LECTURE 1 Introduction to Interpreting 1. Interpreter vs. Speaker: An interpreter is a professional who translates spoken language orally, as opposed to a translator, who translates written language. The speaker, on the other hand, is the person who delivers the original message that the interpreter then translates. 2. Consecutive interpreting vs. Simultaneous interpreting: Consecutive interpreting is when the speaker pauses to allow interpretation, whereas simultaneous interpreting is when the interpretation occurs at the same time the speaker is speaking. 3. Source language vs. Target language: The source language is the original language in which the speech or text is given. The target language is the language into which the speech or text is translated. 4. Active language vs. Passive language: An active language is a language into which an interpreter can interpret, while a passive language is a language from which an interpreter can interpret. 5. Mother tongue: This refers to the interpreter’s first language or the language they know best and into which they primarily interpret. 6. Retour: This is when an interpreter interprets into a language other than their mother tongue. 7. Relay: This is a situation where an interpreter interprets from another interpreter’s interpretation because they do not understand the original language. 8. Inhouse vs. Freelance: Inhouse interpreters are employed by an organization and work exclusively for that organization. Freelance interpreters, on the other hand, work independently and offer their services to various clients. They have more flexibility but also more uncertainty in their work. LECTURE 2 Basic Principles of Consecutive Interpreting Consecutive interpreting Understanding ● Ideas, not words The understanding we refer to here is not of words but of ideas, for it is ideas that have to be interpreted. ● Not knowing words? Yes or No? Stuck Improve passive language 1. It may well be perfectly possible to understand a speakers meaning without actually understanding every single word and expression they use, and without having to reproduce all of those terms in the interpretation. 2. By the time they start interpreting they will have heard the whole speech, and should have been able to deduce the meaning of toll from context, given the number of clues they have. 3. There are times when they do not know a word or an expression, can neither avoid it nor deduce its meaning from context, and are consequently stuck. In those circumstances, the interpreter, particularly in consecutive where there is a straightforward human contact with the delegates, must admit their ignorance, and, if necessary, clarify the question with the delegates. ● Listening: active attentive Whatever the speaker says, every thing must be attended to and carefully sifted, even if ultimately indeed inevitably the interpreter concludes that certain elements in the discourse are not important. ● All notions: overall sense Analysis ● Analysis of speech type ○ Pros Cons ■ the interpreter must pay particular attention to the logical connections between ideas. ■ the interpreter must know what is a pro and what is a con, and spot the turning points between them: all of the uses of but, however, on the other hand and so on, which are so many warning beacons to the interpreter. ■ 2 ways: ● to navigate to and fro between the two points of view being examined ○ There is absolutely no fixed system governing the expression of this kind of nonlinear thinking: the interpreter has to unravel it all, noting the relationships between ideas and seizing on the explicit markers which facilitate that task.
LECTURE Introduction to Interpreting Interpreter vs Speaker: An interpreter is a professional who translates spoken language orally, as opposed to a translator, who translates written language The speaker, on the other hand, is the person who delivers the original message that the interpreter then translates Consecutive interpreting vs Simultaneous interpreting: Consecutive interpreting is when the speaker pauses to allow interpretation, whereas simultaneous interpreting is when the interpretation occurs at the same time the speaker is speaking Source language vs Target language: The source language is the original language in which the speech or text is given The target language is the language into which the speech or text is translated Active language vs Passive language: An active language is a language into which an interpreter can interpret, while a passive language is a language from which an interpreter can interpret Mother tongue: This refers to the interpreter’s first language or the language they know best and into which they primarily interpret Retour: This is when an interpreter interprets into a language other than their mother tongue Relay: This is a situation where an interpreter interprets from another interpreter’s interpretation because they not understand the original language In-house vs Freelance: In-house interpreters are employed by an organization and work exclusively for that organization Freelance interpreters, on the other hand, work independently and offer their services to various clients They have more flexibility but also more uncertainty in their work LECTURE Basic Principles of Consecutive Interpreting Consecutive interpreting Understanding ● Ideas, not words The 'understanding' we refer to here is not of words but of ideas, for it is ideas that have to be interpreted ● Not knowing words? Yes or No? - Stuck - Improve passive language It may well be perfectly