piece of a reading from a coursebook to present the grammar Some steps can be as follows:
- Step 1: The teacher asks learners to read the conversation
- Step 2: The teacher highlights the grammar point(s) that s/he wants to present, then explains
- Step 3: The teacher can give some examples using the presented grammar point(s)
Figure 3.1: Reading text Present simple vs Present continuous
(Tieng Anh 6, Hoang et al., 2017, p.6) Pictures
Description: This activity is to help learners to visualize the presented grammar point(s)
Instruction: The teacher shows the pictures depicting the grammar point(s) S/he can compare the differences in the pictures, explaining the grammar, and give examples using the presented grammar point(s)
Figure 3.2: Pictures for Possessive Adjectives (Credit: KIZCLUD.COM) Using tables
Description: This activity is to help learners to see the presented grammar point(s) in different forms
Instruction: The teacher shows the table depicting the grammar point(s) S/he can highlight the differences, explaining the grammar, and give examples using the presented grammar point(s).
Figure 3.3: Tables for Presenting (Tieng Anh 6, Hoang et al., 2017a, p.28)
3.5.2 Techniques and activities for practicing grammar
The common techniques and activities for practicing grammar are gap fill, substitution drill, sentence transformation, sentence re-ordering, sentence matching, sentence building and so on
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice the learned grammar point(s) Learner have to make meaningful sentences by filling the blanks with an appropriate word(s) or phrase(s)
Instruction: The teacher explains how to do the exercise and then asks learners to practice the exercise in pairs/groups or individually
Figure 3.4: Gap fill for Practicing Adverbs (Credit: englishwsheets.com/) Sentence building
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice the learned grammar point(s) Learners have to make meaningful sentences based on the prompts
Instruction: The teacher explains how to do the exercise and then asks learners to practice the exercise in pairs/groups or individually
Figure 3.5: Sentence building for practicing Present simple
(Tieng Anh 6, Hoang et al., 2017, p.9) Sentence matching
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice the learned grammar point(s) Learners have to make meaningful sentences by matching two halves of a sentence or learners have to match sentences to the correct pictures
Instruction: The teacher explains how to do the exercise and then asks learners to practice the exercise in pairs/groups or individually
Figure 3.6: Sentence matching for practicing Compound sentences
(Tieng Anh 7, Hoang et al., 2017, p.24)
3.5.3 Techniques and activities for producing grammar
The common techniques and activities for producing grammar are games, role play, information gaps, interview, picture cues, spot the differences, Haiku Poem, and so on Picture differences
Description: This activity is to help learners to the learned grammar point(s) Learners have to describing the differences in different pictures
Instruction: The teacher explains how to do the exercise and then asks learners to practice the exercise in pairs or groups so that they can use the grammar point(s) fluently
Figure 3.7: Picture differences for producing There is/are
(Tieng Anh 6, Hoang et al., 2017, p.21) Information gaps
Description: This activity is to help learners to the learned grammar point(s) Learners have to ask and answer the questions to complete the information
Instruction: The teacher explains how to do the exercise and then asks learners to practice the exercise in pairs or groups
Figure 3.8: Sentence matching for producing Past simple and Present perfect
(Tieng Anh 7, Hoang et al., 2017, p.24) Haiku poem
Description: This activity is to help learners to use the learned grammar point(s) Learners have to write a three-line poem The first and last lines of a Haiku have 5 syllables and the middle line has 7 syllables There is one or more than one verse.
Instruction: The teacher explains how to do the exercise and then asks learners to practice the exercise in pairs/groups or individually
E.g., Grammar for Learners Simple present
Learners know grammar Make themselves well understood Use the language well
1 Should the learners learn grammar implicitly or explicitly? Why?
2 Under what circumstances should learners learn grammar best? Explain
3 What are the differences between cover grammar teaching and over grammar teaching?
4 Which should the grammar teaching focus on? Accuracy, fluency or both? Why?
1 Teaching grammar: in Ur, P (1991) A course in language teaching, practice and theory Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
2 Teaching grammar in context: in Weaver, C (1996) Teaching grammar in context Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers
