Sustainable Tourism Sustainable Tourism A Marketing Perspective By the same author Joint lndustry Committee for Tourism Statistics (JICTOURS) Marketing in Travel and Tourism (two editions) Measuring t[.]
Sustainable Tourism: A Marketing Perspective By the same author Joint lndustry Committee for Tourism Statistics (JICTOURS) Marketing in Travel and Tourism (two editions) Measuring the Local lmpact of Tourism New Visions for lndependent Museums in the UK New Visions for London Museums Review of Museums and Cultural Centres in the South Pacific Review of Tourism Studies Degree Courses in the UK Tourism Policy in Britain-The Case for a Radical Reappraisal Tourism in Context (two editions) Travel & Tourism and the Environment (with R Hawkins) Sustainable Tourism: A Marketing Perspective Victor T C Middleton with Rebecca Hawkins I%==-= E I N E M A N N Butterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041 A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd -ESt A member of the Reed Elsevier pic group OXFORD AUCKLAND JOHANNESBURG BOSTON MELBOURNE NEW DELHI First published 1998 Reprinted 1998 © Victor T C Middleton 1998 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England WIP 9HE Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Typeset by David Gregson Associates, Beccles, Suffolk Printed and bound in Great Britain by Martins The Printers Ltd, Berwick-upon-Tweed IiJ( I J)1I!nh IIII\! It/I (011'1/10/11111 \U/UII1!lt\ Contents About the authors Foreword Preface Structure of the book Acknowledgements List of figures List of tables vi Vii ix XU1 XV mi XVii Part One The Context; the Issues; A Global Overview Environment; tourism; a marketing perspective Global environmental issues International summary of tourism and environment: north Europe, the Mediterranean region and North America International summary of tourism and environment: East Asia and the Pacific; the Caribbean; Eastern Europe and states of the former USSR, and rest of the world Travel and tourism: the worlds largest industry The environmental significance of holiday and leisure tourism 15 on sustainability 12 Sustainability in the accommodation sector - with international illustrations 13 Sustainability in the visitor attractions sector 14 Sustainability in the transport sector with international illustrations 15 Sustainability in the tour operator sector - with international illustrations 133 144 160 170 184 Part Four InternationalCases of Good Management Practice for Sustainability 26 38 Kruger National Park, South Africa Quicksilver Connections Ltd, Great Barrier Reef, Australia Edinburgh’s Old Town, UK Anglian Water Services Ltd: Rutland Water, UK Ironbridge Gorge Museums, UK 201 208 213 218 224 50 64 Part Tsvo Managing Tourism for Sustainabilityat Specific Destinations Managing tourism - the local destination focus Managing tourism at local destinations - the public sector role Managing tourism at local destinations - the private sector role 10 The marketing process for sustainable tourism at destinations Part Three The Issues and Cases of Good Management Practice in the Main Sectors of I).avel and Tourism 11 The ‘R Word guide to corporate action Epilogue: Positive visions for sustainable tourism 230 Appendix I: Select glossary of environment, tourism and marketing terms 238 Appendix 11: Environmental regulations, market mechanisms and self-regulatory codes of conduct influencing the tourism industry 250 106 Select bibliography 258 118 Index 263 81 93 About the authors Professor Victor T C Middleton has had some thirty years' international experience of marketing practice covering most of the private and public sectors of travel and tourism With a commercial background prior to involvement in the tourism industry, his career spans marketing planning and research for a national tourist board (British Tourist Authority), research and teaching as a full-time academic (University of Surrey to 1984), and independent international management consultancy in tourism since then He was appointed Visiting Professor at Oxford Brookes University in 1990 and at the University of Central Lancashire in 1997 At Oxford he was the first Director of the World Travel and Tourism Environment Research Centre funded by the World Travel and Tourism Council, where he developed and communicated best practice analyses of sustainable tourism with Rebecca Hawkins Widely known as an author and lecturer on the international conference circuit, he has produced nearly one hundred published articles, reports and books over the last two decades His interests link visitor management, sustainability and heritage issues from a thoroughly practical industry and marketing perspective Rebecca Hawkins completed her PhD at Bournemouth University in 1992, analysing tourism management in the coastal zone, and went on to work in the regional tourist boards in the UK She was subsequently appointed as Senior Researcher and later Deputy Director of the World Travel and Tourism Environment Research Centre where she played a key role in the development of good practice guidance for the travel and tourism industry She also played