possible to understand a speaker's meaning without actually understanding every single word and expression they use, and without having to reproduce all of those terms in the interpretation By the time they start interpreting they will have heard the whole speech, and should have been able to deduce the meaning of toll from context, given the number of clues they have There are times when they not know a word or an expression, can neither avoid it nor deduce its meaning from context, and are consequently stuck In those circumstances, the interpreter, particularly in consecutive where there is a straightforward human contact with the delegates, must admit their ignorance, and, if necessary, clarify the question with the delegates ● Listening: active & attentive Whatever the speaker says, every- thing must be attended to and carefully sifted, even if ultimately - indeed inevitably the interpreter concludes that certain elements in the discourse are - not important ● All notions: overall sense Analysis ● Analysis of speech type ○ Pros & Cons ■ the interpreter must pay particular attention to the logical connections between ideas ■ the interpreter must know what is a pro and what is a con, and spot the turning points between them: all of the uses of but, however, on the other hand and so on, which are so many warning beacons to the interpreter ■ ways: ● to navigate to and fro between the two points of view being examined ○ There is absolutely no fixed system governing the expression of this kind of non-linear thinking: the interpreter has to unravel it all, noting the relationships between ideas and seizing on the explicit markers which facilitate that task ● present one argument in its entirety then make a amajor caesura and present the other point of view ○ One-sided argument ■ presenting deductions and syllogisms to prove a point ■ reasonably easy to interpret ■ However, to justice to the speaker the interpreter must be very vigilant(cảnh giác) again, paying attention in particular to all the logical links of the speech: as, given that, therefore, consequently, because, thence, etc can all be key words ■ logically constructed: with A leading to B → C, etc so if the interpreter makes an error or misses out one stage in the reasoning, the whole construct comes tumbling down, and the audience, without having understood a word of the original, will know there's a problem with the interpretation ■ Situation: The speaker may clarify by outlining a clear structure, and numbering or lettering ideas and sections → This is a godsent and the interpreter should fully utilize and exploit → Often, the speaker is not fully faithful to their own outline (bảo có lại nói 4) → The interpreter should simply state four reasons or structure the interpretation based on the given reasons without preannouncing the number → The last thing to is embarrass the speaker by pointing out the discrepancy! The point should be raised with the speaker only if the interpreter is truly unsure about what has to be said and needs clarification ○ Narrative/Chronological ■ may be history, the story of a country, or an international organization over the last fifty years or also be the chairperson of a meeting summing up the situation at the outcome of the last meeting, the procedure followed since then ■ If a speaker does not respect chronology in the original, it is up to the interpreter to decide whether this is deliberate or involuntary on the part of the speaker ○ Descriptive ■ A description is ultimately a juxtaposition of a number of items, not necessarily determining one another ■ The only thing an interpreter can with descriptions is concentrate as hard as possible, decide what is the most important information, and remember and note down as much as possible of that ■ Even if the interpreter feels the speaker is sacrificing logic or truth to their cause, it is not for the interpreter to question that: interpreters must have the intellectual flexibility to reproduce something they find highly questionable, and they must so to the best of their ability, trying to be as convincing as possible ■ There are occasions when an interpreter - may tone down comments in order to take the sting out of a meeting: repeating tactless or rude comments may in some cases be in the interest neither of the speaker, nor of the addressee, nor of the proceedings in general (Thay đổi tone giọng so với diễn giả) ■ the interpreter must make no substantive addition to a speech ● Identification of main ideas ○ Important vs secondary; ■ In order to be able to interpret a speaker's ideas you must know first of all what is important in their comments and what is secondary, what is essential and what accessory ● This in a way is self-evident: the speaker's ideas are to be reproduced in the interpretation, and the most important ideas must be included ● the interpreter's role is also to reflect the tenor, the spirit, the underlying significance of a speaker's comments, as well as the literal sense ● Because everything is equally emphasized, it’s hard to understand the speaker’s main point ■ Identifying main ideas is crucial, especially when under pressure due to a difficult or fast-paced speech Random omissions can render the interpretation useless However, if the interpreter has analyzed the speech, includes all key elements, and omits only known details, the interpretation, while not perfect, can still be sufficient for the meeting’s purpose ■ the recall of the speech necessary in consecutive will be easier if the interpreter has a number of