3 Teaching grammar: in Larsen-Freeman, D (2003) Teaching language: From grammar to grammaring Boston: Thomson/Heinle
4 Teaching grammar: in Thornbury, S (2006) How to teach grammar England:
5 Teaching grammar: in Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited.
TEACHING READING
BACKGROUND TO TEACHING READING
The reading skill is one of the two receptive skills which can provide the language input for learners The reading teaching can be beneficial to learners because it helps them to:
- Acquire the language (e.g., vocabulary, grammar) naturally
- Master the strategies for reading comprehension
- Improve other language skills (especially the writing skill)
4.1.2 Factors affecting the reading teaching
The teaching of reading should pay attention to the following factors:
- Characteristics of the passage: Whether the message is suitable for the learners in terms of language use (e.g., vocabulary, grammar), and content (e.g., culture, familiarity of the topic, authenticity)
- Characteristics of the reader: They include age, motivation, interest, and physical health
- Characteristics of the environment: They include background noise, the quality of the reading materials and classroom conditions
4.1.3 Types of classroom reading performance
There are two types of classroom reading performance (Brown & Lee, 2015):
- Oral and Silent Reading: Oral reading is used to and bottom-up processing skills and get learners involved in the reading process understanding of the reading text
- Intensive and Extensive Reading: The silent reading is divided into two types, namely intensive and extensive reading The former is a classroom-oriented activity which helps learners to learn linguistic or semantic features of the passage (e.g., grammar forms, discourse markers, literal meaning, implications, and so on) The latter is an out-of-class reading activity in which learners focus on longer texts (e.g., books, long articles) to get the global or general meaning of the texts
The teaching of reading should help learners to develop different skills for reading comprehension (Brown & Lee, 2015, p.401)
1 Distinguish among the distinctive words and spelling patterns of English
2 Retain English long and short phrases in short-term memory
3 Understand written language at an efficient rate of speed
4 Recognize a core of words and word order patterns, and interpret their meaning
5 Recognize grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms
6 Recognize that several grammatical forms can represent the same concept
7 Recognize cohesive devices in the reading texts
8 Recognize and interpret the rhetorical forms of written discourse
9 Recognize the communication roles of written texts in terms to form and purpose
10 Use background knowledge for inferences
12 Differentiate between literal and figurative meanings
13 Interpret the contexts using the appropriate cultural schemata
14 Develop a variety of reading strategies
The teachers should plan the appropriate techniques for teaching reading skills to help learners to develop these skills.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING READING
There are basic principles of teaching reading (e.g., Brown, 2000; Brown & Lee, 2015):
- The teacher should get learners prepared for reading
- The teacher should give a purpose when learners read
- The teacher should and language level
- The teacher should encourage learners to respond to the content of a passage, not just to the language
- The teacher should design different reading tasks for different reading stages
- The teacher should teach the strategies for reading comprehension
- The teacher should exploit reading texts to the full.
MODELS OF TEACHING READING
There are three models of teaching reading, namely bottom-up, top-down, and interactive models (e.g., Brown, 2000; Brown & Lee, 2008)
- Bottom-up model: This model aims at helping learners to recognize vocabulary and grammar as well as other linguistic features in the reading passage
- Top-down model predict what they are going to read
- Interactive model: This model is a combination of both bottom-up and top-down models which are simultaneously used
The teacher should pay attention to the schema theory in teaching reading to learners Schema theory is to explain how readers can use their background knowledge to understand and learn the reading text (e.g., Anderson, 2004; Grabe & Stoller, 2014) There are content schemata and formal schemata The former refers to how readers use their background knowledge of the world, while the latter refers to how readers use their background knowledge of the language (Grabe & Stoller, 2014).
PROCEDURE FOR TEACHING READING
The common procedure for teaching reading follows the pre-, while-, and post- model
- Pre-reading: This stage is to set up the lead- ideas and to provide learners with new language items (e.g., vocabulary, grammar)
- While- reading: This stage provides learners with different reading tasks to comprehend the reading passage
- Post- reading reading passage and to provide learners opportunities to develop other language skills.
TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING READING
The techniques and activities for teaching reading can be divided into three groups: techniques and activities for teaching pre-reading, while- reading and post- reading
4.5.1 Techniques and activities for teaching pre-reading
The common techniques and activities for teaching pre-reading are Using realia, pictures and video clips, Brainstorming (e.g., games, mind-map), Contextualization, Storytelling, Guessing/predicting (e.g., questions, true/false, pictures), Setting a scene, Discussion, guiding Questions, K-W-L Chart, Presenting vocabulary and grammar, and so on These techniques and activities are to activate interests, get them willing to learn new things, improve their predicting skills, and get them ready before reading
Description: This activity is to help learners to guess the topic of the reading passage that they are going to read
Instruction: The teacher chooses some pictures relevant to the topic of the reading, then asks the learners to connect the pictures The learners present their ideas and guess what they are going to read
Figure 4.1: Using pictures (Tieng Anh 7, Hoang et al., 2017, p.31)
Description: This activity is to activate prior knowledge (content schemata) K-W-L refers to Know, Want to know and Learned
Instruction: The teacher uses a chart divided into three columns for K, W and L S/he asks the learners to work in groups to write what they know and want to know about the topic of the reading After the reading, the teacher asks the learners to write what they learned from the reading in the chart.
