655.2.5 Roles of the Teacher and the Learners in Communicative Language Teaching .... Old English 450-1100 The arrival of three Germanic tribes Saxons, Angles, and Jutes during the fifth
WORLD ENGLISHES
HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The present English language with approximately 750,000 words has evolved for centuries by crossing boundaries and through invasions The history of the English language started around 1,600 or so years ago, and it can be divided into three main periods: Old English
(450 - 1100 AD), Middle English (1100 - 1500 AD) and Modern English (1500 - Present) The English language has developed along with the influence of other languages (Mugglestone, 2006)
The arrival of three Germanic tribes (Saxons,
Angles, and Jutes) during the fifth century AD to the British Isles pushed most of Celtic speakers to the west and north (now Scotland,
Scotland and Ireland) Over the years, a mixture of dialects which was formed by different languages spoken by the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes was referred to Old English or Anglo-Saxon The Angles came from Englaland, and their language was called Englisc, from which the words England and English are derived
The Viking invasion: The Vikings (a tribe of Nordic people) invaded Northern and
Northwestern Europe 1,000-1,200 years ago Old Norse, the language of the Vikings influenced Old English, and more than 2,000 new words from Old Norse were imported in Old English For example, give, take, egg, knife, husband, run and so on
The French invasion: William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England in 1066 AD, and became king The Old French was a common language of royals and power Old English was spoken by peasants, the lower class During this period, Old English adopted more French words such as liberty and justice (Crystal, 2003; Graddol, 2006)
1800): In the 14 th century, the English language became dominant in Britain
This period was the English
Renaissance during which English flourished through the development of
English literature and culture One of the most influential writers was
Shakespeare, who invented at least
1,700 words, e.g., alligator, puppy dog, and fashionable
Late Modern English (1800 Present): The Industrial Revolution in England had effects on the English language development as new words (e.g., trains, engine, pulleys, electricity) were invented due to the rapid changes in technology The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary
During the period (18 th 20 th century) of the British Colonialism, Britain was an Empire conquering different areas of the world such as the USA, Australia, New Zealand, India, Asia and Africa, and the English language As native English speakers interacted with local people, new words were adopted into the English vocabulary, e.g., kangaroo, boomerang from Australian Aborigine words; juggernaut and turban from India.
THE GLOBAL SPREAD OF ENGLISH
The worldwide spread of English is due to the main factors: A colonial history, Economics, Information exchange, Travel, Popular culture (Hammer, 2007)
A colonial history: The British Empire (18 th 20 th century) was the dominant global power It covered one fourth of the world which included colonies and outposts in many parts of the world (Marshall, 2001) The English language became a dominating unifying/means of control in British colonies (Hammer, 2007)
Economics: The growth of the English language has been influenced by the spread of global commerce as the United States has dominated as the world economic power The English language has become one of the main mediating languages of international businesses (Hammer, 2007)
Information exchange: The emergence of the Internet has boosted the information exchange, which entailed the dominance of English The English language is used as a lingua franca and a default language in diverse academic discourses around the world
Travel: English has been used as an international language, so travel and tourism around the world prefer communication in English
Popular culture: Pop music in English has expanded to different parts of the world The domination of movies and TV in English also contribute to the global spread of English In addition, many countries such as the USA, Britain, Canada and Australia are preferred study destinations, which can popularize their cultures.
THE VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
Within the era of globalization, the
English language has been used as an international language for communication, which refers to as world
English In addition, English is variously used in terms of English as a first language, English as a second language
(ESL), and English as a foreign language
(EFL), which creates different varieties of
English in the world; hence, the notion of world Englishes refers to this phenomenon (e.g., Bolton, 2003; Brown, 2004; Kachru, Kachru & Nelson, 2006) The three levels of world Englishes are described in the theory of The Three Circles proposed by
Kachru (1985; cited in Kachru, Kachru, & Nelson, 2006)
(1985) theory depicts three circles which represent three levels of English use Countries such as the UK, Australia, the USA are in the Inner Circle where English is spoken as the first language or mother tongue Meanwhile, the Outer Circle represents countries like India, Nigeria, Singapore speaking English as a second language (ESL), and the Expanding Circle indicates countries like China, Brazil, Vietnam where English is used as a foreign language, international language or lingua franca
There are some main varieties of English, namely British English, American and Canadian English, Australian and New Zealand English, South Asian English, African English, where English is used as the first language and/or an official language (Crystal & Potter, n.d.).
THE STATUS OF ENGLISH IN ASEAN CONTEXT
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has decided to use English as an official language for business (ASEAN, 2009, 2011), and the English language plays a major roles in different aspects of life including academic, diplomatic and economic pursuits (Kachru, Kachru, & Nelson, 2006), and it is used as an international language or lingua franca (Tran, 2016) However, the status of English in the ASEAN context can be divided into levels: countries such as Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Philippines and Singapore have institutionalized Englishes (the Outer Circle), while others (e.g., Cambodia, Lao PDR, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam) are categorized in the Expanding Circle
The English language has a vital position in ASEAN as it is one of the compulsory subjects in schools Furthermore, ASEAN members have committed to promote the use of English and to enhance English language education in their countries Different schemes for improving the status of English have been implemented in many ASEAN countries For example, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) of Vietnam has launched a project entitled and learning of foreign languages in the national education system, 2008- (Decision No -TTg, 2008) (commonly known as Project 2020) which requires all teachers of English in Vietnam to reach a minimum level of English language proficiency (e.g., B2 for primary and secondary school teachers; C1 for high school teachers) in terms of Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).
THE EFFECTS OF ENGLISH
Although the spread of global English is considered as a benign phenomenon, some people have been worried that many negative effects of the dominance of English can happen
The positive effects of the growth of English are that it has boosted the development of global economic, educational, scientific and entertainment exchange among countries around the world In addition, the communication gap among people has been narrowed thanks to the spread of English In addition, the widespread use of English in education has entailed greatly the development of knowledge in several fields (Weil & Pullin, 2011) The positive impact of the rise of English is in business as English is an important tool for multinational corporations, and the official English in the field of aviation can contribute its positive roles to the convenience and easiness of air navigation around the world
Some negative impacts of the spread of English are noticed as follows First, some people may see this as a way of culture and language popularization (Pennycook,
1998) This may result in the disappearance of some cultures and languages around the world because young behaviors are influenced by mass media such as movies, music and news in English Such effects can stop only when the movie or program ends Additionally, the language death is an ongoing problem due to the use of English as a worldwide tongue Many indigenous languages may be ignored which is partially due to the rise of English In such a context, the more people speak English, the more languages may be lost (Crystal, 2003).
THE FUTURE OF ENGLISH
As English as a lingua franca is widely spoken around the world, it will be growing more and more There are a number of future possibilities for the future of English
English will still be the number one world language as more and more people are using it, and it is going to be influenced by second and foreign language learners There will be about 3 billion people who will use English by the year 2040 (Graddol,
2006) In addition, the USA will be one of the number one superpowers, so English will still be the language of business, science, technology, news, international diplomacy and so on (Crystal, 2003)
In another aspect, the emergence of new Englishes will lead to new inter- languages in which features of English are mingled with those of other native tongues and their pronunciation New varieties of English will be so individual that native speakers of Standard English may not understand them
In terms of linguistics, some words will change their meanings from the variety of English introduced will be applied to new settings and take on different
(Crystal, 2000, p 6) On the other hand, more foreign words will be borrowed, but the meanings will be local setting-based
1 Where does the English language come from?
2 How has English become a global language around the world?
3 What are the varieties of English?
4 What is the status of English in ASEAN context?
5 Why is English considered as the world language? Why are there world Englishes?
6 What are the positive and negative effects of the growth of English?
7 What variety of English should be taught?
8 What is the future of English language teaching?
- History of English language: in Campbell, James (ed.) 1991 The Anglo-Saxons Harmondsworth: Penguin
- British Empire: in Lockwood, W B 1975 Languages of the British Isles past and present London: André Deutsch
- Englishes in Asian contexts: in Kachru, Y (2006) World Englishes in Asian Contexts (Larry E Smith Eds.) Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press
- World Englishes: in Melchers, G and Shaw, P (2003) World Englishes The English Language Series Department of English, Stockholm University, Sweden.
BASIC ISSUES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION VERSUS LANGUAGE LEARNING
Children acquire a language as they develop, and many children can speak more than one language They acquire a language subconsciously as a result of the massive exposure to different sources such as adults and other children around them The instinct the mental capability we are all born with acts upon the language they hear and transforms it into the knowledge of the language and an ability to speak it (Howatt, 2004)
People can speak second languages by picking them up without going to lessons or going to language classes to study them The former is described as acquisition which refers to the ability to acquire language naturally and subconsciously, whereas the latter is known as learning which refers to studial capabilities helping students organize their learning and apply their conscious knowledge to the task in hand (Howatt, 2004) In other terms, they are subconscious acquisition and conscious learning language we acquire subconsciously (especially when it is anxiety free) is language we can easily use spontaneous that is learnt, on the other hand, where means taught and studied as grammar and vocabulary, is not available for spontaneous use in this (Krashen, 1984, as cited by Hammer, 2007, p 50)
The theory of behaviourism has a profound effect upon teaching of all kinds, especially language teaching (Bruton, 1998) In behaviourist theory, conditioning is the results of a three-stage procedure: stimulus, response and reinforcement In language teaching, stimulus is something that is taught or presented; response is a reaction to the stimulus; reinforcement is teacher approval or praise, or is that teacher points out its wrong and asks for repetition
In the language learning process, the more input learners are exposed to the language, the more they learn the language management activities are directed exclusively at involving the learners in solving communication problems in the target language, then language learning will take care of (Allwright,
1979, p.170; as cited in Hammer, 2007, p 52) In this sense, the learning should pay attention to the learning process itself rather than the product of learning Learners should learn to do something by doing it, and learn the language freely to experiment with using language they have heard or seen in a supportive atmosphere, without feeling threatened.
ENGLISH VERSUS MOTHER TONGUE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
Whether the teacher should use English or mother tongue and the extent to which the use of English is used in English language teaching depend much on the level of English language proficiency However, the teacher should try to use English as much as possible in English language teaching When learners at intermediate level and above, all teaching (e.g., teaching vocabulary, explaining grammar, teaching activities, and instructions) can be done in English (Pollard, 2008)
At lower levels, the teacher may use mother tongue, but the use of English should be as much as possible The more learners progress, the more the teacher should use English for instructions The use of pictures and/or mime is preferable to translating
There are two main ways in which English can be used in class: English is used in teaching the lesson itself and for other activities in class (e.g., checking attendance, chatting to learners, controlling the class, etc.) (Doff, 1988)
For the first class, the teacher should help learners to get acquainted with common classroom language expressions S/he can write them on the board, demonstrate them through mime, pictures, and s/he should help learners to pronounce them correctly The teacher can sometimes use mother tongue when learners cannot grasp what teachers are saying in English Some examples of classroom language expressions are as follows:
- Excuse me, can you repeat that?
- Can you write it on the board?
- What is the meaning of ?
- Go back to your seats
- Put up/ raise your hand to ask questions
During class time, the talking time between teacher-talking time and learner- talking time should be 80% and 20% respectively (Pollard, 2008) Teachers should aim for learners to be talking more than themselves If learners are speaking, they are actively involved in what is going on in the classroom Some techniques for getting learners speaking are: pair work, group work and eliciting
The teacher can ask learners to work in pairs or groups to do a learning activity This gives learners a different focus by taking the attention away from the teacher, and this increases learner-talking time while reducing teacher-talking time The language to be used in pair work and group work should be English rather than mother tongue In addition, learners learn to work autonomously This will help them in their learning outside the classroom During pair work and group work, the teacher can monitor learners by walking around the class, listen to what they are doing The teacher can ask learners to present what they have discussed
When teachers are presenting language, they should try to get the explanations from learners (elicit) rather than giving all explanations themselves Teachers should ask questions that will get responses from learners This will help teachers to find out how much learners know about what teachers are teaching.