key ideas around which to structure their recollections ■ It is useful for all interpreters to be capable of providing a summary of a speech ■ What is main ideas? ● That is a simplification based on a subject-verb-object analysis: 'who did what?' and 'who said what?' This kind is always in terms of the meaning, not of individual words or grammatical categories ● For word-level grammar, the subject of the sentence is a noun One of the key questions to be answered in any speech, as we have just mentioned, is 'who says/thinks what?' ● Elements in a speech that fall outside both the subject-verbobject analysis and an analysis of points of view are at best secondary → However, as always, the interpreter must work from context ● This means that adverbs of time, although not part of a subject-verb-object analysis, tend to be of rather more importance than other adverbs ○ Missing ideas? Main and central idea you need to ask: Excuse me, you’ve mentioned … Thank you! ○ Consecutive vs simultaneous A list which seems illustrative may be given at the outset of a speech, but then the speaker returns to each of those points systematically In those circumstances the interpreter can benefit to the full from working in consecutive and will find it easier to judge to what extent examples have to be taken up in full ○ Summary skill: When the speech is too long, you have the right to summarize or some of the details you can cut down on ■ To sum up, the interpreter must pick up the half-dozen or so ideas that make up the backbone of this speech and lay sufficient emphasis on them in the interpretation ■ Verbal redundancies should be minimized; extraneous comparisons and rhetoric may be kept in the translation but should have the right relative weight in the overall context of the speech ■ The interpreter must not let the form of the speech-qualifying clauses, hesitations, corrections, verbal prevarication - distract them from the substance (nội dung) ● Analysis of links There may be a logical consequence: with words such as consequently or as a result; it may also be expressed more casually and by sometimes ambiguous words such as so There may be a logical cause: words like as, since or due to Ideas may be sequential, following on from one another, but without logical cause or consequence In such cases sentences may be simply juxtaposed or the ideas linked with the word: and → The interpreter should not abuse the word ‘and’ ● Memory ○ Note taking vs memory ■ It is impossible for an interpreter to rely solely on good notes, and that even if it were possible, it would not, in our view, be desirable ■ Memory: the main ideas and the links between those ideas ○ Types of memory They may perhaps number elements to facilitate recall or they may use visualization ○ Rote learning ○ Order ideas: by labeling & visualising them Memory in Speech Analysis: Memory plays a crucial role in the analysis of a speech, especially at the beginning and the end 2 Importance of the Beginning: The start of a speech sets the direction If the interpreter begins incorrectly, they may not understand the speech correctly Significance of the End: The conclusion is often the most important part of a speech as it encapsulates the speaker’s main point If the interpreter misses this, they may miss the speech’s purpose End of Speech Concentration: Interpreters must maintain their focus until the end of the speech Relaxing too soon can lead to missing important information, much like an athlete slowing down before the finish line Concentration should be increased, not decreased, towards the end of a speech Re-expression ● Ask questions? ○ Evaluate if the benefits of asking a question surpass the drawbacks ○ Is the question necessary? Honestly determine if the question is essential for better interpretation or just for personal knowledge ○ Be polite: Politely ask the speaker your question in their language and thank them for their response ○ Be specific, concise: The most crucial point is that your question should be clear, precise, and prompt a clear and precise answer Instead of starting with “I didn’t understand…” or “I missed something…”, start with a confidence-inspiring phrase like “Could you clarify…?” Make sure your question is specific ● Act as a public speaker ○ Eye contact ○ Glance at notes ○ Be a efficient, elegant speaker LECTURE Note taking in consecutive interpreting To note or not to note? ● Understanding – Analysis – Re-expression The main tasks of a consecutive interpreter are understanding, analysis, reexpression These are crucial for effective interpretation Notes are just a tool to support these key tasks, not the main focus They are a means to an end, not the end itself ● risks of note-taking? - Spending too much time on notes, missing main ideas & links By attempting to record everything in a format that closely mirrors the original, their notes may become a form of shorthand, essentially a word-for-word transcription of the speaker’s words These notes can influence the interpreter during their rendition of the speech, resulting in a version that is more of a direct translation of the original, rather than a re-expression of its ideas - Transliteration instead of translation An interpreter who relies too much on their notes may not pay enough attention to truly understanding and analyzing the speech while listening This can lead to a superficial interpretation, serious mistakes, or even contradictions, as the speech becomes a series of sentences to be mechanically reproduced, rather than a coherent whole In a way, they