Description: This activity is to help to and get them willing to learn new things
Instruction: The teacher selects some key sentences from the reading and sticks them in different areas of the classroom S/he divides the class into groups of four or five One is the writer and others are the runners The runners have to run and read the sentences, and then dictate them to the writer
Figure 4.3: Running dictation (Credit: teachersbook7.blogspot.com/)
4.5.2 Techniques and activities for teaching while-reading
Common techniques and activities for teaching while-reading are Read and tick, Read and answer the questions (e.g., short answers, true/false, multi-choice questions), Read and match (e.g., sentence matching, sentence-picture matching), Read and write, Read and choose, Running questions, Table talk, Read and order
(e.g., sentences, events, pictures) and so on These techniques and activities are to give learners reasons to read, verify the predicting and guessing, and develop lea written language
Description: This activity is to help learners to focus on what they are reading Level: All levels
Instruction: The teacher can ask the learners to work in pairs or groups S/he finds some key information from the reading, then asks the learners to make a question for each piece of information The learners have to make questions as fast as possible Table talk
Description: This activity is to help learners to focus on what they are reading Level: All levels
Instruction: The teacher can ask the learners to work in pairs or groups S/he asks a learner to read the reading passage aloud, and s/he can stop the reading and ask the learners to discuss some important or difficult ideas of the reading
Description: This activity is to help learners to focus on what they are reading Level: All levels
Instruction: The teacher can ask the learners to work in pairs or groups S/he asks learners to read the passage and put the events in the order of the reading
Figure 4.4: Ordering the events (Credit: liveworksheets.com)
4.5.3 Techniques and activities for teaching post-reading
Common techniques for teaching post-reading are Summary, Discussion, Information exchange, Character interview, Survey, Was it in the story?, Challenge classmates, Role-play, Recalling These techniques and activities are to check read using other skills
Description: This activity is to help learners to check their understanding of the reading and practice their speaking skill
Instruction: The teacher can ask the learners to work in pairs or groups S/he asks some learners to role-play the characters in the reading and others to prepare questions relevant to the reading
Figure 4.5: Character interview (Credit: education.com) Survey
Description: This activity is to help learners to check their understanding of the reading and practice their speaking skill
Instruction: The teacher can ask the learners to work in pairs or groups The learners make some questionnaire about the content of the reading, then they can ask other learners the questions The teacher can call one or two learners to report their survey
Figure 4.6: Survey (Credit: eslprintables.com) Summary writing
Description: This activity is to help learners to check their understanding of the reading and practice their speaking skill
Instruction: The teacher can ask the learners to work in pairs or groups The learners have to summarize the reading in terms of a mind-map, a short passage and so on The teacher can ask one or two learners to present their summary
Figure 4.7: Summary writing (Credit: liveworksheets.com)
1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of oral and silent reading?
2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of intensive and extensive reading?
3 What are the characteristics of a good reader?
1 Teaching reading: in Ur, P (1991) A course in language teaching, practice and theory Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
2 Teaching Reading: in Tindale, J (2003) Teaching reading Australia: National
Centre for English Language Teaching and Research
3 Reading: in Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited
4 Teaching reading: in Brown, H D., & Lee, H (2015) Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (4th Edition) NY: Pearson Education.