TECHNIQUES FOR USING THE BLACKBOARD AND WHITEBOARD
Blackboard/whiteboard is one of the most useful of all visual aids as it is always available and can be used for various purposes without any special preparation (Doff,
1988) The teacher can use the blackboard/whiteboard for presenting new words, showing spelling, giving a model for handwriting, writing prompts for practice, and so on Some techniques for effective use of blackboard/whiteboard are as follows:
- Divide the board into sections (e.g., one for vocabulary, one for grammar, one for homework, etc.)
- Write clearly in a straight line The writing should be large enough to be read from the back of the class
- Stand in a way that does not hide the board
- Talk as writing The teacher should say aloud what s/he is writing, phrase by phrase To involve the class even more, the teacher can sometimes ask learners to suggest what to write
Fig 2.1 Techniques for using the blackboard (Credit: shutterstock) Some examples for the use of the board:
- Presenting structures by underlying the important features, using different colored chalk, drawing arrows or writing numbers to show the change in word order e.g She goes to school
- Using simple drawings to introduce vocabulary (actions, places, feelings, etc.), topics and situations
Fig 2.2 Simple drawings for vocabulary (Credit: Pinterest)
Fig 2.3 Simple drawings for situations (Credit: Austin center for design)
In the modern time, there are alternatives to the classroom blackboard such as projector screen, liquid crystal display (LCD) TV, and interactive board which can be used in the classroom
- Projector screens can be helpful for teachers in teaching as they can offer teachers different ways of teaching learners In addition, lessons with vivid images and sounds are prepared in advance Teachers can save much time in presenting new lessons to learners
- LCD TV can be used in a similar way to projector screens
- The interactive (smart) whiteboard is a touch-sensitive screen that works in conjunction with a computer and a projector Teachers can manipulate text and images, make notes and save them for later review
USING VISUAL AIDS
Visual aids are pictures, objects and things for learners to look at They have important features in language teaching in general and English language teaching in specific as follows:
- Visual aids help to focus attention on meaning and to make the language used in the class more real and alive
- Visual aids help to keep attention and make the class more interesting
- Visual aids can be used at any stage of the lesson - to present new language or introduce a topic, practice and review what has been presented earlier Good visual aids can be used again and again, and can be shared by different teachers
Visual aids can be the teacher him/herself, blackboard, real objects, flashcards and charts
The teacher him/herself: The teacher can use gestures, facial expressions, and actions to help show the meaning of the words and to illustrate situations
The blackboard: The blackboard can be used to present new words, showing spelling, giving a model for handwriting, writing prompts for practice, and so on (as discussed in 2.3)
Real objects (Realia): The teacher can use things in the classroom and bring things into the class Simple objects can be used not only for teaching vocabulary but also as prompts to practise structures and develop situations e.g., The teacher can use the real objects to present
- vocabulary: pencil, book, ruler, pen
- prepositions of place: in, on, next to, etc
Flashcards: Cards with simple pictures which can be held up by the teacher They can be used for presenting and practising new words and structures and for revisions
Fig 2.7 Flashcards (Credit: en.islcollective.com)
Flashcards are ready-made or made by teachers They should be large enough Pictures should be clear and interesting to look at They can be kept and used again (Doff, 1988)
Charts: Charts are large sheets of cards or paper with writing, pictures or diagrams, used for more extended presentation or practice They would usually be displayed on the wall or blackboard (Doff, 1988) They have some advantages:
- The teacher does not have to spend time in the lesson drawing on the blackboard
- As prepared in advance, charts are prepared more carefully
- They can be kept and used again for different classes and purposes
Fig 2.8: Charts (Credit: Clip library and teachers pay teachers)
To display charts in class, the teacher can hold the chart up, pin it to the wall or to the blackboard, or learners can hold the chart.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
The main goals of classroom management are an environment for academic learning and creating an environment for social-emotional learning
Academic learning refers to learning content specified in state content standards (learning to read and write; learning to reason; learning science, math, and social studies; and so on) Social-emotional learning promotes growth in social skills and the ability to express emotions maturely Classrooms are well managed only if the teacher has created environments that promote both of these kinds of
(Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; as cited by Garrett, 2014, p 2)
In order to create an effective classroom management, it involves all the actions teachers take to create and maintain an environment conducive to learning (Brophy,
2006) The process of classroom management consists of five key areas: organizing the physical design of the classroom, establishing rules and routines, developing caring relationships, implementing engaging and effective instruction, and addressing discipline issues (Garrett, 2014, p 3)
2.5.1 Physical Design of the Classroom
The physical design lies in how the classroom is laid out, where the desks are, where the desk is, where learning centers and materials are located, where heavily used items such as the pencil sharpeners are, and so on One of the main factors which is relevant to inappropriate and disruptive behaviors is they the physical arrangement of the classroom (Doyle, 2006) The physical arrangements can affect attitudes and behavior rather than their achievement The less crowded the classroom is, the more attentive the learners are
Fig 2.9: Desk arrangements (Garrett, 2014, p 15) Desk arrangements (Fig 2.9) can be various
- Traditional rows: This arrangement implies that the teacher is the authority, standing in front of the room and knowledge to the class This arrangement is easy for the teacher to move around to any desk in the room and monitor whether learners are paying attention or not, and easy for learners to look at the teacher when s/he is talking and learners may be less distracted by their peers However, learners cannot work in groups easily and hear their friends in the front row
- Clusters: This arrangement highlights the importance of working together to construct knowledge This arrangement is easy for the teacher to move around and talk to learners in groups, and learners can work in groups easily, but the teacher can find it difficult to monitor all learners
- Pairs: This arrangement emphasizes the importance of learners working together to construct knowledge This arrangement is easy for the teacher to move around and talk to learners in pairs and monitor behaviors, and it is easy for learners to work in pairs and groups However, learners may talk to their partner
- U-Shaped: This arrangement focuses on the importance of talking and collaborative knowledge construction It is easy for all learners to see the center of the room and work in pairs and easy for the teacher to maintain attention and to monitor their behaviors Nevertheless, this arrangement can be often crowded and learners may be distracted by their partner
Teachers establish class rules and routines (such as handing back papers and taking attendance) to keep the class activities running smoothly with as little disruption and loss of time as possible (Doyle, 2006) In order to develop effective classroom rules, the teacher should:
- Develop a reasonable number of rules
- Decide how to work the rules
- Teach and demonstrate each rule
- Post the rules in a prominent spot
- Decide whether to give students a voice
Effective classroom managers develop caring, supportive relationships with learners and parents and promote supportive relations among students (Doyle,
2006) There are different ways that teachers can develop good rapports with learners
- Encourage learners to regulate their own learning
- Be sensitive to personal concerns
- Take a personal interest in learners
Effective managers develop instruction that engages learners, and they carefully plan their instruction so that each learning activity is well organized and runs smoothly (Doyle, 2006) Teachers should consider the following tasks to implement an engaging and motivating lesson:
- Plan for the necessary materials
- Consider the number of learners
- Decide how to group learners
- Monitor progress and provide feedback
- Organize and assess learner work
Discipline revolves around teacher actions focused on preventing and responding to misbehavior Discipline does not only mean punishment, nor does it only mean the actions that teachers take after misbehavior occurs Discipline also includes teacher actions that prevent misbehavior (Doyle, 2006) The teachers should consider the three guidelines when addressing the misbehavior (Weinstein & Romano, 2014)
- Preserve the dignity of the learners All learners want the respect of their teacher and peers
- Keep the instructional program going with as minimal disruption as possible It is vital to remember that one of the goals of classroom management is to maximize learning time
- Use culturally consistent language It is important to understand that different cultures have different ways of giving instructions and directions
Managing large classes, the teachers should do the following things (Hammer, 2007):
- Be organized: The bigger the group is, the more the teacher has to be organized and know what s/he is going to do before the lesson starts
- Establish routines: The daily management of a large class will be greatly enhanced if the teacher establishes routines that s/he and learners recognize how to do the learning tasks
- Use a different pace for different activities: For different activities, the teacher can ask learners to work at a fast or slow pace
- Maximise individual work: The more learners work individually, the more teachers can mitigate the effects of always working with a large group
- Use learners: Teachers can have class monitors collect homework, hand worksheets, or organize classmates into groups
- Use pairwork and groupwork: Pairwork and groupwork play an important part in large classes because they can maximize learner participation
- Use chorus reaction: It is difficult to do a lot of individual repetition and controlled practice in large classes, so it may be more appropriate to see learners in chorus
Managing classes with mixed ability, the teachers should do the following things (Hammer, 2007):
- Give learners different tasks: The teacher can give the learners the same reading text, but they are required to do different tasks
- Give learners different roles: Learners are asked to play different roles within a task
- Reward early finishers: When all learners do the same tasks, teachers can give learners who finish early extension tasks to reward their efforts and challenge them further
- Encourage different learner responses: Learners can work on the same materials and tasks, but they are encouraged to give different responses
- Identify learner strengths (linguistic or non-linguistic): Teachers can give learners tasks which do not necessarily demand linguistic brilliance but instead allow them to show off other talents they have.
PAIRWORK AND GROUPWORK
Two ways of organizing the class are pairwork and groupwork which are used for different kinds of classroom activities In pairwork, the teacher divides the whole class into pairs, and all learners have a partner to work with All the pairs work at the same time In groupwork, the teacher divides the class into small groups (usually 4 or 5 learners in each group) to work together As in the pairwork, all the groups work at the same time (Doff, 1988)
Advantages of using pairwork and groupwork
- More language practice: Learners have more chance to speak English in pairwork and groupwork
- Learners are more involved: Pairwork and groupwork encourage learners to be more involved and to concentrate on the task
- Learners feel secure: Shy learners can feel less anxious when they are working with their partner and their peer
- Learners help each other: Learners can share their ideas and knowledge when working in pairs and groups
- Promote learner autonomy: Pairwork and groupwork can allow learners to make their own decisions on what to do
(Doff, 1988; Hammer, 2007) Disadvantages of using pairwork and groupwork
- Noise: The class in which learners work in pairs and groups can be noisy, but learners are not disturbed by the noise The noise created by pair work and group work is as learners use English and are engaged in a learning task
- Learners make mistakes: The teacher cannot control all the language used by learners during a pair and group activity In order to reduce the mistakes, the teacher can give enough preparation before learners work in pairs and groups, then s/he checks what learners have said in pairs and groups The teacher can correct the mistakes if necessary
- Difficult to control class: The teacher has less control over what learners are doing in pairwork and groupwork than in a normal class In order to solve this problem, the teacher can give clear instructions about when to start, what to do, and when to stop, give clearly defined tasks, and set up a routine
There are some factors that teachers should consider when to put learners in pairs or groups
- The task: If the teacher wants to give learners a quick chance to think about an issue which learners have to present later, s/he can organize learners in pairs or groups
- The mood: Changing from pairwork to groupwork and vice versa is a good way to change mood to learn
- The time: It depends much on how much time the teacher has within a lesson, so s/he can decide on pairwork or groupwork for learners to do
Procedures for pairwork and groupwork (Hammer, 2007)
- Before: When the teacher wants learners to work together in pairs or groups, learners need to feel enthusiastic about what they are going to do, they need to know what they are going to do, and they need to be given an idea of when they will have finished the task
- During: While learners are working in pairs or groups, the teacher can monitor the activity and offer help when necessary
- After: When pairs and groups stop working together, the teacher needs to organize feedback The teacher should let learners present what they have discussed, then s/he can give assessment and make corrections where necessary.