are navigating without a clear direction ● Purposes of notes - Relieve memory + There are certain aspects of a speech that cannot be remembered through analysis and logic alone By taking notes in a way that indicates when and how these aspects fit into the speech, the interpreter can avoid overloading their memory with this information This allows them to continue actively listening to the remainder of the speech + If you are working intensively in consecutive for a session of three hours it is crucial to reduce fatigue by relieving your memory through notes - Jogging the memory + Notes can also be used to enhance the interpreter's ability to reproduce the structure of a speech + Notes should therefore reflect the form of a speech, also be in the interpreter's mind; it should be the product of their analytical work + “Firstly, note-taking enforces analytical discipline on the interpreter Secondly, the written structure aids in memory recall, simplifying verbalization of the intended structure.” Practical points for Note-taking Use a stenographer’s note-pad (about 15cm by 20cm) for convenience and ease of handling Avoid loose sheets of paper to prevent disorder Write only on the front side of successive pages for ease and order Use a reliable writing tool that flows quickly across the page, like a lead pencil Notes should be easily legible, meaning they should be written in large characters Notes should be spread out over the page for clear differentiation of elements Don’t worry about using a lot of paper, even if it’s just one sentence per page Notes must be unequivocal For instance, don’t use the same abbreviation for different words If using symbols or abbreviations, don’t invent them on the fly They should be obvious and unproblematic 10 The meaning the interpreter wishes to express should be immediately clear from the notes 11 Appropriate body language and eye contact are important for communication, so the interpreter shouldn’t have to spend time deciphering their notes What to note ● Analysis of the speech - Main ideas - Links/Separation of ideas - Viewpoints - “what happened when” First: The main ideas should be noted first They provide a skeleton outline of the speech and help the interpreter move swiftly from one idea to the next Second: Links and separations between ideas should be noted They are crucial for rendering the speech correctly and may be more important to note than the main ideas themselves Third: The point of view being expressed should be noted It’s important to reflect this in the interpretation and it may not always be easy to so without notes Fourth: The tense of verbs should be noted correctly, including the conditional mode and modal verbs These have a decisive influence on the function of other verbs and the meaning of a sentence ● Details - Numbers/Dates: Interpreters should anticipate numbers, especially after phrases like “For example” They should stop noting the previous sentence to accurately note the figures - Proper names: + These could be people’s names, geographical names, or names of companies or organizations If unfamiliar with a name or its spelling, interpreters should note it phonetically + If a speaker mispronounces a name, the interpreter can either reproduce it as heard or correct it if they recognize the mistake - Lists: Interpreters should note lists as completely as possible, even if it means stopping noting everything else If items are missed, they should note that something is missing and how many items are missing How to note - Diagonal layout + The use of a diagonal layout to clearly separate and allocate positions for the subject, verb, and object This method helps avoid confusion, marks the beginning of new ideas, and encourages concise note-taking - - - - + The diagonal layout also facilitates easy reading by combining the natural movements of the eyes from left to right and from top to bottom However, interpreters of languages read from right to left or bottom to top may need to adapt their note-taking systems accordingly + The drawbacks of horizontal note-taking: excessive writing, unclear ideas, and an unanalyzed interpretation with inferior style Margin/Line spacing + Links and Separations: The connections and separations between ideas should be noted, ideally these should be placed on the left side of the page + Left-hand Margin: A one to two centimeter left-hand margin is recommended for noting these links, which can be either physically drawn or conceptually maintained + Points of View: The left column also serves to represent different viewpoints, with the speaker’s exact words being unnecessary as the context aids in their recall + Separation of Ideas: A line is suggested to be drawn after each idea or at least after each complete sentence for clear separation, with distinct separations also made between different paragraphs or sections Verticality of lists The elements in the list have the same value and should therefore be attributed the same position in notes If something’s missing + Marking the spot in the notes where something was missed with a large cross, allowing the interpreter to quickly locate the point later + The interpreter can place a spare pencil or pen between the pages of the notepad at the relevant page to swiftly return to the passage in question for prompt and direct clarification Abbreviations & Symbols + Abbreviations and symbols enhance the efficiency of note-taking by saving time and promoting idea-based interpretation over word-forword translation + The minimum and maximum use of