TEACHING LISTENING
BACKGROUND TO TEACHING LISTENING
The listening skill is one of the two receptive skills which can provide the aural input for learners (Wilson, 2008) The listening teaching can be beneficial to learners because it helps them to:
- Acquire the sounds, stress, rhythm and intonation naturally
- Master the strategies for listening comprehension
- Improve other language skills (especially the speaking skill)
5.1.2 Factors affecting the listening teaching
The teaching of listening should pay attention to the following factors (Wilson, 2008):
- Characteristics of the message: Whether the message is suitable for the learners in terms of language use (e.g., vocabulary, grammar), and content (e.g., culture, familiarity of the topic)
- Characteristics of delivery: Whether the listening is reciprocal (e.g., there is a conversation) or nonreciprocal (e.g., a situation in which the listener has no opportunity to contribute to a dialogue) It is the organization, duration, number of speakers, speed, and accent
- Characteristics of the listener: They include language level, intelligence, age, motivation, interest, and physical health
- Characteristics of the environment: They include background noise, the quality of the recordings and classroom conditions
5.1.3 Types of classroom listening performance
There are six types of classroom listening performance (Brown & Lee, 2015):
- Reactive: This type of listening refers to brief choral or individual drills that help learners to focus on pronunciation
- Intensive: This refers to learners to focus on the elements of the spoken language (phonemes, words, intonation, discourse markers, etc.) It aims to develop bottom-up skills
- Responsive: This refers to listening activities which elicit immediate responses from learners
- Selective: This type of listening is longer than intensive listening It refers to the tasks which ask learners to listen for some selective information
- Extensive: -down, global understanding of the spoken language It requires learners to use skills such as note-taking, asking questions, discussions for full comprehension
- Interactive: This type covers all the five above-mentioned types which ask learners to actively participate in discussions, debates, conversations, role-plays, and so on
The teaching of listening should help learners to develop different skills for listening comprehension (Richards, 1993; as cited in Brown & Lee, 2015, p.327)
1 Retain English long and short phrases in short-term memory
2 Distinguish between the various English sounds
3 Recognize stress patterns in English and their significance in communicating information
4 Recognize words in their shortened forms
5 Discriminate word boundaries, recognize a core of words and word order patterns, and interpret their meaning
6 Follow the listening at different rates of delivery
7 Recognize the pauses, errors, corrections, and other performance factors
8 Recognize grammar (e.g., structures, rules, word classes, rules)
9 Identify sentence constituents and the difference between major and minor components
10 Recognize that several grammatical forms can represent the same concept
11 Recognize cohesive devices in the listening
12 Recognize the communication roles of utterances in different situations, with different participants and different aims
13 Infer situations, participants, goals using real-world knowledge
14 Predict outcomes and make references
15 Differentiate between literal and figurative meanings
16 Decipher meanings using verbal and nonverbal language
17 Develop a variety of listening strategies
The teachers should plan the appropriate techniques for teaching listening skills to help learners to develop these skills.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING LISTENING
There are basic principles of teaching listening (e.g., Brown & Lee, 2015):
- The teacher should get learners prepared for listening
- The teacher should help learners to listen to the recordings sufficiently
- The teacher should give a purpose when learners listen
- The teacher should encourage learners to respond to the content of a listening, not just to the language
- The teacher should design different listening tasks for different listening stages
- The teacher should teach the strategies for listening comprehension
- The teacher should exploit listening texts to the full.
MODELS OF TEACHING LISTENING
There are three models of teaching listening, namely bottom-up, top-down, and interactive models (e.g., Brown, 2000; Wilson, 2008; Brown & Lee, 2015)
- Bottom-up model: This model aims at helping learners to recognize vocabulary and grammar as well as other linguistic features in the listening
- Top-down model: to predict what they are going to listen to
- Interactive model: This model is a combination of both bottom-up and top-down models which are simultaneously used.
PROCEDURE FOR TEACHING LISTENING
The common procedure for teaching listening follows the pre-, while-, and post- model
- Pre-listening: This stage is to set up the lead-in interest and ideas and to provide learners with new language items (e.g., vocabulary, grammar)
- While-listening: This stage provides learners with different listening tasks to comprehend the content of the listening
- Post-listening content of the of the listening and to provide learners opportunities to develop other language skills.
TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING LISTENING
The techniques and activities for teaching listening can be divided into three groups: techniques and activities for teaching pre-listening, while-listening and post- listening
5.5.1 Techniques and activities for teaching pre-listening
The common techniques and activities for teaching pre-listening are using realia and pictures, contextualization, predicting (e.g., questions, true/false), setting a scene, discussion, guiding questions, presenting vocabulary and grammar, and so on These techniques and activities are to , get their them to learn new things, improve their predicting skills, and get them ready before listening Contextualization
Description: This activity is to help learners contextualize what they are going to listen to
Instruction: The teacher uses the cues, pictures, questions and so on to activate the l prior knowledge and relate it to the current situation The teacher asks learners to predict the content of the listening that they are going to listen to
Figure 5.1: Contextualization (Tieng Anh 9, Hoang et al., 2017, p.23) Discussion
Description: This activity is to help learners to discuss the questions relevant to the content of the listening they are going to listen to
Instruction: The teacher gives some questions about the listening and asks learners to discuss them in pairs or groups
Figure 5.2: Discussion (Tieng Anh 7, Hoang et al., 2017, p.33)
Description: This activity is to help learners to predict the content of the listening that they are going to listen to
Instruction: The teacher designs some True/False questions relevant to the content of the listening, then asks learners to predict whether they are true or false checked in the while-listening
5.5.2 Techniques and activities for teaching while-listening
The common techniques and activities for teaching while-listening are Listen and tick, Listen and answer the questions (e.g., short answers, true/false, multi-choice questions), Listen and match (e.g., sentence matching, sentence-picture matching), Listen and write, Listen and choose and so on These techniques and activities are to give learners reasons to listening, verify the predicting and guessing, and develop
Description: This activity is to help learners to purposes, and so on
Instruction: The teacher explains the task, then asks the learners to predict the answers The learners listen to the recording and answer the questions
Figure 5.3: Listen and answer (Tieng Anh 7, Hoang et al., 2017, p.31) Listen and complete
Description: This activity is to help learners to listen for details
Instruction: The teacher explains the task, then asks the learners to predict the answers The learners listen to the recording and answer the questions
Figure 5.3: Listen and complete (Tieng Anh 9, Hoang et al., 2017, p.13) Listen and choose
Description: This activity is to help learners to listen for details
Instruction: The teacher explains the task, then asks the learners to predict the answers The learners listen to the recording and answer the questions
Figure 5.4: Listen and choose (Tieng Anh 9, Hoang et al., 2017, p.13)
5.5.3 Techniques and activities for teaching post-listening
The common techniques and activities for teaching pos-listening are Summary, Discussion, Information exchange, Problem-solving, Challenge classmates, Role-play, Reviewing the transcript, Recalling These techniques and activities are to check listened using other skills
Description: This activity is to help learners to clarify the content of the listening that they can and cannot understand
Instruction: The teacher gives learners copies of the transcript, then asks them to underline sections of the transcript that they cannot understand The teacher helps learners to discuss those sections in pairs or groups Finally, the teacher gives explanations to the discussed sections
Description: This activity is to help learners to recall the content of the listening that they have listened to
Instruction: The teacher asks learners to work in pairs or groups Each learner in turn recalls the information of the listening
Description: This activity is to help learners to show their understanding of the content of the listening and check the of the content of the listening
Instruction: The teacher asks learners to work in groups Each learner makes up one or two questions based on the content of the listening and then asks other learners in other groups The group who has the most correct answers will win the game
1 Regarding the six types of classroom listening performance, which is suitable for learners of elementary, intermediate and advanced levels?
2 What should the teachers do to for listening comprehension?
3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of the three models of teaching listening?
4 What are the purposes of pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening?
1 Teaching listening: in Ur, P (1991) A course in language teaching, practice and theory Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
2 Listening: in Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited
3 Teaching listening: in Wislon, J J (2008) How to teach listening Harlow,
4 Teaching listening: in Brown, H D., & Lee, H (2015) Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (4th Edition) NY: Pearson Education.
TEACHING SPEAKING
BACKGROUND TO TEACHING SPEAKING
The speaking skill is one of the two productive skills, and the teaching of speaking plays a pivotal role in ESL/EFL learning and teaching The teaching of speaking can be beneficial to learners because it helps them to:
- Use the language for communication naturally
6.1.2 Factors affecting the speaking teaching
The teaching of speaking should pay attention to the following factors:
- Characteristics of the speaking tasks: They include task types, objectives (accuracy, fluency or both), and level of difficulty
- Characteristics of the learner: They include ntelligence, age, motivation, interest, mother tongue, language exposure/input, and anxiety
- Characteristics of the environment: They include class size and facilities
6.1.3 Types of classroom speaking performance
There are six types of classroom speaking performance (Brown & Lee, 2015, pp.535-356):
- Imitative: This type of speaking focuses on some element of language form Learners listen and repeat what they hear
- Intensive: This type of speaking is to help learners to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of language
- Responsive: This type of speaking refers to short responses to teacher or student-initiated questions
- Transactional (Dialogue): This type of speaking is longer than responsive It is for exchanging information in conversations
- Interpersonal (Dialogue): This type of speaking is for maintain social relationship rather than information in social conversations
- Extensive (Monologue): This type of speaking is for advanced learners who give extended monologues (e.g., presentation, short speech, report, etc.)