a primary role in the development of WTTC's Green Globe environmental management programme for travel and tourism companies Recently she established her own business specializing in environmental aspects of tourism projects and has undertaken a number of pioneering programmes in this role In 1997 she completed a major research programme to enable the International Hotels Environment Initiative and British Airways Holidays establish benchmarks for the environmental performance of hotels Rebecca has written a wide range of technical and academic papers and publications, including most of the Green Globe series of environmental management guides (with Jo Lloyd), HCIMA technical briefs, Inter-Continental Hotels and Resorts Environmental Review and the WTO/ WTTC/Earth Council interpretation of the implications of AGENDA 21 for travel and tourism companies Foreword Over the last twenty-five years, as this book reveals, travel and tourism has been a remarkable economic success story driven largely by marketing initiative and energy working in favourable market conditions On the other hand, despite the many obvious warning signs that poorly managed tourism around the world damages the environment and undermines business prosperity, most businesses in what can now be identified as the worlds largest industry have yet to come to terms with the environmental consequences of their actions Since 1990, however, in common with leading players in other sectors of the world economy, enlightened companies in travel and tourism have formally adopted environmental ethics at the core of their business interests and future prosperity As an industry leader with some 40000 staff in 200 properties in over seventy countries around the world, Inter-Continental Hotels and Resorts has positioned itself with the World Travel & Tourism Council at the forefront of implementing the principles of sustainable development Inter-Continental launched a major environmental initiative in 1990 to ensure that each of our hotels makes a positive contribution to improving the quality of the environment in its locality That initiative led to a comprehensive environmental manual providing detailed guidelines on environmentally sound products and procedures which we shared with our competitors in 1991 to form the International Hotels Environment Initiative (IHEI) By the late 1990s eleven international hotel companies controlling some million rooms (approaching billion guest nights a year by the new millennium) were being operated in accordance with guidelines pioneered by Inter-Continental This is just the beginning of new corporate attitudes to the environment Looking ahead, to achieve the goals of sustainable development we must have the right mix of private sector initiative, economic tools, incentives and regulation This means we need new public sector-private sector delivery mechanisms and we must have industry participation in order to translate global principles into local action I recommend this important new book to practitioners as well as students, and commend its authors for their contribution to a better understanding of environmental impacts and the new partnership delivery mechanisms that are needed In particular they have stripped the subject of many of the myths and prejudices that continue to surround it, setting out practical proposals for achieving local solutions within a marketing perspective that are at the leading edge of industry thinking Robert Collier Vice-Chairman, Saison Overseas Holdings B V (The parent Company of Inter-Continental Hotels and Resorts) This page intentionally left blank Preface In the run-up to the United Nations Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro in 1992, general public and industry awareness of the ideas of sustainable development were fuelled by massive media coverage and doomsday/eco-disaster scenarios that coincided with the late 1980s economic boom in many countries Sustainable tourism subsequently became a buzzword for many in travel and tourism It is a useful sound-bite; a mantra for politicians, NGOs and many academics around the world; an aspiration with which all can agree - until aspiration has to be turned into practice The aim of this book is to communicate meaning to three overall concepts relevant to tourism and to outline methods of implementation, illustrated by international good practice involving partnerships between the private and public sectors: Sustainable tourism means achieving a particular combination of numbers and types of visitors, the cumulative effect of whose activities at a given destination, together with the actions of the servicing businesses, can continue into the foreseeable future without damaging the quality of the environment on which the activities are based For all practical decisions in tourism, environment means the ‘quality of natural resources such as landscape, air, sea water, fresh water, flora and fauna; and the quality of built and cultural resources judged to have intrinsic value and be worthy of conservation’ (Middleton and Hawkins, 1994) Sustainability for tourism requires that ’the