ERROR CORRECTION AND FEEDBACK
There are three types of mistakes: slips (mistakes which learners can correct themselves when the mistake is pointed out to them), errors (mistakes which they cannot correct themselves and they need explanation), and attempts (when learners try to say something but they do not know the correct way of saying it) (Edge, 1989; as cited in Hammer, 2017)
The sources for errors are from L1 interference and developmental errors
- L1 interference: ESL/EFL learners are influenced by their mother tongue when learning another language In addition, learners may be confused by a variety of English which provoke errors in a use of English
- Developmental errors: When ESL/EFL learners over-generalise a new rule that has been learned, they make mistakes with what they have known before (e.g., regular verbs and irregular ones) This can lead to errors if they are not corrected promptly
2.7.1 Ways to Assess Learner Performance
There are two ways to assess learner performance:
Teachers can give explicit or implicit assessment on learner performance Learners are likely to receive teacher encouragement in terms of praise which is a vital component in a motivation and progress Teachers can give learners for doing something well (medal) and the direction to improve (mission) (Petty, 2004; as cited in Hammer, 2007) There are some ways for assessing work
- Comments: Teachers can give comments on learner performance at any stages both in and outside the class
- Marks and grades: Marks and grades are indicators for learner performance Good grades can affect their motivation positively, while bad grades can be extremely disheartening
- Reports: Reports on learner performance can be sent to learners and their parents at the end of a term or year Reports should balance between positive and negative feedback, and indicate future missions
Learners can monitor and judge their own learning by self-assessment Teachers can help learners to be aware of self-assessment on what they are doing and have done This way can enhance their learning and learner autonomy (Hammer, 2007)
Self-assessment can be of themselves and their peers, and it can be made at the end of a task, a coursebook unit, or a course
Feedback (both assessment and correction) can be done depending on the activity, type of mistakes and students who make the mistakes
The learning activity can be for accuracy and fluency The former is intended for completely accurate use of language (e.g., grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary), while the latter is designed for learners to use the language as fluently as possible (Hammer, 2007)
There are two stages for feedback First, teachers show mistake Second, teachers help learners to improve it However, there are techniques to help learners to correct mistakes by themselves
- Repeating: Teachers ask the learner to repeat what s/he has said Then, teachers indicate something is not clear
- Echoing: Teachers repeat what the learner has said and emphasise the wrong part of the utterance
- Statement and question: Teachers give comments and ask a question E.g.,
Good try, but is it correct, everyone?
- Hinting: Teachers give learners a quiet hint when the learner makes a mistake E.g., I go to school yesterday The teacher can give a hint of the tense of the verb by saying: the past tense of go
- Reformulation: Teachers repeat what the learner has said but in a correct way Techniques for getting it right:
Teachers can help learners to correct themselves, or ask learners to help/correct each other In some cases, teachers do it themselves when learners cannot correct themselves
When giving feedback, teachers should encourage learners, focusing on when learners have got right, not on what they have got wrong Teachers should praise learners for their correct answers, even for partly correct answers Teachers should avoid humiliating learners or making them feel bad about themselves Teachers should correct errors quickly (Doff, 1998)
Teachers can give comments on and grades on a variety of categories, e.g., content, organization, grammar, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation
Teachers can use correction codes to indicate mistakes in their written work For example,
S Spelling The shool is new
WO Word order I very like music
G Grammar I want to listen to musics
T Tense I see her last week
Teachers should introduce the correction symbols and train them how to use correction symbols to assess their own written work and others
The basic procedure for correcting simple written work in class is
- The teacher writes the correct answers on the board or gets learners to write them
- When the teacher gives the answers, learners correct their own work The teacher can move around the class to supervise what learners are doing; or learners can correct each work
1 Explain the differences between acquisition and learning
2 Give an example of three-stage procedure: stimulus, response and reinforcement in English language teaching
3 Explain the statement: learning will take care of
4 Give the benefits of using English and mother tongue in English language teaching
5 Explain how to manage the classroom effectively
6 Give examples in which pairwork and groupwork are used
7 Explain the in pair work and group work
8 Explain possible ways to control big classes and classes with mixed ability
9 Explain and in teachers assessing learners and give examples
[1] English and mother tongue in English language teaching: in Hammer, J
(2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited
[2] Using the blackboard: in Doff, A (1988), Teach English: A training course for teachers Great Britain: Cambridge University Press
[3] Using visual aids: in Doff, A (1988), Teach English: A training course for teachers Great Britain: Cambridge University Press
[4] Classroom management: in Garrett, T (2014) Effective classroom management The essentials NY: Teachers College Press
[5] Pair work and group work: in Doff, A (1988), Teach English: A training course for teachers Great Britain: Cambridge University Press
[6] Correcting errors: in Doff, A (1988), Teach English: A training course for teachers Great Britain: Cambridge University Press.
LEARNERS TEACHERS - CONTEXTS
LEARNERS
Students of different ages have different needs, competences and cognitive skills, so age is a major factor deciding on how and what teachers should teach (Hammer, 2007) Students can be categorised in three groups, namely young children, adolescents, and adult learners
Young children, usually aged at nine or ten, learn differently from adolescents and adults in the following ways:
- They respond the meaning even if they do not understand individual words
- They often learn indirectly rather than directly - that is they take in information from all sides, learning from everything around them rather than only focusing on the precise topic they are being taught
- Their understanding comes not just from explanation, but also from what they see and hear and, crucially, have a chance to touch and interact with
- They find abstract concepts such as grammar rules difficult to grasp
- They generally display an enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world around them
- They have a need for individual attention and approval from the teacher
- They are keen to talk about themselves and respond well to learning that uses themselves and their own lives as main topics in the classroom
- They have a limited attention span; unless activities are extremely engaging, they can get easily bored, losing interest after ten minutes or so
(Hammer, 2007, p 82) When teaching young learners, teachers should pay attention to following things:
- Teachers should encourage their young learners to get information from a variety of sources
- Teachers should work with their learners individually and in groups, developing good and affective relationships
- Teachers should have a range of flexible activities to avoid making learners bored
- Teachers should understand interests so that they can use them to motivate their learners
- Teachers should focus more on speaking and listening skills which are used most of the time
The classrooms in which young learners learn should be bright and colorful There should be enough space for different activities The activities should be changed every ten minutes Young learners may get well involved in puzzle-like activities, making things, drawing, games, physical movement or song The good classroom for young learners should mix play and learning in an atmosphere of cheerful and supportive harmony
Adolescents have greater ability for abstract thought and their passionate commitment to what they are doing once they are engaged They may well be the most exciting students of all They can understand the need of learning and be responsible enough to do when being asked to do However, they need to feel good about themselves and valued
Teachers should pay attention to the following points when teaching adolescents:
- Teachers should provoke student engagement with material which is relevant and involving
- Teachers need to do what they can to bolster their self-esteem, and be conscious of their need for identity
- Teachers should link language teaching closely to everyday interests
- Teachers should encourage adolescents to respond to texts and situations with their own thoughts and experiences, rather than just by answering questions and doing abstract learning activities
- Teachers should give adolescents tasks that they are able to do, rather than risk humiliating them
Adult language learners have some special characteristics:
- They can engage with abstract thought This suggests that teachers should not have to rely exclusively on activities such as games and songs - though these may be appropriate for some students
- They have a wide range of life experiences
- They have expectations about the learning process, and they already have their own set patterns of learning
- Adults tend, on the whole, to be more disciplined than other age groups, and, crucially, they are often prepared to struggle on despite boredom
- They understand clearly why they are learning and what they want to get out of it
However, adults are never entirely problem-free learners, and they have a number of characteristics which can sometimes make learning and teaching problematic
- They can be critical of teaching methods Their previous learning experiences may have predisposed them to one particular methodological style which makes them uncomfortable with unfamiliar teaching patterns Conversely, they may be hostile to certain teaching and learning activities which replicate the teaching they received earlier in their educational careers
- They may have experienced failure or criticism at school which makes them anxious and under-confident about learning a language
- Many older adults worry that their intellectual powers may be diminishing with age They are concerned to keep their creative powers alive, to maintain a 'sense of generativity' (Williams & Burden 1997; as cited in Hammer, 2007)
Teachers should do following things when teaching adult learners:
- Teachers should be aware the adult learners are often prepared to stick with an activity for longer than young learners
- Teachers should encourage their students to use their own life experience in the learning process
- Teachers should recognise the need to minimise the bad effects of past learning experiences They can diminish the fear of failure by offering activities which are achievable and by paying special attention to the level of challenge presented by exercises
- Teachers need to listen to students' concerns and, in many cases, modify what they do to suit their learning tastes
Some students are better at learning languages than others Good language learners have common characteristics:
- They are willing and accurate guessers
- They can to get a message across even if specific language knowledge is lacking
- They are willing to make mistakes
- They constantly look for patterns in the language
- They practice as often as possible
- They analyze their own speech and the speech of others
- They attend whether their performance meets the standards they have learned
- They have good academic skills
- They have a good self-image and confidence
- They have high aspirations, ego involvement, goal orientation and perseverance
(e.g., Naiman et al 1978; Lightbown & Spada 2006)
However, different cultures may value different learning behaviours for good language learners As there are learner differences, learning styles and strategies may be of difference
There are four categories of learning styles:
- Convergers: these are students who are by nature solitary, prefer to avoid groups, and who are independent and confident in their own abilities Most importantly, they are analytic and can impose their own structures on learning
- Conformists: these are students who prefer to emphasise learning 'about language' over learning to use it They tend to be dependent on those in authority and are perfectly happy to work in non-communicative classrooms, doing what they are told A classroom of conformists is one which prefers to see well- organised teachers
- Concrete learners: though they are like conformists, they also enjoy the social aspects of learning and like to learn from direct experience They are interested in language use and language as communication rather than language as a system They enjoy games and groupwork in class
- Communicative learners: these are language use oriented They are comfortable out of class and show a degree of confidence and a willingness to take risks which their colleagues may lack They are much more interested in social interaction with other speakers of the language than they are with analysis of how the language works They are perfectly happy to operate without the guidance of a teacher
(Willing, 1987) There are two models which indicate individual variation
Neuro-linguistic programming: We use a number of primary representational systems to experience the world They are VAKOG which stands for Visual
(we look and see), Auditory (we hear and listen), Kinaesthetic (we feel externally, internally or through movement), Olfactory (we smell things) and Gustatory (we taste things)
Multiple Intelligence (MI) theory: There are eight types of intelligence: Musical / rhythmical,
Verbal / linguistic, Visual / spatial, Bodily / kinaesthetic, Logical / mathematical, Intrapersonal and Interpersonal, naturalistic (Garder, 1983,
1993) and emotional (Goleman, 1995) All people have all of these intelligences, but in each person one (or more) of them is more pronounced; hence, the same learning tasks may not be appropriate for all students.