The teaching of speaking should help learners to develop different skills for oral communication (Brown & Lee, 2015, p.352)
1 Produce the intended language in various lengths
2 Speak the language in terms of sounds clearly and correctly
3 Produce English stress patterns, rhythm and intonation clearly and correctly
4 Produce words and phrases in their shortened forms
5 Convey pragmatic purposes in speech
6 Speak fluently at different rates of delivery
7 Control speech and use communication strategies effectively
8 Use grammar (e.g., structures, rules, word classes, rules) effectively
9 Speak the language (e.g., phrases, sentences, pause) naturally
10 Use various grammatical forms to express a specific idea
11 Use cohesive devices in speaking
12 Use communicative functions for different situations, participants, and goals appropriately
13 Use appropriate registers, implicature, pragmatic conventions, and other sociolinguistic features in various situations
14 Convey meanings appropriately in various situations
15 Use both verbal and nonverbal language appropriately to convey meanings
16 Develop a variety of communication strategies
The teachers should plan the appropriate techniques for teaching speaking skills to help learners to develop these skills.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING SPEAKING
There are basic principles of teaching listening (e.g., Brown, 2000; Brown & Lee, 2015):
- The teacher should focus on both fluency and accuracy, depending on the teaching purpose
- The teacher should provide intrinsically motivating techniques
- The teacher should encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts
- The teacher should provide feedback and correction appropriately
- The teacher should highlight the connection between speaking and listening
- The teacher should provide opportunities for communications
- The teacher should develop the speaking strategies.
PROCEDURE FOR TEACHING SPEAKING
The common procedure for teaching speaking follows the pre-, while-, and post- model
- Pre-speaking: This stage is to set up the lead- and ideas and to provide learners with new language items (e.g., vocabulary, grammar)
- While-speaking: This stage provides learners with different speaking tasks to practice what they learned accurately
- Post-speaking: The final stage is to provide learners opportunities to develop their speaking fluency and other language skills.
TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING SPEAKING
The techniques and activities for teaching speaking can be divided into three groups: techniques and activities for teaching pre- speaking, while- speaking and post- speaking
6.4.1 Techniques for teaching pre-speaking
The common techniques and activities for teaching pre-speaking are Using realia, pictures, flashcards and video clips, Contextualization, Setting a scene, Discussion, K- W-L Chart, Brainstorming (e.g., games, mind-map), Storytelling, Presenting vocabulary and grammar, and so on These techniques and activities are to activate interests, get them to learn new things, improve their predicting skills, and get them ready for speaking
Description: This activity is to help learners to guess the topic that they are going to learn
Instruction: The teacher can choose a picture relevant to the speaking topic that learners are going to learn S/he divides the pictures into parts with questions The learners have to choose the questions Each correct answer is given, then each part of the picture is revealed
Figure 6.1: Picture revealing (Tieng Anh 6, Hoang et al., 2017, p.15) Picture describing
Description: This activity is to help learners to activate their background knowledge to guess the topic that they are going to learn
Instruction: The teacher can choose pictures or illustrations relevant to the speaking topic that learners are going to learn S/he asks the learners to describe the pictures/illustrations
Figure 6.2: Picture describing (Tieng Anh 6, Hoang et al., 2017, p.20) Brainstorming
Description: This activity is to help learners to activate their background knowledge to guess the topic that they are going to learn
Instruction: The teacher presents the speaking topic that learners are going to learn The learners talk about the given topic as much as possible
Figure 6.3: Picture describing (Tieng Anh 6, Hoang et al., 2017, p.22)
6.4.2 Techniques and activities for teaching while-speaking
The common techniques and activities for teaching while-speaking are controlled activities (e.g., drills: individual and choral repetition) and guided activities (e.g., role-play, dialogue model, picture describing, discussion) These techniques and activities are to practice the language accurately
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice the language item that they just learned
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to work in pairs The learners can use the dialogue model to practice
Figure 6.4: Role-play (Tieng Anh 6, Hoang et al., 2017, p.24)
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice the language item that they just learned
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to work in groups The learners work on an issue relevant to the speaking topic they just learned One learner answers the questions posed by others
Figure 6.5: Yes/No Questions (Tieng Anh 9, Hoang et al., 2017, p.15) Picture clues
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice the language item(s) that they just learned
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to work in pairs or groups The learners practice asking and answering by using the learned language item(s)
Figure 6.6: Picture clues (Credit: busyteacher.org)
6.4.3 Techniques and activities for teaching post-speaking
The common techniques and activities for teaching post-speaking are creative activities (e.g., Discussion, Debate, Role-play, Simulation, Reporting, Presentation, Picture describing/drawing, Communication games, and so on) These techniques and activities are to language skills
Description: This activity is to help learners to present the findings from the previous activity (e.g., interview, discussion)
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to write a short summary or key information in the table The learners can work in pairs, groups or individually, then they have to present the findings
Figure 6.7: Presentation (Tieng Anh 7, Hoang et al., 2017, p.22)
Description: This activity is to help learners to use the language more freely
Instruction: The teacher gives learners an issue relevant to the speaking topic they just learned The learners are divided into two groups, and they have to argue to protect their viewpoints
Figure 6.8: Debate (Credit: busyteacher.org/) Picture drawing
Description: This activity is to help learners to use the language more freely
Instruction: The teacher asks learners to draw a picture in pairs or groups The learners have to describe the pictures to other pairs or groups
Figure 6.9: Presentation (Tieng Anh 6, Hoang et al., 2017, p.32)
