First published: 30 January 2013 Print ISBN: 9781405194730 | Online ISBN: 9781405198431 | DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431 About this reference work With over 1,100 entries written by an international team of scholars from over 40 countries The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics is a ground breaking reference work covering the highly diverse !eld of applied linguistics New updates available here! • Covers 27 key areas of the "eld, including Language Learning and Teaching, Bilingual and Multilingual Education, Assessment and Testing, Corpus Linguistics, Conversation Analysis, Discourse, Cognitive Second Language Acquisition, Language Policy and Planning, Literacy, and Technology and Language • Features over 200 entries on the philosophy and history of applied linguistics and biographies of key applied linguists • Entries range from 1,500 to 4,000 words, with longer, essay style contributions giving a detailed overview of key developments and ideas • Ideal for students, teachers, researchers, and practitioners in the interdisciplinary "eld of applied linguistics Show less ! ! Topics Analysis of Discourse and Interaction (22) Assessment and Testing (60) Bilingual and Multilingual Education (53) Bilingualism and Multilingualism (57) this "License reference work More from this reference work Introduction to The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics More from Carol A Chapelle Order your copy today Biographies (170) Cognitive Second Language Acquisition (56) Conversation Analysis (35) Corpus Linguistics (37) Critical Discourse Analysis (13) Culture and Context (42) Discourse (31) Forensic Linguistics (31) Grammar (55) Language for Speci"c Purposes (45) Language Ideology (26) Language Learning and Teaching (103) Language Policy and Planning (41) Lexis (60) Literacy (32) Multimodal Communication (34) Phonetics and Phonology (46) Pragmatics (42) Qualitative Methods (30) Quantitative and Mixed Methods (49) Social, Dynamic, and Complexity Theory Approaches to Second Language Development (48) Technology and Language (57) Translation and Interpreting (43) World Englishes (30) Articles Most Recent Most Cited Child Pragmatic Development THEENCYCLOPEDIAOF APPLIEDLINGUISTICS First published: 30 January 2013 Print ISBN: 9781405194730 | Online ISBN: 9781405198431 | DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431 Table of contents this !License reference work 1-20 of 1261 articles Abercrombie, David More from this reference work Adam Brown Abstract Full text Request permissions PDF References Academies of the Arabic Language and the Standardization of Arabic Dinha T Gorgis Abstract Full text Request permissions PDF References THECONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA Ron I Thomson PDF References Acculturation in World Englishes Kamal K Sridhar Abstract Full text Request permissions More from Carol A Chapelle Order your copy today EDITED&YCAROLA,CHAPSULE Accent Reduction Abstract Full text Request permissions Introduction to The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics PDF Acquisition Planning References OFAPPLIED LINGUISTICS Open Science and Transparency in Applied Linguistics Research Emma Marsden Abstract Full text Request permissions PDF References Researching Vocabulary: Mixed Methods Research Thi Ngoc Yen Dang, Duy Van Vu, Thi My Hang Nguyen Abstract Full text Request permissions PDF References Corpus Linguistics: Mixed-Methods Research Peter Crosthwaite Abstract Full text Request permissions PDF References Translation and Interpreting: Mixed-Methods Research Chao Han Abstract Full text Request permissions PDF References L2 Pragmatics Research and the Problem of L1 Norms Naoko Taguchi, Marcella Caprario Abstract Full text Request permissions PDF References PDF References Humor and Irony Nancy D Bell Abstract Full text Request permissions Researching Vocabulary: Mixed Methods Research THI NGOC YEN DANG, DUY VAN VU, AND THI MY HANG NGUYEN Introduction According to Creswell and Plano Clark (2018), mixed methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches to investigate a phenomenon from different angles to provide researchers with an insightful understanding of the phenomenon Mixed methods research can be classified into convergent, explanatory sequential, and exploratory sequential designs In the convergent design, researchers collect quantitative and qualitative data parallelly (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018) After that, they compare, combine, or compare and combine the results of these datasets to triangulate the findings from each set to achieve a fuller understanding of the phenomenon In the explanatory sequential design, researchers collect and analyze quantitative data first Then, they collect qualitative data to explain or expand the findings of the quantitative data analysis In contrast, in the exploratory sequential design, researchers start with collecting and analyzing qualitative data to explore the features of a phenomenon Next, they collect quantitative data to see the degree to which these features can be generalized to a population While most vocabulary research is quantitative, a small number of studies have employed the mixed methods research This entry discusses how this approach has been used in three major lines of vocabulary studies, namely, description, pedagogy, and assessment Mixed Methods Research in Vocabulary Description Vocabulary