abbreviations and symbols is largely up to each interpreter, who will find his or her own balance + Abbreviations and symbols serve as translation aids and are not the end goal + Abbreviations and symbols must always be clear and meaningful to the interpreter, not necessarily understood by others + A rigid system can prevent the interpreter from listening attentively and analyzing the original because he or she is focused on the purely technical question of how to translate the speaker's words into symbols - Links + The importance of noting links and points of view systematically in interpretation It suggests using short English words or mathematical signs to denote links like ‘because’, ‘however’, ‘therefore’, etc It also recommends using symbols to indicate ‘saying’ and ‘thinking’ + The goal is to make the links and points of view clear and easy to note quickly This method can enhance the efficiency and accuracy of interpretation - Tenses The symbol chosen for this and its place in relation to the verb can be chosen freely by each interpreter, provided it is clear - Numbering The importance of numbering in interpretation Numbering can simplify the interpreter’s task Even if the speaker doesn’t, interpreters can create their own numbering system in notes, given the structure is clear enough This can include main points, sub-points, and even sub-sub-points It’s crucial to have a clear numbering system, using different symbols for different levels, like Arabic numerals for main points and letters or Roman numerals for sub-points This prevents confusion in notes and interpretation The language in which to note ● Source language - Not held up by translation => full set of notes - Culture-specific concepts - BUT: note words, not ideas (intellectual laziness) Noting in the source language can be efficient, especially when dealing with culturespecific concepts that require lengthy explanations in the target language However, this method may lead to passive listening and a lack of idea assimilation ● Target language - Go through interpreting mental process before re-expression - Avoid “blank moments” in re-expression Noting in the target language encourages active mental processing of information, which is crucial in interpretation This method is slightly preferred, but it may be challenging when dealing with culture-specific notions ● Third language Interpreters can use a third language for convenience or familiarity The main point is that interpreters should use any language that aids their efficiency and effectiveness, while maintaining clarity to prevent confusion In conclusion, the language choice for notes is not as critical as the process of effectively capturing and understanding the ideas being conveyed When to note - Immediate - Waiting for sense-making first => As soon as possible The main points answering the question “When to note?” are: Start Early: For consecutive interpreters, the priority is to start taking notes as quickly as possible They should start taking notes earlier than a simultaneous interpreter would start speaking Understand the Idea: It’s important for interpreters to understand the complete idea before noting it down They should be working with ideas, not words in isolation Notes are Aids: Notes are only an aid to the interpreter, relieving their memory and helping them find the structure of a speech more easily They not have to be noted in a correct grammatical and syntactical way Manage Speed: The consecutive interpreter is more limited in their note-taking by the speed they can write than is the simultaneous interpreter by the speed of their delivery in the booth Handle Grammar: The interpreter has the freedom to note words and expressions in an order in which they would not say them For example, in sentences with passive forms, they can still begin noting very quickly once they understand how the subject fits in Read back notes ● Glance at notes - Details - What comes next - Not sight reading ● Clear - Clear notes: content & layout - Clear ideas in interpreter’s mind Interpreters should balance between reading notes and engaging with the audience Notes should serve as reminders and should be clear in content and layout A technique similar to a pianist reading music is suggested: read the first part, start speaking, and glance at the next part while speaking This continuous process ensures smooth and efficient interpretation The goal is to achieve a smooth, uninterrupted delivery, like a practiced pianist playing a piece of music LECTURE Simultaneous Interpreting CONSECUTIVE VS SUMILTANEOUS Similarities - Share common elements such as listening, understanding, analyzing, and reexpressing Interpreters serve as a communication conduit in both methods ● Avoid “blind booths” The design of conference rooms is important to ensure proper visibility for interpreters ‘Blind booths’ or booths with inadequate vision can lead to poor interpretation ● Video conferences The feasibility and desirability of video-conferences where interpreters are not in the same place as the delegates are still uncertain There’s a risk of interpreters feeling alienated and unable to provide high-quality interpretation Differences - Acoustic difficulty The acoustic difficulty arises from the fact that in simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter has to speak and listen at the same time, which is an unnatural activity and needs to be cultivated - Intellectual difficulty The intellectual difficulty is that in simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter doesn’t