1 What makes the speaking skill difficult?
3 Among six types of classroom speaking performance, which is suitable for learners of elementary, intermediate and advanced levels?
4 Among three stages of teaching speaking, which one is the most important?
1 Teaching speaking: in Ur, P (1991) A course in language teaching, practice and theory Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
2 Teaching speaking: in Thornbur, S (2005) How to teach speaking Harlow,
3 Speaking: in Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited
4 Teaching speaking: in Brown, H D., & Lee, H (2015) Teaching by principles:
An interactive approach to language pedagogy (4th Edition) NY: Pearson
TEACHING WRITING
BACKGROUND TO TEACHING WRITING
The writing skill is one of the two productive skills, and the teaching of writing is an important part of ESL/EFL learning and teaching The teaching of writing can be beneficial to learners because it helps them to:
- Deepen their understanding of the language
- Develop their writing skills to meet the writing demands
7.1.2 Factors affecting the writing teaching
The teaching of writing should pay attention to the following factors:
- Characteristics of the writing tasks: They include task types, objectives, level of difficulty, and readers
- Characteristics of the learner: They include age, motivation, interest, mother tongue, language exposure/input
- Characteristics of the environment: They include class size and facilities
7.1.3 Types of classroom writing performance
There are five types of classroom writing performance (Brown & Lee, 2015, pp.438-441):
- Imitative or Mechanical Writing: This type of writing is to help learners to learn the mechanics of writing accuracy, e.g., copy, dictation, spelling, sound-spelling practice, and so on
- Intensive or Controlled Writing: This type of writing is to help learners to practice the learned language item(s), e.g., sentence substitution, sentence transformation, verb conjugation, and so on
- Self-Writing: This type of writing refers to the note-taking, journal writing and diary conducted by learners
- Display Writing: This type of writing refers to any types of classroom writing (e.g., short answer exercises, essays, report, etc.) for the purposes of display
- Real Writing: This type of writing refers to academic (e.g., reports, thesis, essays), vocational/technical (e.g., CV, application form, letters), and personal writing (e.g., notes, diary, letter, message) for the genuine communication
The teaching of writing should help learners to develop different skills for writing production (Brown & Lee, 2015, p.437)
1 Produce the intended language in various lengths
3 Use vocabulary and grammar appropriately
4 Use various grammatical forms to express a specific idea
5 Use cohesive devices in writing
6 Use the rhetorical forms and conventions in writing appropriately
7 Use communicative functions in writing appropriately
8 Convey meanings appropriately in various situations
9 Convey both literal and figurative meanings in writing
10 Express the cultural references appropriately in writing
11 Develop a variety of writing strategies
The teachers should plan the appropriate techniques for teaching writing skills to help learners to develop these skills.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING WRITING
There are basic principles of teaching writing (e.g., Brown, 2000; Nunan, 2003; Brown & Lee, 2015):
- The teacher should provide learners with substantial writing opportunities
- The teacher should provide substantial input for writing
- The teacher should provide authentic writing as much as possible
- The teacher should provide learners with criteria for evaluating their writing
- The teacher should develop the writing strategies.