description studies examine the lexical demands of written and spoken texts, explore the nature of different kinds of vocabulary, and develop vocabulary lists for pedagogy and assessment Most of these studies are quantitative in nature That is, researchers start with creating corpora (i.e., principled collections of texts in electronic formats that represent the language used in a certain kind of discourse) Then, they use specialized programs (e.g., RANGE and AntConc) to run these corpora against prebuilt base lists to automatically count the occurrences of words or sequences of words in the corpora However, there are a small number of vocabulary description studies adopting the mixed methods research approach Most of these studies have the explanatory sequential design In lexical demand studies, researchers use specialized programs to conduct initial quantitative analysis of vocabulary in corpora These programs automatically classify the vocabulary into groups based on their frequency Words that are not recognized by these programs because they are misspelled or not listed in the base lists are classified as “off list” words The initial quantitative analysis is then followed by qualitative analysis of “off list” words This process involves qualitatively checking concordance lines of these lexical items in context Based on this qualitative analysis, researchers then update the base lists, correct misspelled words in the corpora, and adjust the results of the corpus analysis accordingly Without this qualitative analysis, the results of the quantitative corpus analysis could be misleading Apart from the qualitative corpus checking, lexical demand research also collects The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics Edited by Carol A Chapelle © 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015 RESEARCHING VOCABULARY: MIXED METHODS RESEARCH interview data to provide further insights into the findings of corpus analyses For instance, to investigate the lexical demand of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) learning materials, Lu and Dang (2022) analyzed the vocabulary in a corpus of learning materials in an EAP course and tested the vocabulary knowledge of students in this course Their analysis of these quantitative data indicated that the learning materials were too lexically demanding for the students After that, Lu and Dang conducted follow-up interviews with teachers in the examined course for their comments on this finding Results of these qualitative data enabled them to identify possible reasons why the learning materials were difficult for the students Similar to lexical demand research, research on the nature of different kinds of vocabulary and vocabulary list construction also starts with quantitative analysis That is, it begins with developing corpora, using specialized programs to analyze occurrences of vocabulary in corpora, and applying statistical measures (e.g., frequency, range, and keyness) to identify core lexical items in the corpora However, relying solely on this quantitative analysis would result in long lists of core items, and some items in the lists may not be relevant to list users Therefore, researchers also perform qualitative analysis (e.g., checking dictionaries and concordance lines of words in context and consulting experts) to filter items in these lists An example is Dang’s (2020) development of the Medical Spoken Word List After creating an initial list from a medical spoken corpus, Dang checked the occurrences of items from this list in two well-known medical English dictionaries and removed the items that occurred in none of the dictionaries The remaining items were then rated by two experts in medicine with the assistance of a semantic scale and concordance lines of the words in the corpus Items rated by the experts as having no relationship with medicine were then removed from the list Compared to the explanatory sequential design, the other designs have received less attention in vocabulary description studies One example of studies adopting the convergent research design is Coxhead et al.’s (2017) research on vocabulary in university small group discussions First, Coxhead et al interviewed international university students and found that although these students had difficulty in processing content in small group discussions, vocabulary was unlikely to be the major reason for this difficulty To triangulate this finding, Coxhead et al also quantitatively analyzed vocabulary in a corpus of small group discussions Their analysis showed that the lexical demand of small group discussions was just the same as that of general conversation, which supported the interview finding In vocabulary description studies, the exploratory sequential design mainly focuses on developing instruments and materials (e.g., vocabulary lists and tests) Therefore, it is more likely to be combined with other designs rather than being used on its own For example, Coxhead and Demecheleer (2018) combined the exploratory and explanatory sequential designs (QUAL → QUAN → QUAL) to examine technical vocabulary in plumbing They interviewed plumbing tutors and found that understanding technical vocabulary in their course reading materials and teacher talk was the main challenge for their students To help these students overcome this challenge, they then developed a list of technical vocabulary in plumbing Similar to Dang (2020), they conducted a quantitative