cumulative volume of visitor usage of a destination and the associated activities and impacts of servicing businesses should be managed below the threshold level at which the regenerative resources available locally be- come incapable of maintain the environment’ (Middleton and Hawkins, 1994) Regenerative resources are part natural and part managed by human intervention The balances implied between environmental quality and tourism activity in each of these linked concepts are never static They are infinitely susceptible to the influence of human behaviour and management decisions as well as to the natural processes of ecology and the emerging science and technology of measuring environmental impacts and responding to them Although the words are modern, there is nothing new in the concepts; in principle they have been relevant in tourism for at least a century What gives the debate its modern context is the increasing awareness of tourism impacts as part of the overall pressure on the quality of the global environment exerted by a combination of a growing world population, growing expectations for economic development, and the industrial and other technology used to supply population needs From farming and fishing to the extraction of minerals and other finite resources such as timber, the impact of human economic activity generally, and the many forms of pollution to which it gives rise, has been pushing the limits of environmental tolerance at an accelerating rate Defined in Beyond the Limits (Meadows et al., 1992) as ‘exponential growth‘ leading to ’overshoot’, the process has been lurching out of control, since the 1950s The Rio Earth Summit brought to a head influential global environmental processes, such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP - established in 1972), and concerns such as the Club of Rome’s Limits to Growth (1972), and the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future (1987) The main international action follow-up 254 APPENDIX I1 Table A.1 (Continued) lssues covered Major international treaties Implications for national regulators Tools used to achieve ends Implications for travel and tourism operations Heritage conservation UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (i) Identification of World Heritage Sites which are overseen (and in some cases funded) by the World Heritage Committee Such sites are often tourist attractions and authorities in signatory sites are obliged to preserve them from damage (i) Increased role for the tourism industry in providing funding for the protection of such sites; (ii) increasing restrictions on access and freedom to visit such sites; (iii) increased requirement for visitor management of such sites Land use planning; building control National/ Federauocal planning regulations In Europe, the 1985 Directive on the Assessment of the Effects of Certain Private and Public Projects In the USA the 1979 Environmental Protection Regulations (EPA) (i) Identification of large-scale projects which require the preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement as a part of an Environmental Impact Assessment procedure (i) Development of a fund to preserve World Heritage Sites; (ii) development of visitor management strategies for some sites; (iii) some site operators have introduced permit, licence or fee systems to protect their sites from the impacts of tourism (i) Regulations to ensure that relevant environmental Impact Assessment procedures are camed out prior to development; (ii) in the longer term strategic environmental impact assessment procedures may also be required Aviation Standards Chicago Convention (Annex 16 1968) (i) International agreement confirming that air space above sovereign territory lies within the jurisdiction of that sovereign country and defined the socalled freedoms of the air (ii) Established ICAO as the UN designated body for all issues regarding civil aviation (i) Development of more stringent regulations regarding acceptable aircraft noise levels in and around airports; (ii) financial penalties on those companies that fail to comply; (iii) possible development of permissible emission levels; (iv) possible prohibition of some types of older and noisier aircraft landing in some areas (i) Increased requirements for lengthy EIA studies especially for large projects; (ii) increased necessity for post-development implementation studies; (iii) should SEA become the norm, increased cooperation between tourism facilities within an area to ensure compatible developments; (iv) growing role of local authorities under the umbrella of AGENDA 21 (i) Introduction of newer and quieter aircraft by some airlines to avoid financial penalties; (ii) possible restrictions on NO, emissions which could increase fuel consumption and thus prices of air travel APPENDlX 11 255 Table A.1 (Continued) lssues covered Major international treaties lmplications for national regulators Tools used to achieve ends Implicationsfor travel and tourism operations Product Standards International, national and regional trading standards; International Standard IS0 14001; EU Eco