know where the speaker is going, even as they speak This is true at both the macro level (the overall direction of the speech) and the micro level (the continuation of an individual sentence) ACOUSTIC DIFFICULTIES OF SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING ● Use of equipment ○ Headphones: Interpreters need to hear both the speaker and themselves ■ Both ear-pieces half on and half off, slightly to the front ■ One ear fully on – one ear totally uncovered Research suggests that there may be an advantage in covering the left ear with the earphone for right-handed interpreters However, interpreters are encouraged to try out different positions to see which one suits them best ○ Headphone volume: The volume should be kept as low as possible to avoid a vicious circle of increasing volume and voice strain ○ Microphone ■ (at a) Normal conversation voice ● regular: as regular as possible (comfort of the delegates) & constant: sit directly in front of the microphone at a constant distance (about thirty centimeters) ■ Distance from microphone? ○ Without equipment (chuchotage) ■ Sufficiently soft ● Ensure optimal working conditions, which includes being able to hear the speaker clearly and speaking softly enough not to disturb others ■ Protocol? ● The interpreter may need to disregard protocol and change places with a delegate to ensure they can hear the speaker properly ● Cultivating Split Attention ○ The need to constantly monitor oneself Unlike in normal speech, interpreters can’t afford to speak automatically They must constantly monitor their own output for errors in grammar, pronunciation, or word choice This self-monitoring is crucial to ensure the accuracy of the interpretation ○ Total focus: The interpreter must maintain a high level of concentration on both the speaker’s discourse and their own Any lapse in concentration can lead to errors This total focus is akin to a tightrope walker maintaining balance - there’s no room for distraction ■ no stray of thought The interpreter’s mind must stay on the task at hand Straying thoughts, such as focusing on the speaker’s accent or other idiosyncrasies, can lead to mistakes The interpreter must keep their attention solely on the discourses ■ a word When encountering an unknown word or a word with multiple translation options, the interpreter must not get ‘hung up’ on it Instead, they should focus on conveying the overall sense of the sentence This requires quick decision-making and adaptability ■ miss/under-interpret something If the interpreter misses or poorly interprets a passage, they shouldn’t dwell on it Like a chess player who missed an opportunity, dwelling on past mistakes can lead to future ones The focus should always be on the current task ○ Like playing piano Simultaneous interpretation is compared to playing the piano Both require coordination (of hands in piano, of listening and speaking in interpretation), split attention (on different keys or different discourses), and practice to master ● Listening to Oneself Control output: Content and Form (They must ensure that their interpretation accurately reflects the original message’s content and is presented in a coherent and grammatically correct form.) ○ Short, simple sentences: good for both interpreter and delegates Regardless of the complexity of the speaker’s sentences, the interpreter should aim to use short, simple sentences This approach reduces the risk of losing track of the sentence’s meaning and makes it easier for the interpreter to monitor their own output It also aids the listener’s comprehension as the information is broken down into manageable, easily digestible units ○ Make sense: grammar, logic Each sentence in the interpretation should be grammatically correct and logically sound This means that the interpreter should avoid nonsensical or meaningless phrases By ensuring that each sentence makes sense, the interpreter can more easily maintain the overall coherence and logic of their interpretation ○ Finished sentences An unfinished sentence means that the interpreter has stopped making sense, which can cause confusion and loss of trust from the listener ● “Golden Rules” of Simultaneous Interpreting The simultaneous interpreter must: ⚫ remember they are communicating: ⚫ make the best possible use of the technical facilities; ⚫ ensure they can hear both the speaker and themself clearly; ⚫ never attempt to interpret something they have not heard or acoustically understood; ⚫ maximize concentration; not be distracted by focussing attention on individual problematic words; cultivate split attention, with active, analytical listening to the speaker and critical monitoring of their own output; use, where possible, short, simple sentences; ⚫ be grammatical; ⚫ make sense in every single sentence: always finish their sentences "When to Start Speaking?" Interpreters should begin speaking almost immediately to reassure listeners, even if it’s just a polite acknowledgement like “Thank you, chairman” The actual commencement of interpretation depends on various factors such as the speaker’s speed, grammar, syntax, and the source and target languages Interpreters are advised against waiting for the speaker to finish a sentence before starting to interpret, as this could result in missing out on every alternate sentence The interpreter begins speaking once a unit of meaning is formed A unit of meaning can be as short as a single word or as long as a sentence, but it is typically a sequence of words lasting a few seconds a Unit of Meaning Approach: One approach