analysis of the corpora of course reading and teacher talk and applied statistical measures to create an initial list of technical vocabulary After that, they performed several qualitative analyses (technical dictionary checking, concordance checking, and expert rating) to amend the initial list Taken together, the mixed methods approach enabled researchers to achieve better understanding of the lexical demand of texts and the nature of different kinds of vocabulary as well as developing vocabulary lists that better meet the needs of end users Mixed Methods Research in Vocabulary Pedagogy Vocabulary pedagogy research investigates the effectiveness of different kinds of activities, learning strategies, and tools on vocabulary learning Quantitative approaches, including both 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015 by Vijay Amirtha Raj David - Elsevier Bv , Wiley Online Library on [12/07/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License nonexperimental (e.g., questionnaires) and experimental (e.g., pretest–posttest) research designs, are predominant in research on vocabulary pedagogy Nonetheless, different types of mixed methods designs can add value to vocabulary pedagogy research The explanatory sequential design is currently the most common in mixed methods research on vocabulary pedagogy This design allows vocabulary researchers to explain or expand quantitative results of an experiment or a questionnaire For example, Ranalli (2008) examined the effect of structured play of a computer simulation game combined with supplementary materials on second language (L2) vocabulary learning Quantitative data were collected first, including a vocabulary pretest and posttest together with weekly quizzes After that, qualitative data were obtained from a postproject survey with closed- and open-ended questions to probe into learners’ perceptions of the game and its potential for language learning While the quantitative data showed that combining supplementary materials with structured play of the computer simulation game significantly contributed to L2 vocabulary acquisition, the qualitative data further revealed that some learners either found that the game provided insufficient examples of target vocabulary in context or did not have enough time to attend to unknown vocabulary in the game As can be seen from this study, quantitative data merely demonstrate the magnitude of the effect of a pedagogical intervention, whereas qualitative data can uncover other aspects and therefore provide us with a fuller picture of the whole intervention The convergent mixed methods design with triangulation purpose has also been adopted in vocabulary pedagogy research, but to a lesser extent compared with the explanatory sequential design To illustrate, Godfroid and Schmidtke (2013) examined the relationship between attention and awareness as well as their contributions to vocabulary learning First, they collected quantitative data including learners’ eye fixation durations acquired from eye tracking during reading (as a measure of attention) and a vocabulary surprise posttest Afterward, they gathered qualitative data from verbal reports in a posttask interview with learners to gauge their conscious recollection of encounters with target words (as a measure of awareness) The triangulation of eye fixation times and verbal reports with vocabulary posttest scores showed a close relationship between attention and awareness, both of which had a significant effect on vocabulary learning Triangulating different sources of quantitative and qualitative data in this mixed methods study helped to shed greater light on L2 learners’ cognitive processes than if only one of the two approaches, quantitative or qualitative, had been adopted independently Similar to vocabulary description studies, the exploratory sequential design is not as popular as the other designs in mixed methods research on vocabulary pedagogy This may be because the primary objective of vocabulary pedagogy research is usually to investigate the effectiveness of vocabulary learning activities, strategies, and tools as well as factors that predict learning, which could be applied in a wide range of contexts Therefore, quantitative data often play a primary role in contemporary vocabulary pedagogy research, while qualitative data tend to be used to add to the depth of an investigation with illuminating details That is not to say that the exploratory sequential mixed methods design is not useful for vocabulary pedagogy research It can be used with a development purpose For instance, a researcher might collect interview data on learners’ opinions or perceptions of a new vocabulary learning activity, strategy, or tool that has not yet been explored and then identify themes emerging from those qualitative data Afterward, the researcher can construct a quantitative survey on a larger number of participants to collect data and analyze them quantitatively to see if the emerging themes identified from the qualitative data can be generalized Mixed Methods Research in Vocabulary Assessment Vocabulary assessment studies focus on developing and validating new vocabulary tests, measuring learners’ vocabulary knowledge, and investigating issues related to test designs to provide 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015 by Vijay Amirtha Raj David - Elsevier Bv , Wiley Online Library on [12/07/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License