APPROACHES TO TEACHING WRITING
There are two major approaches to teaching writing, namely product writing and process writing (e.g., Linse & Nunan, 2005; Shin & Crandall, 2014)
- The model text is provided for analysis and imitation
- Key features of the text are highlighted
- Organization of ideas is important
- Emphasis is on the product
- Writing activities are controlled, guided and free
Process writing approach (Writing workshop)
- Emphasis is on the process of writing
- There are different stages: (1) Brainstorming and discussing; (2) Drafting; (3) Peer reviewing and conferencing; (4) Revising; (5) Reviewing and conferencing;
PROCEDURE FOR TEACHING WRITING
The common procedure for teaching writing follows the pre-, while-, and post- model
- Pre-writing: This stage is to set up the lead-in to stimulate lea ideas and to provide learners with new language items (e.g., vocabulary, grammar)
- While-writing: This stage provides learners with different writing tasks to produce their writing
- Post-writing: The final stage is to provide learners opportunities to check their writing and develop other language skills.
TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING WRITING
The techniques and activities for teaching writing can be divided into three groups: techniques and activities for teaching pre-writing, while-writing and post-writing
7.5.1 Techniques and activities for teaching pre-writing
The common techniques/activities for teaching pre-writing are Brainstorming (e.g., games, mind-map), Discussion, Free-writing, 5W and 1H, Storytelling, Picture prompts, Reading, Outlining, Clustering, Presenting vocabulary and grammar, and so generate ideas before writing
Description: This activity is to help learners to generate ideas relevant to the writing topic
Instruction: The teacher gives a topic to the learners to work in pairs, groups or individually within a set time They have to write up many ideas as possible
Figure 7.1: Mind-map (Credit: twinkl.com.au/) Clustering
Description: This activity is to help learners to generate ideas relevant to the writing topic
Instruction: The teacher gives the learners different pieces of paper which contains ideas relevant to the writing topic The learners have to work in pairs or groups to cluster the ideas
Figure 7.2: Clustering (Credit: liveworksheets.com/) 5W and 1H
Description: 5W and 1H are Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How This activity is to help learners to generate ideas relevant to the writing topic
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to work in pairs or groups The learners have to answer the questions of 5W and 1H relevant to the writing topic
Figure 7.3: s and 1H (Credit: allkidsnetwork.com/)
7.5.2 Techniques and activities for teaching while-writing
The common techniques and activities for teaching while-writing are Picture writing, Transformation writing, Substitution, Questions & Answers, Ordering/Sequencing, Shared-writing, Jumbled sentences, and so on These techniques and activities are to produce the writing
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice writing based on the picture cues
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to work in pairs or groups to write by using the picture cues
Figure 7.4: Picture writing (Tieng Anh 8, Hoang et al., 2017, p.33)
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice writing from prompts Level: All levels
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to work in pairs or groups to put the pictures in a correct order The learners have to write sentences describing the pictures
Figure 7.5: Sequencing a story (Credit: allkidsnetwork.com/)
Description: This activity is to help learners to practice writing in pairs and groups Level: All levels
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to work in pairs or groups S/he gives the first sentence, and then asks learners to take turn to write
Figure 7.6: Shared writing (Credit: sharedwritingexperience.weebly.com/)
7.5.3 Techniques and activities for teaching post-writing
The common techniques and activities for teaching post-writing are Read the writing aloud, Peer-editing, Editing criteria, Exhibition, and so on These techniques and activities are to and develop other language skills
Description: This activity is to help learners to check their writing in pairs and groups
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to read their writing aloud in pairs or groups The learners should
Description: This activity is to help learners to check their writing in pairs and groups
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to cross-check their writing using editing criteria
Figure 7.7: Editing criteria (Credit: worksheetplace.com/)
Description: This activity is to help learners to exhibit their writing and check their writing
Instruction: The teacher asks the learners to post their writing in different areas in the classroom or on the board The learners have to present their writing Other learners can give
Figure 7.8: Exhibition (Credit: teesvalleymuseums.org/)
1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of product writing approach and process writing approach?
2 What are the common types of writing?
4 How do the teachers solve the difficulties in teaching writing?
1 Teaching writing: in Linse, C.T and Nunan, D (2005) Practical English Language Teaching Young Learners McGraw-Hill ESL/ELT, New York
2 Writing: in Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited
3 Teaching writing: in Hammer, J (2008) How to teach writing (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited
4 Teaching writing: in Brown, H D., & Lee, H (2015) Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (4th Edition) NY: Pearson Education.
[1] Alderson, J C (2000) Assessing reading Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
[2] Brown, H D (2000) Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (2nd Edition) NY: Longman
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