TEACHERS
Teachers are often described as actors because they feel as if they are always on the stage In other cases, they are said as orchestral conductors because they direct conversation and set the pace and tone However, teachers are also like gardeners because they plant the seeds and then watch them grow
There are two views on the types of teachers:
Democratic teachers: these are those who are democratic and let students participate in decision-making, and they can take more effort and organization than control the class from the front Democratic teachers promote learner autonomy They create conditions in which students learn for themselves
Autocratic teachers: these are those who are active, and learners are passive listeners They seem not to focus much on ability, interest and personality They create conditions in which they transmit knowledge to their students
There are different roles of a teacher in the teaching process S/he may be a prompter, participant, resource, and tutor (Hammer, 2007, pp 109-110)
Prompter: teachers are sometimes involved in a class activity to help students to do the activity By prompting or offering what to do and what to say sensitively, teachers can encourage and support students in undertaking learning activities
- Participant: teachers sometimes participate in a class activity as a participant Students may enjoy having the teachers with them as teachers can liven things up from the inside instead of always having to prompt or organize from outside the group However, teachers should be aware of the danger that they can easily dominate the proceedings when acting as participants
- Resource: sometimes students may need their teacher as a resource for their learning activities They may want to know information in the middle of an activity about that activity or about where to look for something However, teachers cannot know everything about the language, so teachers need to have the courage to say know the answer to that right now, but tell you
(Hammer, 2007, 110) In some cases, teachers should avoid that students become over-reliant on teachers
- Tutor: for some learning activities such as projects, teachers can combine the roles of a prompter and resource acting as a tutor Students can have a real chance to feel supported and helped in such activities However, teachers need to make sure that they do not intrude either too much or too little
The role that teachers take on is dependent on what they want the students to achieve Teachers need to act flexibly depending on situation Sometimes it may be more appropriate for teachers to work as a resource, a prompt, a tutor or a participant so that students can feel comfortable with their roles
Teachers acting with different roles should establish an appropriate relationship with their students if they need to develop a good learning environment in the classroom They need to spend time making sure that teacher-student rapport is positive and useful
The rapport in the classroom means a positive, enjoyable and respectful relationship between teacher and students, and between the students themselves Successful rapport derives from the perception of the teacher as a good leader and a successful professional When teachers come to the class, students can see that they are well-organized and well-prepared, and they are likely to have confidence in their teacher Such confidence is an essential component in the successful relationship between students and their teachers
However, rapport also depends on the way teachers interact with students Successful interaction with students depends on four key characteristics (Hammer, 2007):
- Recognizing students: students want their teachers to know who they are, and they would appreciate when teachers know their names and understand some of their characteristics This is extremely important for teachers to do so if good rapport is to be established with individual However, it is not easy to remember all students, so teachers should develop some techniques such as asking students to put name cards on their desk, wearing a name badge
- Listening to students: students respond very well to teachers who listen to them in lessons as well as outside the lessons Teachers need to listen to the comments on how they are getting on, and which activities and techniques they respond well or badly to Teachers should need to show that they are interested in what they have to say as nothing demotivates a student more than when the teacher is dismissive or uninterested in what they have to say
- Respecting students: Teachers who respect students do their best to see them in a positive light They do not react with anger or ridicule when students do unplanned things, but instead use a respectful professionalism to solve the problem Teachers should not be too critical, nor show too much praise
- Being even-handed: Teachers should treat all students equally as it not only helps to establish and maintain rapport, but is also a mark of professionalism
3.2.3 The teacher as Teaching Aid
In a language classroom, there are some specific ways in which teachers can help students both hear and understand language (Hammer, 2007)
Teachers can use mine, gesture and expression to convey meaning and atmosphere Mine and expression probably work best when they are exaggerated since this makes their meaning explicit However, teachers should use gestures with care as gestures may be appropriate in one situation, but not in another
Fig 3.2: Mine, gesture and expression (Hammer, 2007, p.116)
The teacher as language model
Apart from textbooks, reading materials of all sorts, audio and video, teachers can model language for students
The teacher as provider of comprehensible input
The more comprehensible input the students get, the better they become Yet, teachers should pay attention to how much they should talk and what kind of talk this should be Ideally, teachers should provide appropriate input at just the right level of students so that they do not understand every word teachers say, but they can understand the meaning of what is being said.
LEARNING CONTEXTS
The learning contexts can be at schools and language centers, companies, and virtual learning environments English language classes vary greatly in size, so the teaching techniques depend on some extent on how big the classes are Pairwork and groupwork can be useful for large groups (Hammer, 2007)
One-to-one teaching can take place in a situation in which an individual student works alone with a teacher This kind of teaching is ideal for students who cannot fit into normal school schedules or who are keen to have individual attention rather than being part of a group
There are some advantages of one-to-one classes
- The teacher is focused exclusively on one person, so the student has opportunities to do all the student speaking
- Both teacher and student can follow the course to exactly what is appropriate for that student
- The student can get greatly enhanced feedback from the teacher
- It is much easier to be flexible in teaching and learning
- It allows teachers to enter into a genuinely dialogic relationship with their students in a way that is considerately less feasible in a large situation
Some drawbacks of one-to-one teaching are:
- Some teachers may find individual students difficult to deal with
- Some students are lacking confidence or untalkative for some reasons
- Some students and teachers can often become tired and sleepy
- Some students find the methodological style difficult to deal with because it is unfamiliar to them
- Some students can be very demanding and constantly expect more and more from their teacher
The guidelines for one-to-one teaching are:
- Make a good impression: First impressions are very important, and a good impression is created by the way teachers present themselves in terms of appearance and how they behave during the first lesson
- Be well-prepared: Being well-prepared can help to create a good impression to students
- Be flexible: One-to-one lessons provide enormous opportunities for flexibility
- Adapt to the student: One of the great benefits of one-to-one lessons is that teachers can adapt what they do to suit a particular preferences and learning style
- Listen and watch: Teachers need to be observant about how students respond to different activities, styles and content They need to listen just as much as they talk, yet the balance should always be in favour of listening
- Give explanations and guidelines: On the first lesson, it is important to explain what is going to happen and how the student can contribute to the programme they are involved in
- be afraid to say no: Sometimes one-to-one teachers should not be afraid to say no Teachers should say no when the demands (e.g., asking his/her teacher to do all the work) are excessive
Many teachers see mixed-ability classes problematic In reality, all classes have students with a mixture of different abilities and language levels as there are multiple intelligences and different primary perceived systems Nevertheless, in private language schools, teachers can make the situations manageable by giving students placement tests so that they can be put into classes with students at the same level
Teachers can give different students different tasks, so they can respond to their students differently and group them according their different abilities One way of offering different learning tasks is to allow students to make choices about what material they are going to work with This way is sometimes problematic as it can require teachers to prepare a range of different exercises and materials as well as give feedback to different students
1 Explain the characteristics of good learners
2 Explain the theory of multiple intelligence
3 Explain why it is said that teachers are like actors, orchestral conductors and
4 Explain the differences between democratic teachers and autocratic teachers
5 Explain the roles of teachers
6 Explain the statement know the answer to that right now, but tell you
7 Explain why there should be a positive and useful teacher-student rapport
8 Explain four key characteristics of successful interaction
9 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of small and large classes
10 Explain how to manage the mixed ability classes
1 Different types of learners: In Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited
2 roles: in Wright T (1987) An important book on teacher roles
3 Learning contexts: In Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD (GTM)
Grammar Translation Method was the most popular and widely used method for language during the 18 th and 19 th century This method was first used for teaching and learning Latin language which was not the language of common use at that time Latin was considered as a classic language The learners were made able to study the literature of Latin language through learning the grammatical rules of language and learning the vocabulary so that learners may translate the language in their first language and in the second language
4.1.1 Characteristics of Grammar Translation Method
The principle characteristics of Grammar Translation Method are (Richards & Rodgers, 2001):
- The goal of learning a second or foreign language is mainly to be enabling to read the literature of that language and is to get benefit from intellectual development that results from foreign and second language study Grammar Translation Method enables to learn detailed grammatical rules of target language and enables to translate into and out of the target language
- Reading and writing skills are focused while listening and speaking skills are totally ignored
- The memorization of grammatical rules of foreign language and of the vocabulary items is focused Vocabulary items are limited to the text that they are taught Vocabulary items are memorized with the help of their meanings in the native language
- The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice The learners are enabled to do detailed analysis of a sentence through this method The learners are enabled to translate a sentence into and out of the target language
- Accuracy is emphasized rather than fluency The basic purpose of this method used to be able to pass the written examinations
- Grammar is taught deductively i.e by presenting and practicing the detailed grammatical rules of target language
- Students are directed, and instructions are given in the native language so that they may easily understand the instructions The native language is used to explain new items and to enable them to compare two languages i.e native language of the learners and foreign language
4.1.2 Main Techniques Associated with Grammar
There are some major techniques that are adopted in the teaching of second or foreign language through Grammar Translation Method
- Translation of a literary passage Students translate a reading passage into and out of the target language
- Reading comprehension questions A passage for reading and understanding is given to the students and they have to answer the questions given at the end of the passage in the target language
- Antonym and synonyms Students are given a list of words and a passage The students have to find out the antonyms of those words in the passage
- Deductive application of rules Grammar rules are presented before the students with the all possible information that can be given to the students relating to the grammatical rules
- Filling in the blanks The students are given a series of sentences with some missing words
- Memorization The students are given a list of vocabulary to memorize them with their meaning in the native language
- Using words in sentences In order to check the understanding of the meaning and sue of vocabulary, the students are asked to use the list of typical words in their own sentences
- Composition The teacher gives a topic to the students to write about that topic in the target language
4.1.3 Advantages of Grammar Translation Method
- This method is useful in the class in which there are a large number of students
- It is beneficial to use in the mixed level class
- Teacher can clear the meaning of a word and sentence easily by translating them in to the mother tongue
- Precise pictures of things can easily be made in the minds of the learners using this method
4.1.4 Disadvantages of Grammar Translation Method
- No oral work takes place in the class room due to this method Only teacher speaks
- The main focus remains only on the mother-tongue and the target language remains ignored
- No Speaking in the target language is possible The only thrust remains on the reading, so students do not learn correct pronunciation of English Language of the target language
- The students don't develop the power of thinking in the target language They become mentally lazy
- Main emphasis is given on the rules of grammar
- Students try to do everything by translating.
DIRECT METHOD (DM)
The Direct Method, also called Natural Method, was established in Germany and France around 1900 It appeared as an answer to the shortcomings of the Grammar Translation Method It is a method for teaching foreign languages that uses the target language, discarding any use of mother tongue in the classroom As teachers became frustrated with the students inability to communicate orally, they began to experiment with new techniques The idea was that foreign language teaching must be carried out in the same way people learn their mother tongue
- Translation is completely banished from any classroom activity Classroom activities are carried out ONLY in the target language
- Oral teaching comes before any other kind of reading and writing activities
- The use of chain activities is accompanied by verbal comments like: I go to the door I open the door I close the door I return to my place I sit down
- Grammar is taught inductively (i.e having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language.)
- Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures Abstract vocabulary is taught through association if ideas
- Emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and grammar
- Teaching is done through modeling and practice
4.2.2 Main Techniques Associated with Direct Method
There are some major techniques that are adopted in the teaching of second or foreign language through Direct Method
- Reading aloud Reading aloud students take turns reading sections of a passage, a play, or a dialogue out loud
- Question-answer exercise Teacher asks students a number of questions in L2.The student should be able to answer correctly in full sentences
- Self-correction When a student make a mistake the teacher will offer him/her a second chance by giving him/her a choice, or second to repeat the mistake in order to signal that something was wrong
- Conversation practice The teacher asks students a number of questions in the target language which the students are able to answer correctly Later, the students ask each other their own questions using the same grammatical structures
- Fill-in-the-blank exercise All the items are in the target language, no explicit grammar rules would be applied
- Dictation The teacher chooses a grade appropriate passage from a book and reads the text aloud three times
- Paragraph writing The students are asked to write a passage in their own words They can do this from memory or use a reading passage in the lesson as a model
- The focus is on Oral Practice Therefore, the pronunciation improves
- In teaching vocabulary such as words, idioms, this method is good
- As there is direct relation between thought and expression, it helps the learners in having good fluency Using direct method, a teacher helps students having good command over English
- The teacher proceeds from particular to general and from concrete to abstract
- It makes the teaching English easier and more pleasant A teacher uses various images/ pictures to illustrate his/her point
- This method creates the suitable environment for learning English Language
- As the unit of speech in Direct Method is a sentence, students learn to speak complete sentences without any hesitation So, they get confidence with command over good English
- Owing to over-emphasis on oral practice, the other skills namely reading and writing are ignored to a great extent
- This is an expensive method as the teacher is to use some aids for teaching
- Competent teachers must be there Incompetent teachers can't use this method successfully
- In large classes, this method is not appropriately applied.
AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD (ALM)
The Audio-Lingual Method of teaching had its origins during World War II when it became known as the Army Method It is also called the Aural oral approach It is based on the structural view of language and the behaviorist theory of language learning
The Audio Lingual Method to language teaching has a lot of similarities with the Direct Method Both are considered as a reaction against the shortcomings of the Grammar Translation method, both reject the use of the mother tongue and both stress that speaking and listening competences preceded reading and writing competences But there are also some differences The Direct Method highlights the teaching of vocabulary while the Audio Lingual Method focuses on grammar drills The Audio-Lingual Method is based on two main theories:
- Structuralism: A Language is a system of structural related elements, like phonological units, grammatical units, and lexical items, for the transmission of meaning So, to learn the target language is to master the elements of the target language system
- Behaviorism: Behaviorist psychology states that people are conditioned to learn many forms of behavior, including language, through the process of training or conditioning
4.3.1 Basic Principles of Audio Lingual Method
The five basic principles which are established for the teaching process and used by the teachers who adopted this method are:
- Language is speech, not writing The Audio-Lingual lays emphasis on the spoken skill before giving the learner the written form (pronunciation, intonation and colloquial forms)
- A language is a set of habits The Audio-Lingual Method was based on habit formation Language is acquired during childhood at the same way as children acquire other social habits by imitation and memorization Learners acquire Language automatically by using dialogue material
- Teach the language not about the language This principle represents a reaction against the main principle of the Grammar Translation Method (allotted time to communicate in the target language without analyzing grammar)
- A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone else thinks they ought to say Teachers impose the grammatical points according to specific criteria, but in order to learn, students should speak the language as it is used by its native speakers
- Languages are different The notion of universal grammar is rejected in this case So each language is analyzed according to its own features without any relation to another language
4.3.2 Types of Learning and Teaching Activities of Audio
- Repetition The student repeats an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it
He does this without looking at a printed text The utterance must be brief enough to be retained by the ear Sound is as important as form and order Words can be added
This is the seventh month This is the seventh month
- Inflection One word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated Examples
I bought the ticket I bought the tickets
He bought the candy She bought the candy
- Replacement One word in an utterance is replaced by another
He bought this house cheap He bought it cheap
Helen left early She left early
- Restatement The student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else, according to instructions
Tell him to wait for you Wait for me
Ask her how old she is How old are you?
- Completion The student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, then repeats the utterance in completed form
We all have own troubles We all have our own troubles
- Transposition A change in word order is necessary when a word is added
Examples hungry (so) So am I never do it again (neither) Neither will I
- Expansion When a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence
I know him (hardly) I hardly know him
I know him (well) I know him well
- Contraction A single word stands for a phrase or clause
Put your hand on the table Put your hand there
They believe that the earth is flat They believe it
- Transformation A sentence is transformed by being made negative or interrogative or through changes in tense, mood, voice, aspect, or modality
Does he know my address?
- Integration Two separate utterances are integrated into one
They must be honest This is important It is important that they be honest
- Rejoinder The student makes an appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance He is told in advance to respond in one of the following ways:
- Restoration The student is given a sequence of words that have been culled from a sentence but still bear its basic meaning He uses these words with a minimum of changes and additions to restore the sentence to its original form He may be told whether the time is present, past, or future
Examples students/waiting/bus The students are waiting for the bus boys/build/house/tree The boys built a house in a tree
4.3.3 Roles of the Teacher and the Learners in Audio-
Lingual Method role in the Audio-Lingual Method is like an orchestra leader He leads and directs students in their style of learning the language He is also responsible for supplying the students with a good model for imitation
The role is considered as an imitator of what is being said in front of him, either by a teacher or a tape They follow what is directed by their teacher and to respond as rapidly as possible
4.3.4 Advantages of Audio-Lingual Method
- It is the first method to have a theory
- It makes language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners
- It is the first method to lay stress on the development of language syntax, whereas the other methods were preoccupied with morphology and vocabulary
- It develops simple techniques and makes use of language lab
4.3.5 Disadvantages of Audio-Lingual Method
- It has no creativity Students repeat and memorize what they do not understand
- The techniques used by this method become tedious and boring, causing fatigue
- It makes advanced students bored
- There are many students in the class.
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (TPR)
Total Physical Response is a method developed by Dr James J Asher (1977), a professor of psychology at San Jose State University of California Asher developed Total Physical Response as a result of his experiences observing young children learning their first language He noticed that interactions between parents and children often took the form of speech from the parent followed by a physical response from the child Asher made three hypotheses based on his observations:
- Language is learned primarily by listening
- Language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain
- Learning language should not involve any stress
Total Physical Response is a language teaching method which is to teach language through physical (motor) activity Teachers give commands to students in the target language, and students respond with whole-body actions Total physical response is often used alongside other methods and techniques It is popular with beginners and with young learners, although it can be used with students of all levels and all age.
4.4.1 Characteristics of Total Physical Response
- It is built around the coordination of speech and action
- Learner roles are listener and performer
- Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress
- Reading and writing are taught after grammar and vocabulary
- Grammar and vocabulary are selected according to the situation
- Language is learned by gesture (body movements)
- The teacher and the students are the actors
- Students are more active and talkative
4.4.2 Basic Principles of Total Physical Response
- Listening ability and vocabulary must be developed first
- There must not be any stress in the class
- There should be regular repetition
- Action verbs are the core of Total Physical Response
- It does not force but exploits the errors for exposing others structure points
- Students are exposed to the natural use of language
4.4.3 Types of learning and teaching activities in Total
- Reading: predicting skills and reading the text
4.4.4 Roles of the Teacher and the Learners in Total
The teacher who has a direct and active role has the responsibility of providing the best kind of exposure to language
Learners have the primary roles of listener and performer They listen attentively and respond physically to the commands given
4.4.5 Advantages of Total Physical Response
- It is a lot of fun
- It is very memorable It really helps students to remember phrases or words
- It is good for kinesthetic learners who need to be active in the class
- It can be used in large or small classes
- It works well with mixed-ability classes
- It doesn't require a lot of preparation or materials
- It is very effective with teenagers and young learners
- It involves both left- and right-brained learning
4.4.6 Disadvantages of Total Physical Response
- Students are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way
- It can be a challenge for shy students It is not a very creative method
- Overusing Total Physical Response causes someone easily bored
- Certain target languages may not be suited to this method
- It is limited, since everything cannot be explained with this method.
SILENT WAY (SW)
The Silent Way originated in the early 1970s and was introduced by Caleb Gattegno, who, an Europe educator, is well known for the use of colored sticks called Cuisenaire rods and for his approach to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds are taught by colors
- The teacher should be silent as much as possible, and learners should be encouraged to produce language as much as possible
- Learners work with resources and nothing else, as they are solely responsible for what they learn
- Teaching should be subordinated to learning
- Silence makes students to concentrate on what is to be learned.
4.5.2 Theory of Learning of Silent Way
- A successful learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness and then active trial
- Silent Way students acquire inner criteria
- The Silent Way student is expected to become independent, autonomous and responsible
4.5.3 T ypes of Learning and Teaching Activities in Silent Way
- Learning tasks and activities in the Silent Way have the function of encouraging and shaping student oral response without direct oral instruction from or unnecessary modeling by the teacher
- Basic to the method are simple linguistic tasks in which the teacher models a word, phrase, or sentence and then elicits learner responses Learners then go on create their own utterances by putting together old and new information
- Charts, rods, and other aids may be used to elicit learner responses
- Teacher modelling is minimal, although much of the activity may be teacher directed
- Responses to commands, questions, and visual cues thus constitute the basis for classroom activities
4.5.4 Roles of the Teacher and the Learners in Silent Way roles
- The teacher is a technician or an engineer who facilitates learning
- The teacher is a neutral observer who does not praise, nor criticize, merely looks for continued improvement
- The presence in the classroom is limited to providing a model of the language that the students are going to work on roles
- Learners are autonomous learners who choose proper expressions in a given set of circumstances and situations
- The absence of correction and repeated modeling from the teacher requires the students to develop "inner criteria" and to correct themselves
- Learners have only themselves as individuals and the group to rely on, and so they must learn to work cooperatively rather than competitively
- A learner also must be a teacher, a student, part of a support system, a problem solver, and a self- evaluator
- Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters: creativity discovery increase in intelligent potency long term memory
- The indirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the learner who is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how language works In other words teaching is subordinated to learning
- The learners work in isolation, and communication is lacking badly
- With minimum help on the part of the teacher, the Silent Way method may put the learning itself at stake
- The material (the rods and the charts) used in this method will certainly fail to introduce all aspects of language Other materials will have to be introduced.
SUGGESTOPEDIA
Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov (1978) The method has been used in different fields of studies but mostly in the field of foreign language learning Teaching method based on the idea how the human brain works and how we learn most effectively It includes a rich sensory learning, a positive expectation of success and the use of a varied range of methods like dramatized texts, music, active participation in songs and games
- Music, drama and art are integrated in the learning process
4.6.2 T ypes of Learning and Teaching Activities in Suggestopedia
Listening activities concern the text and text vocabulary of each unit These activities are typically part of the -session which takes place on the first day of a new unit
- The students first look at and discuss a new text with the teacher
- In the second reading, students relax comfortably in reclining chairs and listen to the teacher read the text in a certain way
- During the third reading the material is acted out by the instructor in a dramatic manner over a background of the special musical form described previously
4.6.3 R oles of the Teacher and the Learners in Suggestopedia roles
- Show absolute confidence in the method
- Display fastidious conduct in manners and dress
- Organize properly, and strictly observe the initial stages of the teaching process this includes choice and play of music, as well as punctuality
- Maintain a solemn attitude towards the session
- Give tests and respond tactfully to poor papers (if any)
- Stress global rather than analytical attitudes towards material
- The learners should have faith in the system and accept that they are in a childlike situation where they follow the teacher / parent
- The students should not be critical, but simply absorb what is presented to them
There are three stages in using suggestopedia method They are:
Presentation is the basis of conducting Suggestopedia in class successfully The main aim in this stage is to help students relaxed and move into a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and funny Desuggestion and suggestion happen at this stage at the same time
This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt The original form of Suggestopedia presented by Lozanov (1978) consisted of the use of extended dialogues, often several pages in length, accompanied by vocabulary lists and observations on grammatical points Typically these dialogues will be read aloud to students to the accompaniment of music
The students are now guided to relax and listen to some Baroque music The best choice of music with the text being studied very quietly in the background During both types of reading, the learners will sit in comfortable seats, armchairs rather than classroom chairs, in a comfortable environment After the readings of these long dialogues to the accompaniment of music, the teacher will then make use of the dialogues for more conventional language work The music brings the students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material The students, then, make and practice dialogue after they memorize the content of the materials Practice
The use of a range of role-plays, games, puzzles, etc to review and consolidate the learning
- A comprehensible input based on dessugestion and suggestion principle
1 Explain the characteristics of Grammar Translation Method and give examples
2 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Grammar Translation Method
3 Explain the characteristics of Direct Method and give examples
4 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Direct Method
5 Explain the characteristics of Audio Lingual Method and give examples
6 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Audio Lingual Method
7 Explain the characteristics of Total Physical Responses and give examples
8 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Total Physical Responses
9 Explain the characteristics of Silent Way and give examples
10 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Silent Way
11 Explain the characteristics of Suggestopedia and give examples
12 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Suggestopedia
1 Grammar Translation Method: in Richards, J.C., & Rodgers, T S., (2001)
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2 nd Ed.) UK: Cambridge University Press
2 Direct Method: in Richards, J.C., & Rodgers, T S., (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2 nd Ed.) UK: Cambridge University Press
3 Audio-lingual Method: in Freeman, D L (2000) Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching Oxford University Press: Oxford
4 Total Physical Response: in Richards, J.C., & Rodgers, T S., (2001)
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2 nd Ed.) UK: Cambridge University Press
5 Silent Way: in Brown, D H (1987) Principles of language learning and teaching Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall
6 Suggestopedia: in Richards, J.C., & Rodgers, T S., (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2 nd Ed.) UK: Cambridge University Press.