RESEARCHING VOCABULARY: MIXED METHODS RESEARCH RESEARCHING VOCABULARY: MIXED METHODS RESEARCH implications for test developers Most vocabulary assessment studies follow purely quantitative methods by collecting and analyzing test scores to reach a conclusion about test quality or learners’ vocabulary knowledge However, there are still a few vocabulary assessment studies, though not explicitly framed as using a mixed methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative methods Most mixed methods studies on vocabulary assessment follow the explanatory sequential design After collecting and analyzing test scores, researchers conduct interviews with test-takers to further explain or expand findings from the quantitative analysis For example, to validate the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), Schmitt et al (2001) delivered the test to a large number of participants and applied different kinds of quantitative analyses based on the test scores (e.g., item analysis, reliability, and factor analysis) The findings indicated that the VLT provides a reasonable estimate of learners’ vocabulary knowledge The quantitative analysis, however, could not provide a thorough interpretation of whether test-takers’ correct answers were due to their actual word knowledge or guessing, and whether test-takers had partial knowledge of a word even if their answers were blank To address these issues, Schmitt et al also conducted retrospective interviews with a number of participants The interviewees were asked to give their opinions about the test, describe their test-taking process, go through the test items again, and explain the word meanings to confirm their knowledge of the target vocabulary Data from the interviews supported the findings of the quantitative analysis, indicating that the test scores reflect test-takers’ lexical knowledge Combining quantitative and qualitative evidence provides more robust support for claims made about vocabulary tests (i.e., validity argument) The convergent research design has occasionally been used in vocabulary assessment studies Researchers can collect and analyze quantitative data (i.e., test scores) and qualitative data (e.g., verbal report) separately and then combine the findings to reach a conclusion about test design or validity of test results For instance, Gyllstad et al (2015) looked into the issue of guessing in multiple-choice test format to measure vocabulary size They asked their participants to complete a 30-item multiple-choice paper test first and then join in follow-up interviews In the interviews, these participants were provided with a list of 100 words including those in the multiple-choice test and were asked to explain the meanings of those words The findings showed that there was a mismatch between the scores on the multiple-choice test and those on the interview measures, and that test-taking strategies were more commonly used than blind guessing Gyllstad et al.’s (2015) study illustrates how quantitative and qualitative evidence can complement each other to contribute to a better understanding of the characteristics of multiple-choice vocabulary size tests The exploratory sequential research design is not common in vocabulary assessment This is because the primary instruments for data collection (vocabulary tests) and analysis (test scores) are quantitative in nature The statistical analysis of test scores enables researchers to evaluate test quality, generalize findings to different occasions or contexts, extrapolate test scores to tasks that learners can in real-life settings, and utilize test scores to make decisions (e.g., course placement) Yet, it would be useful to start testing research with qualitative elements, such as conducting a need analysis through interviews with stakeholders about the kinds of tests needed Following the test development, the stakeholders can be interviewed again to determine whether their expectations have been met In this way, the exploratory design with a development purpose could be used in conjunction with the explanatory design Altogether, the mixed methods approach to vocabulary assessment helps to provide better insight into conclusions about vocabulary tests or test results There are many factors that can affect test scores (e.g., individual differences in test-taking strategies and the quality of the test itself) Although quantitative analysis remains the primary method in vocabulary assessment research, using only quantitative methods cannot thoroughly resolve issues concerning test-takers’ cognitive processes or their opinions about the tests 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015 by Vijay Amirtha Raj David - Elsevier Bv , Wiley Online Library on [12/07/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Challenges The review has shown that most vocabulary studies are quantitative Very few have employed the mixed methods research approach This is because collecting both quantitative and qualitative data apparently requires more time, efforts, and resources than collecting only either qualitative or quantitative data Moreover, analyzing data in mixed methods research undoubtedly requires expertise or mastery in both quantitative and qualitative approaches, which can be a daunting task for vocabulary researchers who are only familiar with either of the approaches However, compared to the purely quantitative research, the mixed methods research