is to begin speaking when you have understood a unit of meaning, and remain one unit behind the speaker, proceeding from unit to unit b Advantages of the Approach: This approach allows you to always have something meaningful to say and gives you more control over the situation c Limitations of the Approach: However, there are circumstances when working with units of meaning is insufficient Working from units of meaning may force the interpreter to make long, artificial pauses in the middle of sentences, rather than deliberately making the pauses between sentences The length of a unit of meaning is variable and not systematically related to grammatical categories The unit of meaning is the smallest usable unit for the interpreter Advantages of Seeing the End of a Sentence: If the end of a sentence is ‘in sight’ as soon as it begins, this will help the interpreter to think and speak in short, simple sentences Starting Point: The interpreter can start speaking once they have enough material from the speaker to finish their own (interpreted) sentence Flexibility: The interpreter may begin a sentence with one idea in mind as to how to finish it and then choose to change tack, but as long as they are coherent and faithful to the speaker that is not a problem in itself Provided the interpreter does not launch into a sentence without having at least one way of finishing it, they should never commit the cardinal sin of leaving a sentence unfinished Safe Start: A clear case where the interpreter is sure to be able to finish their sentence is when the speaker provides a subject, a verb and a direct object Once the speaker has said its position, the interpreter may start Even if the speaker were to break off into a digression after that, the interpreter is safe Reformulation The paradox that in order to be faithful to the speaker, the interpreter must betray them: This means that to truly convey the speaker’s intended meaning, the interpreter may need to deviate from the speaker’s exact words This is because different languages have different structures, idioms, and cultural nuances A direct translation might not capture the speaker’s intended meaning as effectively as a more nuanced interpretation The fundamental difficulty that can be dealt with through reformulation is the case where the source language has a word or concept that does not exist in the target language: This is a common challenge in interpretation For example, a word or concept in one language might not have a direct equivalent in another language In such cases, the interpreter needs to find a way to convey the same idea using different words or phrases in the target language This requires a deep understanding of both languages and cultures, as well as the ability to think quickly and creatively The interpreter should aim to provide a translation that sounds as natural and authentic as possible in the target language The interpreter should aim to provide a translation that sounds as natural and authentic as possible in the target language This is particularly important in simultaneous interpreting, where the audience is subjected to the interpretation for extended periods of time The interpreter should have a good understanding of the structures used in their target language and be able to use them naturally, irrespective of the source language input For example, some languages may prefer more noun-based structures, others more verb-based By respecting the structures of the target language, the interpreter can provide a translation that is convincing and easy to listen to, increasing the audience’s comfort of listening and maximizing communication Reformulation can also make life easier for the interpreter by avoiding complicated grammar and syntax For example, the interpreter can reword sentences to simplify verbal forms or avoid complicated interrelationships The interpreter should not feel compelled to replicate the speaker’s exact wording if it results in a translation that is difficult to understand Instead, they should aim to convey the speaker’s intended meaning in a way that is clear and understandable to the audience Đang dịch đồng thời mà không biết từ nào đó? In the middle of simultaneous, you not have the whole speech to provide context, you cannot interrupt a speaker or wait until the end to put a question Seek Assistance: The interpreter can ask their colleague in the booth for help The colleague might know the word or be able to look it up in a glossary Use Technology: Interpreters can use modern technology to access terminology databases in the booth Honesty: If all these resources fail to provide a translation, and the word is deemed too important to omit, the interpreter should honestly inform the audience about the untranslated word or expression This allows the audience to decide its importance Professional Ethics: It’s a matter of professional ethics to be honest in such situations, contributing to mutual understanding Efficiency in Reformulation Time Pressure: Simultaneous interpreters are under constant time pressure, needing to interpret at the same speed as the speaker Efficiency of Expression: Interpreters must express themselves as succinctly as possible, often choosing forms of expression with fewer syllables Use of References: Interpreters can save time by making use of a speaker’s reference to previous comments in the meeting Handling Repetitions: The interpreter’s decision on how to handle repetitions or references to previous comments depends on the context and their judgment of what would