CURRENT APPROACHES AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
PRESENTATION, PRACTICE, PRODUCTION (PPP)
The Presentation, Practice and Production (Three Ps) approach which was created in 19 th century combines communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) and traditional approaches
Presentation, Practice and Production represent three stages of the learning process A new version of this method which has been developed is called Engage, Study and Activate (ESA) They are almost the same stages with different names
5.1.1 Characteristics of Presentation, Practice, Production
- Presentation (Context): This stage usually consists of two steps:
Step 1: Introduce a warm-up or a lead-in to raise interest in the topic;
Step 2: Introduce the target language (e.g., grammar and vocabulary)
- Practice (Accuracy): the focus is on form The teacher provides opportunities for students to practice the learnt items in a controlled way A common controlled activity can be in the form of an oral exercise, targeted at individual students, or in the form of worksheets
- Production (Fluency): This stage focuses on fluency and provides students with an opportunity to personalize the language learnt by doing less controlled tasks by using their own ideas In this stage the students start to produce language more freely (e.g., role play)
5.1.2 Types of Learning and Teaching Activities in
- Presentation: games, short story, a short audio clip, realia, pictures, etc
- Practice: drill sentences or sounds, substitution drills, sentence matching activities, gap fill, asking and answering questions, etc
- Production: role-plays, communication tasks, collaborative tasks, discussion, etc
5.1.3 Roles of the teacher and the learners in Presentation,
Presentation - The teacher presents new information - Students are listeners
- The teacher provides activities to practice the new language orally and in written format
- The teacher models and corrects mistakes
- Students practice new language in a controlled and freer way
- The teacher monitors what students are doing
- The teacher focuses on fluency
- Students produce the new language freely
5.1.4 Advantages of Presentation, Practice, Production
- easy for learners to follow
- easy for teachers to plan for, and has a logical progression
- It works for most types of class, including larger classes
- It scaffolds the learning process into small chunks
5.1.5 Disadvantages of Presentation, Practice, Production
- Weaker learners may overuse the target language from the practice session
- Learners may not be sure how to use target language in different contexts
- It can be boring if used repeatedly for higher level students.
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)
Communicative Language Teaching, also known as Communicative Approach, which appeared in the British language teaching tradition in the 1960s emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language It highlights the importance of all four language skills and aims to achieve communicative competence (rather than linguistic competence) through considerable learner interaction and communication of real" meaning It tends to promote fluency over accuracy, the functional over the structural and authentic materials over fabricated materials
Four dimensions of communicative competence are:
- Grammatical competence (linguistic competence): refers to the knowledge of a language to produce sentences in that language
- Sociolinguistic competence: refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place
- Discourse competence: refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text
- Strategic competence: refers to the coping strategies that participants use to initiate terminate, maintain, repair and redirect communication
In order for learning to take place, emphasis must be put on the importance of these variables:
- Communication: activities that involve real communication promote learning
- Tasks: activities in which language is used to carry out meaningful tasks support the learning process
- Meaning: language that is meaningful and authentic to the learner boosts learning
5.2.3 Principles of Communicative Language Teaching
- Language learning is learning to communicate using the target language
- The language used to communicate must be appropriate to the situation, the roles of the speakers, the setting and the register The learner needs to differentiate between a formal and an informal style
- Communicative activities are essential Activities should be presented in a situation or context and have a communicative purpose
- Learners must have constant interaction with and exposure to the target language
- Development of the four macroskills speaking, listening, reading and writing is integrated from the beginning, since communication integrates the different skills
- The topics are selected and graded regarding age, needs, level, and interest
- Motivation is central Teachers should raise interest from the beginning of the lesson
- Trial and error is considered part of the learning process
- Evaluation concerns not only the accuracy but also their fluency
- The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow from the functions, situational context and the role of the interlocutors
5.2.4 Types of Learning and Teaching Activities in
The range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative approach is unlimited, provided that such exercises enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum, engage learners in communication, and require the use of such communicative processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction Classroom activities are often designed to focus on completing tasks that are mediated through language or involve negotiation of in- formation and information sharing For example, information gap, interview, role play, discussion, etc
5.2.5 Roles of the Teacher and the Learners in
- roles: facilitator, participant, analyst, counselor, group process manager, controller, assessor, promoter, resource, tutor and investigator (e.g., Richards, 2006; Hammer, 2007)
5.2.6 Advantages of Communicative Language Teaching
- It takes into consideration communicative dimension of language
- It provides vitality and motivation within the classroom
- It capitalizes on the interests and needs of the learner
5.2.7 Disadvantages of Communicative Language Teaching
- It focuses too much on fluency, but not enough emphasis on the accuracy of grammar and pronunciation
- Teachers have to spend a lot of time preparing for the lessons to meet needs and interests.
TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBLT)
Task-based language teaching, also task-based instruction (TBI), which is considered a branch of Communicative Language Teaching, uses authentic target language to do meaningful tasks Students are assessed based on their task outcome not their accurate use of the target language Task-based language teaching is believed to be effective in learning target language fluency and developing student confidence
- Language is primarily a means of making meaning
- Multiple models of language inform task-based instruction: Structural, functional and interactional models influence task-based language teaching adherents
- Lexical units are central in language use and language learning
- Conversation is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition/learning
- Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisition/learning
- Task activity and achievement are motivational
- Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for a particular pedagogical purpose: Tasks may be designed in such a way that they meet level of proficiency
5.3.3 Definition of Task in Task-Based Language Teaching
A task has a wide range of activities which require learners to arrive at an outcome from given information and which allow teachers to control and regulate that process (Prabhu, 1987, p.24)
5.3.4 Criteria for Tasks in Task-Based Language Teaching
Meaning: Tasks are language teaching activities where meaning is central Tasks require learners to produce and understand communicative messages
Tasks should involve gaps There are three types of gaps:
- Information gap: one person has information that another person does not have
- Opinion gap: learners have the same shared information, but they use that information to try to convey their feeling about a particular situation
- Reasoning gap: learners are asked to use reason and logic to decide what information to convey and what resolution to make for the problem at hand
Learners have to use their own linguistic and nonlinguistic resources to complete the task That is, they have to use whatever knowledge of the language they have in order to participate in the task Learners may also use nonlinguistic resources such as gestures
Tasks must involve some sort of nonlinguistic outcome such as drawing a route on a map or agreeing on a plan to solve the problem of pollution in the neighborhood
5.3.5 Typical procedure in Task-Based Language Teaching
At this stage, the topic is introduced through activities such as prior knowledge activation, brainstorming, visual aids, games, discussions, vocabulary activities, reading
Task cycle: Task > Planning > Report
The teacher gives clear instructions about the task
- The learners do the task, in pairs or in groups, using their own linguistic and nonlinguistic resources
- The learners draft or rehearse what they want to say or write
- They report briefly to the whole class to compare findings
- The teacher analyzes products and gives feedback on their work and mistakes
- Based on the analysis of the products, more work on specific language points may follow
5.3.6 Advantages of Task-Based Language Teaching
- The students are free of language control
- The students will have a much more varied exposure to language
- The language explored arises from the students' needs
- It is a strong communicative approach where students spend a lot of time communicating
5.3.7 Disadvantages of Task-Based Language Teaching
- It focuses mainly on fluency at the expense of accuracy
- It requires a high level of creativity and initiative on the part of the teacher
- It requires resources beyond the textbooks and related materials usually found in language classrooms.
CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION (CBI)
Content-Based Instruction focuses on the target language and the content taught through the target language That is, the language becomes the medium through which something new is learned
5.4.1 Types of Content-Based Instruction
- The Sheltered Model: It is used at university where the goal of teachers is to enable their ESL students to study the same content material as regular English L1 students Sheltered CBI is called because learners are given special assistance to help them understand regular classes
- The Adjunct Model: Undertaken by ESL teachers The aim of Adjunct classes is to prepare students for classes where they will join English L1 learners
- The Theme-Based Model: Classes can be taught by EFL teachers who create content material based on the needs and interests of the students
Because of the nature of the content, all four skills get integrated important to note that the content continues through the whole course, not just a handful of lessons
An example of content-based lesson can be approached following these steps: Preparation
- A subject of interest is chosen
- Finding suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject These could be websites, reference books, audio or video of lectures or even real people The lesson
- Assigning each group a small research task and a source of information in the target language to use to help them fulfill the task
- Groups sharing and comparing information
- A result in the form of an end product such as a report or presentation of some kind
5.4.3 Advantages of Content-Based Instruction
- Language learning becomes more interesting and motivating
- It offers a wide educational knowledge to learners in the form of the different topics instructed
- It helps students develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and extracting key information from texts
- It develops collaborative skills, especially when using group work, which can have great social value
5.4.4 Disadvantages of Content-Based Instruction
- The implicit language instruction can confuse learners and may give them the impression that they are not actually learning language
- Overuse of native language can be a problem in some parts of the lesson
- Finding information sources and texts that lower levels can understand can be difficult.
PROJECT-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING (PBLT)
Project Based Language Learning is an approach to teach and learn a language through a project It provides opportunities for language learners to receive comprehensible input and produce comprehensible output Through the project, learners can not only use their inquiry skills but also apply their already-learned language knowledge and skills in real-world situation (Beckett, 2006)
5.5.1 Features of Project-Based Language Learning
There are some features as follows (Thomas, 2000):
- Opportunities for reflection and transfer
5.5.2 Principles of Project-Based Language Learning
Five principles embody instructional principles derived from constructivism (Driscoll, 1994, pp.365-366)
- It establishes complex learning environments that incorporate authentic activity
- It provides for social negotiation as an integral part of learning
- It juxtaposes instructional content and include access to multiple modes of representation
- It emphasizes student-centered instruction
5.5.3 Steps of Project-Based Language Learning
- The teacher-coach sets the stage for students with real-life samples of the projects they will be doing
- Students take on the role of project designers, possibly establishing a forum for display or competition
- Students discuss and accumulate the background information needed for their designs
- The teacher-coach and students negotiate the criteria for evaluating the projects
- Students accumulate the materials necessary for the project
- Students prepare to present their projects
- Students reflect on the process and evaluate the projects based on the criteria established in Step 4
5.5.4 Advantages of Project-Based Language Learning
- It enables learners to transfer their learning
- It uses motivation to foster language learning
- Learners earn through meaningful input
- It meets language diverse needs
- It provides a high level of learner autonomy
5.5.5 Disadvantages of Project-Based Language Learning
- Students and teachers need to undertake different roles, and they might probably feel uncomfortable with that change
- Students without experience in group work may have difficulties negotiating compromise
1 Explain the three stages: Presentation, Practice, Production
2 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Presentation, Practice, Production
3 Explain the types of learning and teaching activities in Communicative Language Teaching and give examples
4 Explain the procedure in Task-based language teaching and give examples
5 Explain the types of content-based instruction and give examples
6 Explain the features of Project-Based Language Learning
1 Presentation, Practice, Production: in Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited
2 Communicative Language Teaching: in Richards, J C (2006) Communicative
Language Teaching Today New York: Cambridge University Press
3 Task-based Language Teaching: in Richards, J.C & Rodgers, T.S 2001
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press
4 Content-Based Instruction: in Richards, J.C & Rodgers, T.S 2001 Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press
5 Project-Based Language Learning: in Beckett, G H (2006) Project-based second and foreign language education: Theory, research and practice In H G Beckett, & C P Miller, (Eds.), Project-based second and foreign language education: Past, present, and future (pp.3-16) USA: Information Age Pub.
ASSESSMENT AND TESTING IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
TESTING, ASSESSING AND TEACHING
A test is a method of measuring a ability, know/edge, or performance in a given domain (Brown, 2004, p.3)
- A test measures an individual's ability, knowledge, or performance
Assessment is an ongoing process that encompasses a much wider domain
Teaching is the process of carrying out certain activities that experience has shown to be effective in getting students to learn
Tests are a subset of assessment; they are certainly not the only form of assessment that a teacher can make Tests can be useful devices, but they are only one among many procedures and tasks that teachers can ultimately use to assess students.
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT, TESTING AND TESTS
There are two kinds of assessment (Brown, 2004, pp.5-6):
- Informal assessment can take a number of forms, starting with incidental, unplanned comments and responses, along with coaching and other impromptu feedback to the student
- Formal assessments are exercises or procedures specifically designed to tap into a storehouse of skills and knowledge They are systematic, planned sampling techniques constructed to give teacher and student an appraisal of student achievement All tests are formal assessments, but not all formal assessment is testing
- Formative assessment (assessment for learning) aims to evaluate students in the process of forming their competencies and skills with the goal of helping them to continue that growth process
- Summative assessment (assessment of learning) aims to measure, or summarize, what a student has grasped, and typically occurs at the end of a course or unit of instruction
There are eight kinds of testing
Testing is said to be direct when students are required to perform directly the skill which teachers wish to measure
Indirect testing attempts to measure the abilities which underlie the skills in which we are interested
It require judgment on the part of the scorer because scoring here is objective It change even if the scorer has been changed
It requires judgment on the part of the scorer because scoring here is subjective The grades in subjective testing depend on the impressions of the scorer
It refers to the testing of one element at a time, item by item This kind of testing is always indirect Each testing involves a particular item
It includes many language elements in the completion of a task It might involve writing a composition, taking notes while listening to a text and completing a cloze passage
This kind of testing relates one performance to that of other students Teachers say that student is capable of doing well in the language, but they say the student gained a score that placed him/her in the top five students who have taken the same test
The purpose of this kind of testing is to classify students according whether they are able to perform some tasks satisfactorily Those who perform the tasks satisfactorily those who Teachers measure progress in relation to meaningful criteria
There are six different types of tests
It is used to place new students in the right class in a school It assesses productive and receptive skills It is designed to show how good a student is in English in relation to a previously agreed system of levels
It is used to discover student problems, difficulties or deficiencies in a course Teachers use this type of tests to know strengths and weaknesses so as to be able to do something about them
It is designed to measure language and their skill progress in relation to the syllabus they have been following
It is done at the end of the course to measure achievement of the course objectives or goals
It is not necessarily based on certain courses that students may have previously taken Most students take this type of tests to admit to a foreign university, get a job or obtain some kind of certificate It is designed to measure knowledge and ability in a language
It is designed to discover whether a student has a talent or basic ability for learning a new language or not.
PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT
Three principles of language assessments are:
Principle 1: It is the overall usefulness of the test that is to be maximized, rather than the individual qualities that affect usefulness
Principle 2: The individual test qualities cannot be evaluated independently, but must be evaluated in terms of their combined effect on the overall usefulness of the test
Principle 3: Test usefulness & the appropriate balance among the different qualities cannot be prescribed in general, but must be determined for each specific testing situation
Five criteria for testing a test (Brown, 2004, pp.19-30)
An effective test is practical This means that it
- stays within appropriate time constraints,
- is relatively easy to administer, and
- has a scoring/evaluation procedure that is specific and time-efficient
A reliable test is consistent and dependable If students do the same test on two different occasions, the test should yield similar results There are four types of reliability: student-related reliability, rater reliability, test administration reliability, and test reliability
Validity of a test is the extent, to which it exactly measures what it is supposed to measure There are four types of validity: content validity, criterion validity, construct validity, consequential validity, and face validity
Authenticity deals with the real world is the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a target language (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, p.23) Teachers should construct a test with the test items are likely to be used or applied in the real contexts of daily life
In a test, authenticity may be present in the following ways:
- The language in the test is as natural as possible
- Items are contextualized rather than isolated
- Topics are meaningful (relevant, interesting) for the learner
- Some thematic organization to items is provided, such as through a story line or episode
- Tasks represent, or closely approximate, real-world tasks
Wasback / Backwash is defined as effect that is not the direct result of
(Hughes, 2003, p.1; as cited in Brown, 2004, p.28) It refers to the influence of testing on teaching and learning The influence itself can be positive or negative
- Positive washback has beneficial influence on teaching and learning It means teachers and students have a positive attitude toward the examination or test, and work willingly and collaboratively towards its A good test should have a good effect
- Negative washback does not give any beneficial influence on teaching and learning Tests which have negative washback are considered to have negative influence on teaching and learning.
DESIGNING CLASSROOM LANGUAGE TESTS
To start that process designing tests or revising existing tests, teachers need to ask some critical questions:
- What is the purpose of the test?
- What are the objectives of the test?
- How will the test specifications reflect both the purpose and the objectives?
- How will the test tasks be selected and the separate items arranged?
- What kind of scoring, grading, and/or feedback is expected?
Stages of designing classroom language tests
- Providing a solution to the problem writing
ASSESSING LANGUAGE SKILLS
- Intensive Listening Listening for perception of components (phonemes, words, intonation) of a larger stretch of language
- Responsive Listening Listening to a relatively short stretch of language (a greeting, question, command, comprehension check, etc.) in order to make a short response
- Selective Listening: Assessment tasks could ask to listen for names, numbers, directions, or certain facts and events
- Extensive Listening: Listening to develop a top- down, global understanding of spoken language Performance ranges from lengthy lectures, a conversation, to a comprehensive message Listening for the main idea, and for making inferences
- Micro-skills of listening: Attending to the smaller bits and chunks of language, in more of a bottom-up process
- Macro-skills of listening: Focusing on the larger elements involved in a top- down approach to a listening task
Hear: Hello, my name is Ken I come from Japan
Read: (a) Ken is comfortable in Japan
(b) Ken wants to come to Japan
Hear: Man: Hi, Maria, my George
Woman: Nice to meet you, George Are you American?
Read: (a) George lives in the U S
Hear: How much time did you take to do your homework?
Read: (a) In about an hour
- Open-ended response to a question
Hear: How much time did you take to do your homework?
In a listening cloze task, test-takers see a transcript of the passage that they are listening to and fill in the blanks with the words or phrases that they hear
A number of people and/or actions are presented in one picture, such as a group of people at a party
Q: Is the tall man near the door talking to a short woman?
T/F: The woman wearing a red skirt is watching TV
Identification: Point to the person who is standing behind the lamp
Single-picture-cued verbal multiple- choice:
One single photo is presented to the test- taker, who then hears four different statements and must choose one of the four to describe the photo
Sentence repetition: the task of repeating a sentence/a partial sentence
In a dictation, test-takers hear a passage, typically of 50 to 100 words, recited three times: first, at normal speed; then, with long pauses between phrases / natural word groups, and finally, at normal speed once more, during which test-takers write down what they have heard
The test-taker is presented with a stimulus monologue/conversation and then is asked to respond to a set of comprehension questions
Dialogue and multiple-choice comprehension items
Dialogue and authentic questions on details
Note-taking: The gain of note-taking is in offering students an authentic task that mirrors what they have been focusing on in the classroom
Editing: It provides both a written and a spoken stimulus, and requires the test- taker to listen for discrepancies
Interpretive tasks: An interpretive task extends the stimulus material to a longer stretch of discourse and forces the test- taker to infer a response
Retelling: In a related task, test-takers listen to a story or news event and retell it / summarize it, either orally or in writing
Interactive listening: It is a two-way process of speaking and listening in face-to- face conversations
- Imitative speaking It is simply the ability to parrot back a word or phrase or a sentence
- Intensive speaking It is the production of short stretches of oral language Examples include directed response tasks, reading aloud, sentence and dialogue completion, limited picture-cued tasks
- Responsive speaking The tasks include interaction and test comprehension but at the limited level of short conversations, standard greetings, small talk, requests, and comments
- Interactive speaking The length and complexity of the interaction are more in interactive tasks than in responsive ones The task sometimes includes multiple exchanges and/or multiple participants
- Extensive speaking (monologue) The tasks include speeches, oral presentations, and story-telling Oral interaction from listeners is either highly limited or ruled out altogether
- Micros-kills refer to producing the smaller chunks of language such as phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phrasal units
- Macros-kills imply the speaker's focus on die-larger elements: fluency, dis- course, function, style, cohesion, nonverbal communication, and strategic options
Test-takers hear: beat/bit bat/vat
The glow of the candle is growing
Test-takers repeat the stimulus
Scoring scale for repetition tasks
It elicits computer-assisted oral production over a telephone Test-takers read aloud, repeat sentences, say words, and answer questions
Part A: Test-takers read aloud selected sentences
Examples: Traffic is a huge problem in Southern California
Part B: Test-takers repeat sentences dictated over the phone
Example: Leave town on the next train
Part C: Test-takers answer questions with a single word or a short phrase
Example: Would you get water from a bottle or a newspaper?
Part D: Test-takers hear three word groups in random order and link them in a correctly ordered sentence
Example: was reading/my mother/a magazine
Part E: Test-takers have 30 seconds to talk about their opinion about some topic that is dictated over the phone Topics center on family, preferences, and choices
Scores are calculated by a computerized scoring template and reported back to the test-taker within minutes
In this type of task, the test administrator elicits a particular grammatical form or a transformation of a sentence They do not require minimal processing of meaning in order to produce the correct grammatical output
Tell me he went home
Tell me that you like rock music
Tell me that you interested in tennis
Tell him to come to my office at noon
Remind him what time it is
Intensive read-aloud tasks include reading beyond the sentence level up to paragraph or two
Teachers listening to the recording would then rate students on a number of phonological factors (vowels, diphthongs, consonants, stress, and intonation) by completing a two-page diagnostic checklist on which all error or questionable items were noted
Some variations on the task of simply reading a short passage:
Reading sentences containing minimal pairs
Reading information from a table or chart
- Sentence/Dialogue Completion Tasks and Oral Questionnaires
First, test-takers are given time to read through the dialogue to get its gist, then the tape/teacher produces one part orally and the test-taker responds
A picture-cued stimulus requires a description from the test-taker It may elicit a word, a phrase, a story, or incident
Fig 6.2: Picture-Cued Tasks (Brown, 2004, p.152) Test-takers hear: [test administrator points to each picture in succession] this?
Task (the objective of the elicited task)
Translation is a communicative device in contexts where English is not a native language
English can be called on to be interpreted as a second language
Conditions may vary from an instant translation of a native word, phrase, or sentence to a translation of longer texts
1 What is this called in English? (to elicit a predetermined correct response)
2 What are the steps governments should take, if any, to stem the rate of de- forestation in tropical countries? (given more opportunity to produce meaningful language in response)
- Questions Eliciting Open-Ended Responses
1 What do you think about the weather today?
2 Why did you choose your academic major?
Test-takers respond with a few sentences at most
Examples: How to operate an appliance, how to put a bookshelf together, or how to create a dish
Scoring: based on (1) comprehensibility (2) specified grammatical/discourse categories
Describe how to make a typical dish a good recipe for making _?
How do you access email on a PC computer?
How do I get from _ to in your city?