offers researchers a more comprehensive understanding of vocabulary description, pedagogy, and assessment and therefore should be further promoted in vocabulary research Future research adopting the mixed methods research approach should consider the following issues First, several vocabulary studies (Vu & Peters, 2022) combine both quantitative and qualitative data in one single study without being explicitly labeled as mixed methods studies Only analyzing quantitative and qualitative data is not sufficient to label a study as mixed methods, because mixed methods research requires integrating the analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data to provide additional insight into a topic under investigation (Riazi, 2016, 2017; Riazi & Candlin, 2014) Such integration is sometimes lacking even in many vocabulary studies that are labeled as mixed methods Second, very few previous mixed methods vocabulary studies provided justifications for their use of this approach As with any empirical research, it is crucial for vocabulary studies to explain the reason for choosing a particular method of investigation, whether quantitative, qualitative, or mixed Conclusion Vocabulary and lexical development are complex, nonlinear, and multidimensional, which can hardly be captured by a single research approach Mixed methods research allows us to achieve a fuller understanding of the nature of vocabulary in a language as well as vocabulary learning processes and outcomes Given the limited number of mixed methods vocabulary studies, more research following this approach is needed SEE ALSO: Mixed Methods; Teaching Vocabulary; Vocabulary Acquisition in Second Language Acquisition; Approaches to Second Language Vocabulary Teaching References Coxhead, A., Dang, T N Y., & Mukai, S (2017) Single and multi-word unit vocabulary in university tutorials and laboratories: Evidence from corpora and textbooks Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 30, 66–78 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2017.11.001 Coxhead, A., & Demecheleer, M (2018) Investigating the technical vocabulary of Plumbing English for Specific Purposes, 51, 84–97 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2018.03.006 Creswell, J E., & Plano Clark, V L (2018) Designing and conducting mixed methods research SAGE Publications Dang, T N Y (2020) The potential for learning specialized vocabulary of university lectures and seminars through watching discipline-related TV programs: Insights from medical corpora TESOL Quarterly, 54(2), 436–459 https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.552 Godfroid, A., & Schmidtke, J (2013) What eye movements tell us about awareness? A triangulation of eye-movement data, verbal reports and vocabulary learning scores In J M Bergsleithner, S N Frota, & J K Yoshioka (Eds.), Noticing and second language acquisition: Studies in honor of Richard Schmidt (pp 183–205) University of Hawai’i 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015 by Vijay Amirtha Raj David - Elsevier Bv , Wiley Online Library on [12/07/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License RESEARCHING VOCABULARY: MIXED METHODS RESEARCH RESEARCHING VOCABULARY: MIXED METHODS RESEARCH ˙ L., & Schmitt, N (2015) Assessing vocabulary size through multiple-choice forGyllstad, H., Vilkaite, mats: Issues with guessing and sampling rates ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 166(2), 278–306 https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.166.2.04gyl Lu, C., & Dang, T N Y (2022) Vocabulary in EAP learning materials: What can we learn from teachers, learners, and corpora? System, 106 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102791 Ranalli, J (2008) Learning English with The Sims: exploiting authentic computer simulation games for L2 learning Computer Assisted Language Learning, 21(5), 441–455 https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09588220802447859 Riazi, A M (2016) Innovative mixed-methods research: Moving beyond design technicalities to epistemological and methodological realizations Applied Linguistics, 37(1), 33–49 Riazi, A M., & Candlin, C N (2014) Mixed-methods research in language teaching and learning: Opportunities, issues and challenges Language Teaching, 47(2), 135–173 Riazi, M (2017) Mixed methods research in language teaching and learning Equinox Publishing Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D., & Clapham, C (2001) Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test Language Testing, 18(1), 55–88 https://doi.org/10.1177/ 026553220101800103 Vu, D V., & Peters, E (2022) Learning L2 vocabulary from reading-only, reading-while-listening, and reading with textual input enhancement: Insights from Vietnamese EFL learners RELC Journal, 53(1), 85–100 https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688220911485 Suggested Readings Durrant, P., Siyanova-Chanturia, A., Kremmel, B., & Sonbul, S (2022) Research methods in vocabulary studies John Benjamins Nation, I S P., & Webb, S (2011) Researching and analyzing vocabulary Cengage Learning Riazi, M (2017) Mixed methods research in language teaching and learning Equinox Publishing Webb, S (2020) The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies Routledge 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20015 by Vijay Amirtha Raj David - Elsevier Bv , Wiley Online Library on [12/07/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License