best serve the audience’s understanding Salami Technique The ‘Salami Technique’ is a method used by simultaneous interpreters to simplify complex sentences into shorter, self-contained ones for easier interpretation This technique involves dividing a long sentence into several shorter ones, much like slicing a salami The ‘Salami Technique’ helps overcome the acoustic and intellectual challenges faced by interpreters, especially when they have less understanding of the context The ‘Salami Technique’ is essential for interpreters to effectively convey the speaker’s message in a clear and understandable manner The technique allows interpreters to delay mentioning certain elements of the sentence until they are relevant, which may require jotting down notes for reference Writing materials should always be available for interpreters in the booth for this purpose The ‘Salami Technique’ is especially useful for languages that naturally use long, complex sentences with multiple subordinate clauses Interpreters must balance the need to wait for complete information with the need to start interpreting before the sentence becomes too complex The technique requires courage and a good understanding of the language’s grammar to effectively interpret the sentence 10 The ‘Salami Technique’ allows interpreters to start interpreting a sentence even if they initially leave out some elements, and then build these elements back into the interpretation in a grammatically simple form What if I Make a Clear Mistake? Minor Mistakes: If the interpreter makes a mistake that has little or no bearing on the meeting and nobody has noticed, it’s not necessary to correct it The interpreter should pass it over in silence Mistakes Rectified by Audience: If the interpreter makes a significant mistake but the audience has mentally rectified it, it’s not necessary to make a correction However, if a quick correction can be made, it’s a good idea as it will restore the audience’s confidence Major Mistakes: If the interpreter makes a clear material mistake that is important and the audience does not realize it, the interpreter must correct the point as quickly and as clearly as possible Avoid Unnecessary Corrections: The interpreter should not backtrack to correct themselves if they have essentially translated correctly but feel they could express themselves better Such corrections are not only unnecessary but also inefficient What if the Speaker Makes a Mistake? Slip of the Tongue: If the speaker makes a slip of the tongue, the interpreter should correct it in their interpretation without repeating the speaker’s mistake Uncertain Correction: If the speaker says something incorrect and the interpreter thinks they know the correct version but isn’t completely sure, the interpreter should interpret the speaker’s sentence faithfully and then suggest the possible correction quickly Unclear Mistake: If the speaker says something clearly wrong but the interpreter has no idea what the correct text would be, the interpreter should interpret the speaker’s words faithfully and then add “…says the speaker” This serves as a warning signal for the audience Misconception: If the speaker’s mistake is based on a misconception that needs to be highlighted to restore clarity to the meeting, the interpreter should add “… says the speaker” to the speaker’s words Language Barrier: If a delegate is unable to speak their mother tongue and does not fully master the language they use in the meeting, the interpreter should express to the best of their ability the ideas they understand the speaker wishes to express If the speaker’s message is really unclear, the interpreter may make an overall remark that they are not totally sure of the speaker’s meaning Minimize Corrections: Corrections or expressions of doubt as to whether a speaker has made a mistake should be kept to the strict minimum Frequent corrections or doubts can irritate the delegates What should interpreters when the speaker talks too fast? Maintain Distance: Interpreters should not enter into a race with the speaker Instead, they should take some distance, analyze fully, and use every technique: simplification, generalization, to convey as much as possible of the speaker’s meaning in as few syllables as possible Speak through the microphone to request that their delegates ask the speakers in question to go a little slower Audiences will know that the interpreter is working in circumstances that not allow an optimal level of interpreting The interpreter should concentrate hard on listening to the speaker, using the written text to follow approximately where the speaker is and to pick out specific problematic elements Warn the audience that the interpreter does not have the written version of the text being presented It may make a delegate interrupt the speaker and persuade the organizers to give the interpreters a copy Even if they not, at least the audience is forewarned that the interpreter is working in circumstances that not allow an optimal level of interpreting Then, if the interpreter can cope, all the better But if not, let’s tell their audience that it is impossible and to stop interpreting PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR Introduce yourself Complete impartiality Unbiased Not rushed Direct the pace of the conversation Jot down notes if necessary Integrity Dignity LINGUISTIC PERFORMANCE Accurate Faithful No omissions No alternations No additions Interpret short passages Understand full meaning Repetition and clarification as necessary Concentration