The task should require the test-taker to produce at least 5 or 6 sentences
Use familiar topics and test linguistic competence
- Test of Spoken English (TSE)
TSE is a 20-minute audiotaped test of oral language ability within an academic or professional environment
- This involves attending to the components of larger stretches discourse: letters, words, punctuation and other graphemic symbols
- Bottom-up processing is implied
- This is largely an artifact of assessment formats
- Certain typical tasks are used such as picture-cued tasks, matching, true/false, multiple choice
- Stimuli include sentences, brief paragraphs and simple charts and graphs
- Brief responses are intended and a combination of bottom-up and top- down processing may be used
- This includes stretches of language of several paragraphs to one page or more in which the reader must interact with the text
- Genres: anecdotes, short narratives and descriptions, excerpts from longer texts, questionnaires, memos, announcements, directions, recipes and the like
- Focus: to identify relevant features (lexical, symbolic, grammatical and discourse) within texts of moderately short length with the objective of retaining the information that is processed
- It applies to texts of more than a page, up to and including professional articles, essays, technical reports, short stories and books
- Purpose: to tap into a global understanding of a text, as opposed to asking test-takers to on small details
- Top-down processing is assumed for most extensive tasks
At the beginning level of reading a second/foreign language lies a set of tasks that are fundamental and basic: recognition of alphabetic symbols, capitalized and lowercase letters, punctuation, words and grapheme-phoneme correspondences
- Literacy tasks: Implying that learner is in the early stages of becoming
- Reading aloud: The test taker sees separate letters, words and/or short sentences and reads them aloud, one by one, in the presence of an administrator
- Written response: The same stimulus is presented, and the test task is to reproduce the probe in writing
- Multiple choice Test: Picture-cued items: test takers are shown a picture along with a written text and are given possible tasks to perform
It focuses on formal aspects of language (lexical, grammatical and a few discourse features)
- Editing tasks: Editing for grammatical or rhetorical errors is a widely used test method for assessing linguistic competence in reading
- Gap-filling tasks: The response is to write a word or phrase
Interactive Reading tasks at this level have a combination of form- focused and meaning-focused objectives but with more emphasis on meaning it implies a little more focus on top-down processing than on bottom-up
- Cloze tasks: The ability to fill in gaps in an incomplete image (visual, auditory or cognitive) and supply (from background schemata) omitted details
- Impromptu reading plus comprehension questions: The traditional a passage and answer some technique which is the oldest and the most common
- Short-answer tasks: A reading passage is presented and the test-taker reads questions that must be answered in a sentence or two.
- Ordering tasks: They are sometimes called the technique They include sentence ordering, picture ordering, paragraph ordering.
- Information transfer: reading charts, maps, graphs, diagrams: It requires not only an understanding of the graphic and verbal conventions of the medium but also a linguistic ability to interpret the information to someone else
Extensive Reading it involves somewhat longer texts Journal articles, technical reports, longer essays, short stories and books fall into this category
Reading of this type of discourse almost always involves a focus on meaning using mostly top-down processing, with only occasional use of targeted bottom-up strategy
Tasks that can be applied in extensive reading: impromptu reading plus comprehension questions short answer tasks editing scanning ordering information transfer and interpretation
- Skimming tasks: it is the process of rapid coverage of reading matter to determine its gist or main idea
- Summarizing and responding summarizing: It requires a synopsis or overview of the text
- Responding: It asks the reader to provide his/her own opinion on the text as a whole or on some statement or issue within it
- Note-taking and outlining: They fall on the category of informal assessment
- Imitative Writing: It includes the ability to spell correctly and to perceive phoneme-grapheme to correspondences in the English spelling system It is a level at which learners are trying to master the mechanics of writing
- Intensive Writing: Skills in producing appropriate vocabulary within the context, collocations and idioms, and correct grammatical features up to the length of the sentence
- Responsive Writing: Tasks relate to pedagogical directives, lists of criteria, outlines, and other guidelines Genres of writing include brief narrative and descriptions, short reports, lab reports, summaries, brief responses to reading, and interpretations of charts and graphs
- Extensive writing: Focus on achieving a purpose, organizing and developing ideas logically, using details to support or illustrate ideas, demonstrating syntactic and lexical variety, and in many cases, engaging in the process of multiple drafts to achieve a final product
They produce graphemes and orthographic patterns of English
They produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose
They produce an acceptable grammatical system
They express a particular meaning in different grammatical form
They use cohesive devices in written discourse
They use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse
They appropriately accomplish the communicative functions of written texts according to form and purpose
They convey links and connections between the events and communicate such relations a main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification
They distinguish between literal and implied meaning when writing
They correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written text
Tasks in [hand-] writing letters, words, and punctuation
- Copying: A test takers copy letters or words
- Listening cloze selection tasks: combination of dictation with a written script that has relatively frequent deletion ratio
- Picture-cued tasks: familiar pictures are displayed, and test-takers are told to write the word that the pictured represents
- Form completion tasks: They use a simple form (registration, application, etc.) that asks for name, address, phone number, and other data
- Converting numbers and abbreviations to words: a section of numbers and abbreviations are written, and the test-takers are directed to write out the numbers or abbreviations
Spelling tasks and detecting phoneme-grapheme correspondences
- Spelling tests: The teacher dictates a simple list of words, one word at a time, followed by the word in a sentence, repeated again, with a pause for test-takers to write the word
- Picture-cued tasks: Pictures are displayed with the objective of focusing on familiar words whose spelling may unpredictable
- Dictation and dicto-comp [L, W]: A form of controlled writing related to dictation is dicto-comp Here, a paragraph is read at normal speed, usually two or three times, then the teacher asks the students to rewrite the paragraph from the best of their recollection
- Grammatical transformation tasks [R, W]: Numerous version of the tasks are possible: change the tenses in paragraph, change full forms of verbs to reduce forms (contractions), change statements to yes/no or wh- questions, change questions into statements, combine two sentences into one using a relative pronoun, change direct speech into indirect speech, and change from active to passive voice
Short sentences: A drawing of some simple action is shown; the test-takers write a brief sentence
Picture description: Test-takers are asked to describe the picture using four of the following proposition: on, over, under, next to, around, etc
Picture sequence description: A sequence of three to six pictures depicting a story line can provide a suitable stimulus for written production The pictures must be simple and unambiguous because open-ended tasks at the selective level would give test-takers too many options
- Ordering tasks: Ordering (reordering) a scrambled set of words into a correct sentences
- Short-answer and sentence-completion tasks
Development of the main and supporting ideas across paragraph
- Standardized tests of responsive writing
1 Explain the differences in testing, assessing and teaching
2 Explain different types of assessments and give examples
3 Explain different types of tests and give examples
4 Explain the five criteria of a test
5 Explain the stages of designing classroom language tests
6 Explain types of assessing language skills (Listening Speaking Reading Writing)
1 Types of Assessment, Testing and Tests: in Comrie, B., & Corbett, G (2014)
Understanding Language Testing New York: Routledge
2 Principles of Language Assessment: in Bachman, L F., & Palmer, A S (1996)
Language Testing in Practice: Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests
New York: Oxford University Press
3 Assessing language skills: in Brown, D H (2004) Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices New York: Longman.
PLANNING A LESSON
LESSON PLAN
- Lesson is well planned and structured assignment to be learned by students
- It is a well-defined basic unit of instruction completed in a time period
- Lesson is a mixture of number of ingredients, techniques, activities and contents Lesson is the specific topic which the teacher has to teach during the limited time period in front of students of a specific class
- Lesson plan is a guide which gives security to a teacher and direction to the students
- It is an extremely useful tool that serves as a combination guide, resource, and history document reflecting our teaching philosophy and most importantly our goals for our students
- It provides opportunities to a teacher to experiment his own ideas
- It can be daily planning, weekly planning, unit planning, term planning, yearly planning.
THE IMPORTANCE OF LESSON PLAN
- Lesson Plan inculcates self confidence in a teacher
- It integrates different lesson so provides consistency and continuity in teaching process
- It provides satisfaction to students and teachers
- It provides the chance of self-improvement to the teacher
- It keeps the teacher and students on the track
- It helps the teacher to avoid unpleasant surprises
- It provides the roadmaps and visuals in a logical sequence
- It provides direction to a substitute
- It is based upon the previous knowledge
- It is student centered, flexible, complete, interesting and activity based
- It has proportionate time allocation
STAGES OF A LESSON
There are six stages of a lesson (Gopaul, n.d.)
This is where the teacher will introduce his/her topic to the class
Elicitation is basically information At this step, the teacher wants to test the current knowledge on the topic A good way to elicit information from the students is to show them a prop, flashcards or a PowerPoint presentation
In this step the teacher will be presenting the main topic
After presenting the lesson and teaching new vocabulary, the teacher wants the students to put into practice everything they have studied
Once again the teacher will be testing the knowledge on the lesson just taught; however, with this step the teacher can be more flexible
Towards the end of the lesson it's good to do a quick review to tie up the lesson and at the same time check of the students was able to grasp all the concepts taught.
WRITING A LESSON PLAN
7.4.1 Reflections before writing a lesson plan
There are points to consider when writing the lesson plan the teacher should ask him/herself (Bertrand, n.d.):
What is the main topic of the lesson?
If the activities in the lesson have a logical link then the students will be able to follow the teacher and the lesson, more easily
How can I arouse their interest?
Begin the lesson by involving the students straight away Show them a picture, photo or object to capture their attention and indicate which topic the lesson is based on
Every student, whatever their age or level needs to be challenged If there's no challenge then there is no learning If there's no learning, there's no motivation
How much should I review what they've already done?
The teacher can and should review previous words and work in general Teaching a word one lesson does not mean that all the students have actually learnt it for the next Incorporate previously taught language in new situations to give the learners more practice
What are the objectives of the lesson?
It is vital to always think about 'why' they are doing an activity, game or song Everything on the plan should be educational
What vocabulary do I want to teach them?
If the teacher prepares beforehand exactly what words s/he is going to concentrate on and how s/he is going to present them s/he will be better equipped to explain them clearly to the students
How can I explain the activities?
The teacher should prepare, at least mentally, how s/he is going to explain each activity Explanations should be short, clear and visual S/he should not forget to demonstrate and check understanding by getting one or two of them to demonstrate for her/him S/he should also decide how s/he is going to write on the board
How much detail do I need on my plan?
If the teacher is working from a book, then s/he should not forget page numbers
As a guideline, imagine that someone else has to cover her/his class
What order should I teach the activities in?
As a very general rule the teacher can start with an introduction to the lesson, s/he should introduce the new language, give the children some controlled practice and move onto freer practice Finally, s/he should review what s/he has done and gets feedback from the students herself/himself about what s/he did
If the teacher is not sure if an activity will work; if s/he should think it is too hard or too long then s/he should take time before the lesson, at the planning stage, to think about how to resolve any problems that could arise Problems could be activity related or time-table related, student related or even teacher-related
7.4.2 Guidelines for Writing a Lesson Plan
It is important to recognize the different aspects of instruction at the different stages of the lesson When preparing a lesson plan, use the following checklist:
At the start, I plan to:
1 Review prior learning and student/teacher expectations
2 Make the learning outcomes clear
3 Use a lead-in to capture interest and engage them in learning
1 Apply strategies to actively involve students in the learning process
2 Utilize a variety of media to illustrate concepts and processes
3 Make sure that the lesson flows easily and logically
4 Confirm that students are learning material that is meaningful and new
5 Facilitate opportunities for practice and feedback
6 Review and build on related material
At the end, I plan to:
Provide the proper closure students find important To do this, I will:
1 Assess what students have learned
3 Relate the lesson to real life and/or the next lesson
Date of preparation: Level: Date of teaching:
After this lesson, students will be able to:
1 Explain the importance of a lesson plan
2 Explain the stages of a lesson and give examples
3 Explain points the teacher should consider when writing a lesson plan
4 Explain the reasons why the teacher should use the checklist for writing a lesson plan
1 Stages of a lesson: in Doff, A (1988) Teach English: A training course for teachers Great Britain: Cambridge University Press
2 Writing a lesson plan: in Hammer, J (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) England: Pearson Education Limited
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