Management and Audit Regulation (i) Enshrinement in law that products must meet certain criteria and match the claims of manufacturers (aerosols that claim not to contain CFCs must, therefore not contain such substances) In some countries such as Germany these standards have been developed for specific environmental claims as represented by the Blue Angel programme; (ii) establishment of an internationally accepted and independently verified standard for environmental management systems (IS0 14001); (iii) establishment by the EU of a regulation specifymg the procedures and performance measures that must be in place for companies to qualify for EMAS recognition (i) Fines for companies that fail to meet criteria specified by trading standards; (ii) pressure from consumer groups on products that fail to meet criteria or standards; (iii) pressure from consumers and suppliers for companies to adopt and apply the universally accepted standard for environmental management systems (i) Increased pressure from consumers and suppliers to adopt universally accepted management standards such as EMAS or IS0 14001; (ii) increased pressure from consumers to match promises of clean seas and uncongested streets made in brochures with reality a See AGENDA 21 for the Travel b Tourism Industry - Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development, WTTC, 1995, for a summary of the implications of this document ODS = ozone-depleting substances The travel and tourism industry has responded to the increasing regulatory framework which could - in the eyes of some operators reduce its ability to respond to market forces in an increasingly competitive market by develop- ing codes of conduct to govern its own practices and illustrate its willingness to government to act in a responsible manner More than 100 such codes have been developed in the last five years to help the industry govern its own practices or 256 APPENDIX 11 change the behaviour of visitors Table provides a brief summary of the main codes of conduct that have been developed by the industry and their implications (For a detailed examination of the codes of conduct that have Table been developed by the industry, the reader is directed to the UNEP I W A C publication of 1995 which examines the range of codes available in some depth.) Summary of Some Key Codes of Conduct for the Travel and Tourism industry Originating organization Code Main recommendations World Tourism Organization Manila Declaration on World Tourism States should recognize tourism as a phenomenon which has social and environmental impacts as well as economic benefits World Tourism Organization Tourism Code and Tourism Bill of Rights Develops the role that the tourism industry should play in developing the legal and institutional framework for international tourism World Tourism Organizatioflnited Nations Environment Programme Joint Declaration on Tourism Details an agreement between UNEP and WTO based on the preamble that 'the protection, enhancement and improvement of the various components of man's environment are among the fundamental conditions for the harmonious development of tourism' International Chamber of Commerce Charter on Environmentally Sustainable Business Practices First code of its type, which urges all companies to operate in a sustainable manner The code was the basis for the WTTC guidelines Pacific Asia Travel Association Code for Environmentally Responsible Tourism This code aims to encourage and assist in the development of the travel industry in Pacific Asia in a manner which recognises the urgent importance to practise an environmental ethic that supports responsible conservation and restoration of Pacific Asia's unique combination of natural, cultural, and social resources World Tourism Organization Hague Declaration on Tourism Developed with the aim of defining the nature of tourism and to emphasize the importance of developing tourism that meets the social, environmental, and economic criteria of nations World Travel & Tourism Council Recommended Environmental Guidelines Guidelines developed for tourism companies to assist them in the management of elements of their business Recommendations relate to operational areas such as energy efficiency and waste management The guidelines are supported by the Green Globe environmental management programme World Wide Fund for Nature Principles for Sustainable Tourism Ten principles developed for tourism companies to encourage efficient resource use, consultation of local communities and responsible planning for tourism developments Alliance International de Tourismel Federation International de la Automobile Charter of Ethics for Tourism and the Environment Charter which aims to help motorists and tourism companies to protect the environment in which they operate APPENDlX I1 257 Table (Continued) Originating organization Code Main recommendations International Hotels Environment Initiative Charter of Environmental Action for the Hotel and Catering Industry Charter signed by the thirteen members of IHEI which serves as a mantra for the organization and also the longer-term development of environmental programmes for the hotel and catering sector International Association of Tour Managers Position Statement The Tour Manager Charter outlining the duties and responsibilities of tour managers with regard to the environment European Tour Operators Association Environmental Guidelines Guidelines which offer recommendations to both tour managers and visitors to help them protect the cultural and natural environment of the destinations they visit World Tourism Organization Charter for Sustainable Tourism An 18-point action programme agreed at an international conference as a way of bringing about more sustainable forms of tourism development World Travel & Tourism Council/ World Tourism OrganizatiodEarth Council AGENDA 21 for the Travel & Tourism Industry Interpretation of AGENDA 21 into a targeted action programme for travel and tourism companies and national and regional tourism authorities The agenda specifies twenty action points and achievements will be monitored through the Green Globe initiative to the year 2005 Select bibliography Australian Tourism Indstry Association, Ecologically Sustainable Working Groups: Final 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Earthscan, London, 1992 Medlik, S., Dictionary of Travel, Tourism and Hospitality, 2nd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1996 Medlik, S and Middleton, V.T.C., ’Product Formulation in Tourism’, Tourism and Marketing, 13, AIEST, Berne, 1973 Middleton, V.T.C., Managing Tourism Flows, Tourism Society Lecture Series, The Tourism Society, London, 1979 Middleton, V.T.C., Marketing in Travel and Tourism, 2nd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1994 Middleton, V.T.C., ’The Tourist Product,’ in Witt, S.F and Moutinho, L (eds), Tourism Marketing and Management Handbook, 2nd edn, Prentice Hall International, Hemel Hempstead, 1994 Middleton, V.T.C., ‘The Marketing and Management of Tourist Destinations,’ in Tourism Research, published papers of the 44th Congress of AIEST (Vol 36), St Gallen, 1994 Middleton, V.T.C., ’Sustainable Tourism: A Marketing Perspective,’ in Stabler, M.J (ed.), Tourism and Sustainability, CAB International, Oxford, 1997 Middleton, V.T.C and Hawkins, R., ‘Practical Environmental Policies in Travel and Tourism,’ Parts I and I1 in Travel and Tourism Analyst No of 1993 and No of 1994, Economist Intelligence Unit, London Murphy, P.E., Tourism: A Community Approach, Methuen, New York, 1985 Naisbitt, J., Global Paradox, Nicholas Brealey, London, 1994 New Zealand Ministry for The Environment, Business and the Environment: A Developing Partnership, New Zealand, 1993 New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, Company Environmental Policies: Guidelines for Development and Implementation, New Zealand, 1993 Nicholson, M., The Environmental Revolution, Penguin, London, 1972 Pearce, D., Tourist Development, 2nd edn, Longman, New York, 1989 SELECT BlBLlOGRAPHY 261 Pearce, D and Turner, K., Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment, Harvester Wheatsheaf, London, 1990 Pearce, D.W., Blue Print for A Green Economy, Earthscan Publications, London, 1989 (see also other Blue Prints by same author in subsequent years) Pearce, D W., Economic Values and the Natural World, Earthscan Publications, London, 1993 Pearce, F., ’Dead in the Water’, New Scientist, February 1995 Poon, A., Tourism,Technology and Competitive Strategies, CAB International, Wallingford, 1993 Porter, M.E., Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, Free Press, New York, 1985 Porter, M.E., The Competitive Advantage of Nations, Macmillan, London, 1990 Ryan, C., Researching Tourist Satisfaction, Routledge, London, 1995 Ryan, C., The Tourist Experience, A New Introduction, Cassell, London, 1996 Seaton, A.V and Bennett, M (eds), Marketing Tourism Products: Concepts, Issues, Cases, International Thomson Business, London, 1996 Smith, V L., Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1977 Smith, V.L and Eadington, W.R (eds), Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and and Problems in the Development of Tourism, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1992 South Australia Tourism Commission, Ecotourism - A South Australian Design Guide for Sustainable Development, Australia, 1994 Taylor, G., ’The Community Approach: Does It Really Work?’ Tourism Management, 16, No.7, 1995 Theobold, W.F (ed.), Global Tourism: The Next Decade, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1994 Toffler, A., Power Shift, Bantam Books, London, 1990 (and Future Shock, 1970, Third Wave, 1980, and Creating a New Civilisation, 1995) Toffler, A and Toffler, H., ‘What Exactly is a Third Wave Information Society?’ Paper delivered at an International Conference on Tourism and Heritage Management, held at Yogyakarta, Indonesia, October 1996 Tourism Council for the South Pacific (TCSP), Guidelines for the lntegration of Tourism Development and Environmental Protection in the South Pacific, TCSP, Suva, 1990 Turner, L and Ash, J., The Golden Hordes: International Tourism and the Pleaure Periphery, Constable, London, 1975 UNCED, AGENDA 21: A Guide to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, UN Publications, Geneva, 1992 UNEP, ’Sustainable Tourism Development’, Industry and Environment, 15, No 3-4, Paris, 1992 Urry, J., The Tourist Gaze: Leisure G Travel in Contemporary Societies, Sage, London, 1990 Witt, S.F and Moutinho, L (eds), Tourism Marketing and Management Handbook, 2nd edn, Prentice Hall International, Hemel Hempstead, 1994 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (The Brundtland Report), Oxford University Press, 1987 World Tourism Organization (WTO), Madrid, Government and Business: Partners in Tourism, December 1995 (WTO News); Guidelines for the Development of National Parks and Protected Areas for Tourism (with UNEP and IUCN), 1992; National and Regional Planning Methodologies and Case Studies (1993); Round Table on Planning for Sustainable Tourism Development (Bali), 1993; lntegrated Approach to Resort Development, 1995; Tourism Carrying Capacity (with UNEP), 1992; What is Ecotourism? May 1995 (WTO News); Global Tourism Forecasts to the Year 2000 and Beyond (Paci), 1994; lndicators for the Sustainable Management of Tourism (Manning), 1993 World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC), London, Travel & Tourism’s Economic Perspective (Global estimates to 2005), 1995; AGENDA 21 for the Travel G Tourism Industry: Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development (with WTO and The Earth Council), 1996; Green Globe includes a series of published guidelines 262 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY for environmental good practice in the main sectors of the travel and tourism industry, since 1995 World Travel & Tourism Environment Research Centre (WTTERC), Oxford Brookes University Travel Tourism: Environment and Development, Annual Reports for 1992, 1993, and 1994; Environment and Development, Series of Newsletters published between 1992 and 1995 WWFD’ourism Concern, Beyond the Green Horizon, WWF, Godalming, 1994 WWF/T’ourism Concern, Sustainable Tourism: Moving from Theory to Practice, WWF, Godalming, 1996 Young, G., Tourism: Blessing or Blight? pelican Books, London, 1973 Abercrombie and Kent, 191 Accessibility, 72, 114-5 Acid rain, 21,238 Accommodation sector of tourism industry, 144-59 Aderhold, Peter, xv, 10 Adventure tourism, 238 Aga Khan Fund, 48 AGENDA 21, x, xii, 24,83, 93,103,142, 179, 183, 234-7, 238, 257 Airbus, 176 Air quality, , l l Alternative tourism, 239 Alton Towers, 165 American Airlines, 177 Amsterdam, 28 Anglian Water Services Ltd see Rutland Water Antarctica, 21 Aral Sea, 45 Arden-Clarke, 237 Ash, J., 66 Asset base (tourism), 8, 9, 14, 108, 120, 209 Assisting Conservation Programme PA), 180 AITO (Association of Independent Tour Operators), 191 Attitude change, 9,13940 Attractions (touristhisitor attractions), 72,99; Sector of tourism industry 160-9 Austria, 27 Australia, 39,41,82,208-12 Balearic Islands, 1244,195 Baltic states, 45-6 Bath, 28 Bangkok, 39 BATNEEC (Best Available Technique Not Entailing Excessive Cost), 239 BBC, Belize, 43 Bennett, A., xv, 201-7 Bermuda, 94,98 Black Sea, 45 Boers, H and Bosch, M., 28, 34 Boeing Corporation, 176,180 BPEO (Best Practical Environmental Option), 239 Biodiversity, 15-25, 239, 251 Black Forest, 21 Blue Flag (EU), 239 Brackenbury, M., xv, 192 BA (British Airways), 141,178-81 Brundtland Report, 9,65,239,247 BTA (British Tourist Authority), 70 Building regulations (planning), 97-8, 254 Bureau of Tourism Research and Planning, Copenhagen, Denmark, 10-12 Burkart, A.J., 52, 185 Bulgaria, 46 Butler, R.W., 248 Bondi Beach, 40 Canada, 126 Canadian Pacific Hotels and Resorts, 115,138 Car congestion, 30,32, 215 Cardiff, 28 Carribean Hotel Association, 44 Cambean Region - tourism trends and environment, 42-5 Carribean Tourist Organization, 44 Carrying capacity, 9, 73,82, 163,221, 239 Cataracts, 20 CBA (Cost Benefit Analysis), 239 Center Parcs, 107, 138, 146, 187 CERT (Campaign for Environmental Tourism), 191 Channel Tunnel, 173 Chemobyl, Chicago Convention, 254 China, 39 CIS see Russian Federation Climate change; see also Global warming and ozone layer, 240 Club Mediterranke 146,187 Codes of environmental conduct, 240, 256 Collier, R., vii, 144 Community led planning, 82,126-7, 229 Captain Cook, 209 Thomas Cook, 184 Cooper, C., 51 Costa Rica, 43 Crabtree, A., 212 Croall, J., 230 Cumbria, 56-7 Czech Republic, 45 Danish Tourist Board, 10 Daskalantonakis, M., xv, 154-6 Databases (customer), 116, 240 Davidson, J.H., 120 Dawkins, R., 231,233 Deforestation and Desertification, 21-2, 240,252 Demand-side (market) orientation, 88 Direct response marketing, 240 Disneyland Paris, 165 Doganis, R., 173 Domestic visitors (defined), 52,53 Dominica, 43 Downie, R., xv, 213-17 DRV (German Travel Agents), 193 DWIF (Research Institute), 196 East Asia and Pacific Region 38-42 Eastern European Region - tourism trends and environment, 45-8 Earth Summit (Rio de Janeiro), ix, 3,15, 126230,232,235,238,240 Earthwatch, 125 Ecolabels, 28,240 Economist (The),50, 204 EIU (Economist Intelligence Unit), ECOMOST, 123,195-7 Ecosystems, 16, 21, 201, 210, 241 Ecotourism, 22,35,39,42,125,190,201, %10,241 Edinburgh (Old Town), 213-17 Environment (tourism meaning), bc, 10, 12,241 Environmental audit, 241 see also EMS, EMAR and IS0 264 lNDEX Environmental communications, 77 Environment, (historical perspective), 16 EL4 (Environment Impact Assessment), 30,133, 140-1,146,194,236,241, 251-2,254 EIS (Environmental Impact Statement), 73, 133,140-1, 194 Environmental Indicators, 241 Environmental goals, xii, 10, 119 Environmental management approaches by industry sector see Ten Rs; for accommodation sector, 148-51 for visitor attractions sector, 165-7 for transport sector, 174-7 for tour operators, 189-92 EMS (Environmental Management System), 121, 133, 139, 140-1, 146, 151,180,241 Environmental opportunitiedpositive points (tourism), xii, 757,149,166, 175 Environmental quality (tourism product quality), 12-13,77,122-6 Environmental resources (tourism), 8, 161-162 Environmental threatdnegative aspects (tourism), xii, 28,75-6,107, 186,188 ETB (English Tourist Board), 86 ETC (European Travel Commission), 54 ENDS (Environmental Data Services), 16 EC (European Commission), 28,51,52, 56, 66,93,195,213 Eh4AR (the EU Eco-Management and Audit Regulation), 141,156,255; see also EMAS, 242 European Prize for Tourism and Environment (1995), 213,216,218 European tourism (market patterns), 68 European Tour Operators Association, 191,257 European Travel Intelligence Centre, xv, 68 EU (European Union), 23,30,31,34,44, 46,56,123,220,225,253 EUROSTAT, 56 Facilities (tourism products), 73 Fiscal controls, 101 Fisheriedover-fishing, 22-33 Florence, 160, 161,163 Framework Convention, 242 Friends of the Earth, 31 German tourism market, 12-13,B Gilpin, A., 140-141,236, 237 Glasgow, 28 Global environment issues, 3, 15-25 Global warming, 19-20,242,250 Godfrey, K., 127 Gold Coast, 39 Great Barrier Reef, 208-12 Grecotel SA, 155-8 Greece, 62 Greenhouse effect, 19 Greenpeace, 16 Green policies (tourism), 10, 242 Green Globe (WITC), xv, 41,134,151, 167, 177, 191, 242,256 Green Waves (BA scheme), 181 Hawkins, R., xv, 43 Hazardous waste see Environmental management approaches and Ten Rs), 242,253 Health and safety see Environmental management approaches and Ten Rs), 10, 11 High fixed costs (transport), 172 Holiday motivations, 10-12,M Hong Kong, 39 Hospitality industry see Accommodation, 51 Holiday and leisure tourism (vacations), 64-78 Hughes, P., see IFTO, 106, 1234, 196 HRH Prince Charles, 119 Hotels see Accommodation) Hungary, 46 IATA (International Air Transport Association), 176, 177, 234 International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators, 191 ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization), 177,242,252,254 ICC (International Chamber of Commerce), 256 IFTO (International Federation of Tour Operators) see ECOMOST, 184, 191,1957,234 IGOs (Inter-governmental Organizations), 242 IHEI (International Hotels Environment Initiative), vii, 151, 152,243,257 IHA (International Hotels Association), 234 Images (tourism), 73 Inskeep, E., 126,237 Inclusive tours see Package tours Indonesia 39 Integrated resorts, 242 Inter-Continental Hotels and Resorts, vii, 15, 139, 141,144,152-5 Investment incentives and controls, 100 IUCNnVCU International Union for the Conservation of Nature, 243 International visitors (defined), 52 Ironbridge Gorge Museums 224-9 IS0 14000/14001,141,180,182,243,255 Iwand, W., xv, 193-5 Japan, 41,42 Jenkins, S., 39 Jordan, 181 Josephides, N., 188 De Kadt, E., 66, 126 Klondyke, 130,232 Koch, A,, 196 Kotler, P., 71, 110, 119 Krippendorf, J., 66 Kruger National Park, 148,160,201-7 Las Vegas, 73 Land-use planning, 95-6,2!%4 Lawes, G., xv, 22A-9 Lawyers see Regulators, Leeds, 28 Leisure tourism, 11, 64-78 Licensing, 102, 209 Life-cycle assessment (destinations), 243, 248 Local government/destination authorities (planning), 29, 33,39, 79-92,93-105 Lothian and Edinburgh Enterprise (LEEL), 214-17 Limits to growth, 1525,243 Lipman, G., xv, 106,230 London, 28 Lovelock, R., 65 Malaysia, 39,40 Mallorca, 124-5,196,231-2,237 Manchester, 28 Marketing (defined), 243 Marketing management, 8-10,71, 118-30 Market mechanisms (defined), 243 Marketing mix, 1 G , M Marketing perspective (principles and applications), 8,9,13, 159,169,183, 198; see also Private sector management tools Market niches see Segments Market research and monitoring, 76-82, 109-10, 1262,214, 221, 233 lNDEX 265 Market segments see Segments Masai Mara, 204 Mass tourism, 31,65,68,70,109,184, 2323,239,244 McDonald’s, 137 Meadows, D.H., 15, 18,65 Mediterranean region - tourism trends and environment, 31-4, 123 MEDPLAN, 33 Medlik, S., xv, 52, 59, 65, 81, 185 Melonesia, 39 Membership criteria (trade/ professional associations), 234,248 Mexico, 43 Micronesia, 39 Middleton, V.T.C., xv, 8,57,71,81,110, 185,188 Mission Statement (defined), 244 Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances (and amendments), 251 Moore, D., xv, 218-23 Monaghan, M., xv, 18C-1 Montreal Protocol, 251 Motivations see Holiday motivations Murphy, P., 66,82,122,126,161 Naisbitt,, 3, 26,38,61, 130 NTAs (national tourism administration), 244 New Zealand, 39,40,41,49,82 Niche marketing defined, 244 see Segments National Trust, 56 NGOs (non-governmental organizations) defined, 245 North Europe - tourism trends and environment, 26-31 North America - tourism trends and environment, OECD, 27,36, 39,49,66 OED (Oxford English Dictionary), 64 Overall tourism product see Product formulation, 71 Ozone layer/depletion, 20,245,251 Oxford Brookes University, xv PATA (Pacific Asia Travel Association), 151,177,234,256 Package Holiday Directive, 191 Package tours, 69, 70, 72, 184-98 Paris, 28,232 Partnership for sustainability (principles and applications for sectors and destinations), 10,74, 90,ll6-17,1%9,153-6,194, 197, 201,208-9,213-16,220-1,224-6, 228-9,234-5 Passenger revenue yield, 172 Pearce, D.W., 23 Pearce, D., 82,88, 126 P&O Ltd, 182-3 Philippines, 40 Place see Access Pleasure periphery, 50,54 Poland, 45,47 Polluter Pays principle, 245 Pollution, 224,245 see also Ten Rs, Environmental management approaches for sectors, and 15-25 Poon, A., 66 Population growth (global), 4,15,17-18 Port Douglas, 208,211 Prague, 48 Precautionary Principle, 236,245 Price, 10, 73, 112-13 Principle of Selective Influence and Control, 81, 85 Private sector role, especially marketing tools and techniques, xii, 8, 88-9, 106-17, 128 Procurement policies, 234 Product see Tourism product, 246 Promotion, 113-14 Public sector role, especially planning tools and techniques, xii, 8,88-9, 93-105, 127-8, Quality issues see Tourism product QUANGOs (Quasi Autonomous NonGovernment Organizations), 246 Queensland, 208-12 Quicksilver Connections Ltd, 208-12 Quotas (tourism numbers), xi, Rs - Three Rs (environmental good practice for tourism businesses), 1334, 247 Rs - Ten Rs (environmental good practice for tourism businesses), 13343 RAMSAR, 219 RCI (Timeshare), 188 Reef Biosearch (Quicksilver), 210 Regulations, xi, 9,30,33,36,44,47,150, 190,166,175,212,236,246 Regulators, xi, 9, 10,127 Relationship marketing, 233,246 Rest of the world tourism trends and environment, 48 Retail parks (heritage), 162 Rhodes, 124, 196 Rimoni, 29 Risk assessment, 246 Rumania, 46 Ruskin, J., 160 Russian Federation and CIS, 45-8 Rutland Water, 218-33 Salzburg, 29 Same-day visitors defined, 52, 54 Satellite accounting, 59 Scotland, 213-17 Segments, 8,13, 55-6,87, 107, 109-10, 12€l-1,209,233,244 Sellafield Nuclear Plant, 166 Self-regulation,xi, 10,150,167,176,191, 212,234,236,246 Serena Hotel Chain, 48 Serengeti World Park, 48 SERVQUAL, 246 Sevem River, 224 Shell Oil Company, 10 Shepherd, M., xv, 208-12 Sheraton Hotels, 146 SIC (Standard Industrial Classification), 59 Skin cancers, 20 Skukuza (Kruger Park), 202,205-6 Small businesses in tourism (SMEs), 4, 6,12, 61-2, 109,146-7,2334 Smith, V., 66 Smithsonian Institute, 178,182 Social and cultural environment defined, 7-8 Social impact assessment, 247 South Africa 48, and see Kruger Park SSSI (Site of Special Scientific Interest), 219,226 Supply side orientation, 88-9 Sustainable goals, xi, 9, 108, 247 Somenrille, H., xv, 170,178-81 Stakeholders, SEA (Strategic Environmental Assessment), 247,251, 254 Sustainable tourism (throughout book) but specific comments on, ix, 10, 107-9,247 Taj Hotel Group, 42 Taylor, G., 127 Tokyo, 39 Thailand, 39, 62 Taiwan, 41 Tanzania, 48 Thomson Travel, 186 Toffler, A., 233 Tourism defined, 50,65,248 Tourism destinations, and Part IV Tourism infrastructure, 98-100 266 lNDEX Tourism management at destinations, xi, 84-5,86-7,20%5,210,221,228, 247 Tourism product, 10,71-5,111-12,115, 147-8,1634,185-6,208,212,215, 246 Tourism for Tomorrow Awards (BA), 181 Tour Operator sector of tourism industry, 184-98 TQM (Tourism Quality Management), 139,143,247 Transport sector of tourism industry, 170-83 Transport technology, 171,174 Travel and tourism defined, 5, 6,50, 51-2 Travel and tourism industry, 3,5043, 65 Travel trade, 50 TUI, 28, 186,189,193-5 Turner, L., 63 UK tourism - market patterns, 68 Ukraine, 46 UN (United Nations), 33 UNCED (defined), 235, see Earth Summit UNEP, 248,256 UNESCO (World Heritage Sites), 201, 207-2,217,225, 254 UN Food and Agriculture Organization, 23 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 250 UN Framework Convention on Biodiversity and CITES, 251 UN Framework Convention on Desertification, 252 UN Statistical Commission, 51 us Air, 177 USSR (former Soviet Union), 45 Vacation see Holiday and leisure tourism Venice, 29, 161,163 Vienna, 28 Visitor attractions see Attractions Visitor management techniques, xii, 10, 55, 81,87-8 Water resources quality, 10, %3,34, 218-23,253 Wavelength (P&O), 180 Woodward, D., xv, 5 World Bank, 46 WBSCD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development), 234 WCU (World Conservation Union) see IUCN WHO (World Health Organization), 23, 123 Worlds largest industry, xi, 5,5043 WTO (World Tourism Organization), 27, 35,38, 39,42,43,50-4,56,66, 82,123,236,242,249,256-7 WTTC (World Travel & Tourism Council), xv, 4,5,35,43,54,59,60, 66,118,142,234,236,248,256-257 WTTERC (World Travel & Tourism Environment Research Centre), xv, 29, 32, 41, 51, 94, 248 WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature), 23, 237, 249, 256 Young, G., 65,100,230 Yugoslavia, 45 This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank