English lexicosemantics for internal use only nguyễn thế hóa vũ tuấn anh lê thị vy võ thành trung đại học mở hà nội

THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HA NOI OPEN UNIVERSITY ***** ENGLISH LEXICOSEMANTICS (Từ Vựng Học- Ngữ Nghĩa Học Tiếng Anh) (For Internal Use Only) Edited by Nguyễn Thế Hóa, MA Vũ Tuấn Anh, MA Lê Thị Vy, MA Võ Thành Trung, MA HANOI – 2020 Preface The textbook is compiled basing on the syllabus and the curriculum of the Faculty of English approved by Hanoi Open University in accordance with the educational regulations of the Ministry of Education and Training This material is designed mainly from a practical perspective, and it comprises chapters which are expected to correspond to credits ( 30 classroom hours ) assigned in the curriculum In each chapter, there are five sections They are objectives, main contents, questions for discussion and exercises All the information on the theory and in practice is presented and arranged logically from the general concepts to the specific features This textbook is just for internal use only The textbook is mainly intended for English language students at the Faculty of English of Hanoi Open University when they become the third year students Completing all the subjects of the second year program is the prerequisite for them It may also be of interest to all other readers, whose command of English is sufficient to enable them to read texts of average difficulty and who are eager to gain some information about the vocabulary resources of English language, about the stylistic peculiarities of English vocabulary, about the complex nature of the word's meanings, about English idioms, proverbs, about the changes that English vocabulary underwent in its historical development and more about some other aspects of English lexicosemantics The aim of the material is to teach students to be word-conscious, to be able to guess the meaning of words when they come across new phrases, to be able to recognise the origin of some lexical units Students can acquire a perfect command of English when they take advantage of these things or at least they can get a partial understanding of the "inner mechanism" which activates the whole language system to work In each chapter students also have a chance to study some new concepts, theories, issues and to exercises in lexical matters More importantly, they will have an access to various approaches of researching lexical aspects The main contents are on word structure, word formation, semasiology, phraseology, etymology and stylistic aspects of the English lexicon In this material the students can find the backgrounds of the word theory and of the major problems associated with English vocabulary, its characteristics, meanings and subdivisions The textbook is edited mostly by lecturer Nguyễn Thế Hóa with the chapters I, II and III The textbook can not be completed without the help from other lecturers Vũ Tuấn Anh editting chapter IV, Lê Thị Vy in charge of chapter V and Võ Thành Trung being responsible for chapter VI Many sincerely grateful thanks go to colleagues at the Faculty of English of Hanoi Open University who read the material in manuscript and made valuable suggestions Hopefully, students will find this textbook helpful and benefit from it TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY AND SEMANTICS 1.1 DEFINITION 1.2 LEXICOLOGY: SUBJECT MATTERS 1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY AND SEMANTICS 1.4 ITS RELATION TO OTHER BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS 1.5 NOTIONS ON MORPHEMES TYPES OF MORPHEMES AND WORDS 1.6 MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 1.7 THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF WORDS 1.8 THE MAIN LEXICOLOGY AND SEMANTIC PROBLEMS 1.9 CHARACTERITIC FEATURES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 1.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISSCUSSIONS 12 1.11 EXERCISES 12 CHAPTER II: WORD STRUCTURE AND FORMATION 18 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 AFFIXATION 19 2.2.1 Prefixation 20 2.2.2 Suffixation 23 2.2.3 Infixation 26 2.3 COMPOUNDING 24 2.3.1 Definition : 2.3.2 Criteria 2.3.3 Classification 27 2.4 SHORTENING 29 2.4.1 Abbreviation 29 2.4.2 Blending: (blends, fusions or portmanteau words) 30 2.5 CONVERSION 31 2.5.1 Substantivation of adjectives : (adj 2.5.2 Adjectivization of nouns (n n) and verbs ( v adj) 34 2.5.3 Verbalization of nouns or adjectives (n/adj 2.5.4 Adverbalization of adjectives (adj n) v) 34 adv) 2.5.5 Partial conversion 33 2.5.6 Individual coinage in conversation 35 2.6 SOUND AND STRESS INTERCHANGE 36 2.6.1 Sound interchange 2.6.2 Stress interchange 2.7 SOUND IMITATION 36 2.8 BACK FORMATION / BACK DERIVATION 37 2.9 COINAGE AND REDUPLICATION 38 2.10 BORROWINGS 38 2.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSIONS 39 2.12 EXERCISES 39 REFERENCES CHAPTER III: SEMASIOLOGY 45 3.1 INTRODUCTION 45 3.2 SEMANTICS AND ITS POSSIBLE INCLUDED ASPECTS 45 3.3 TYPES OF MEANINGS 46 3.3.1 Grammatical meaning: 3.3.2 Lexical meaning 47 3.3.2.1 Conceptual Meaning ( denonational ) 48 3.3.2.2 Associative meaning 3.3.2.3 Pragmatic meaning 50 3.3.3 Motivation of words 50 3.4 SEMANTIC STRUCTURE 51 3.5 POLYSEMY 51 3.6 POLYSEMY AND CONTEXT 52 3.6.1 Polysemy and Context 3.6.2 Types of polysemy 53 3.7 HOMONYMY 53 3.8 SYNONYMY AND ANTONYMY 55 3.8.1 Synonymy and definition 3.8.2 Antonymy and definition 56 3.9 DEVELOPMENT OF MEANING 57 3.9.1 Main ways of semantic change 3.9.1 Extention/ generation of meaning 58 3.9.1.2 Narrowing/ specialization of meaning 3.9.1.3 Degradation of meaning 59 3.9.1.4 Elevation of meaning 3.9.2 Transference of meaning 59 3.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSIONS 62 3.11 EXERCISES 62 REFERENCES CHAPTER IV: PHRASEOLOGY 67 4.1 DEFINITION AND CONCEPTS 67 4.2 PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS 67 4.3 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF PHRASEOLOGY 68 4.4 SEMANTIC AND STYLISTIC FEATURES OF PHRASEOLOGY 68 4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGY BASED ON THE DEGREE OF MOTIVATION 69 4.6 CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGY BASED ON THE FUNCTION 4.6.1 Noun equivalents : 70 4.6.2 Verb equivalents : 4.6.3 Adjective equivalents : 4.6.4 Adverb equivalents : 4.6.5 Connecting word equivalents: 4.4.6 Interjection equivalents: 4.6.7 Modal particle equivalents : 4.7 VERBAL COLLOCATIONS 71 4.7.1 Phrasal verbs: 4.7.2 Prepositional verbs: 72 4.7.3 Prepositional phrasal verbs : 4.8 PROVERBS AND QUOTATIONS 73 4.8 Proverbs 4.8.2 Quotations: 4.8.3 Cliché 76 4.9 QUESTIONS FOR DISSCUSSIONS 76 4.10 EXERCISES 77 4.10.1 Use the bold phrases given to paraphrase the sentences below REFERENCES 78 CHAPTER V: ETYMOLOGY AND THE INFLUENCE OF THE AMERICAN ENGLISH 85 5.1 THE ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS 85 5.1.1 The earliest group of English borrowings 5.1.2 Celtic borrowings The fifth century A.D 5.1.3 The period of Christianization The seventh century A.D 5.1.4 The characteristic features of Scandinavian borrowings 5.1.5 Norman French borrowings (1066) 85 5.1.6 The Renaissance Period 85 5.2 THE MOST COMMON WAYS INFLUENCE THE ORIGINS OF WORDS 87 5.2.1 Derived from Foreign Words 5.2.2 Additions through Technology & Products 5.2.3 People's Names 5.2.4 Words from Letters 5.2.5 Word Histories 5.3 THE ETYMOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY 88 ETYMOLOGY AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS 89 5.5 NATIVE WORDS IN ENGLISH 90 5.5.1 Indo-European group 5.5.2 Common Germanic group 91 5.5.3 The English Proper 5.6 BORROWED WORDS IN ENGLISH 91 5.6.1 Germanic period or Pre-Old English 92 5.6.2 Old English Period (600-1100) 92 5.6.3 Middle English Period (1100-1500) 93 5.6.4 Early Modern English Period (1500-1650) 94 5.6.5 Present-Day English (1650-present) 95 5.7 INTERNATIONAL WORDS 98 5.8 ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLTES 98 5.9 TRANSLATION – LOANS 99 5.10 STANDARD ENGLISH, VARIANTS AND DIALECTS 100 5.11 PECULIARITIES OF THE AMERICAN ENGLISH 102 5.11.1 Pronunciation 102 5.11.2 Spelling 105 5.11.3 Synonyms 108 5.12 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSIONS 110 5.13 EXERCISES 111 REFERENCES CHAPTER VI: STYLISTIC ASPECTS OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY 115 6.1 INTRODUCTION 115 6.2 STANDARD ENGLISH VOCABULARY 116 6.3 SPECIAL LITERARY VOCABULARY 118 6.3.1 Terms, poetic and highly literary words, archaic words 6.3.1.1 Terms 6.3.1.2 Poetic and highly literary words 119 6.3.2 Assimilation of Borrowed words 123 6.3.3 Literary coinages (including nonce-words) 126 6.4 SPECIAL COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY 127 6.4 Slang words 6.4 Jagons 131 6.4 Vulgar words 6.4 Professional words 133 6.4 Dialectal words 133 6.4 Colloqial coinages (nonce-words) 132 6.5 QUESTIONS FOR DISSCUSSIONS 135 6.6 EXERCISES 136 ANSWER KEY 139 GLOSSARY 142 REFERENCES 145 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY AND SEMANTICS Objectives: By the end of this unit, students will be able to: - get the general views on lexicology and know some approaches to Language Study - understand the peculiar nature of lexicology - identify the various types of word formation processes that exist in English - explain what the early distinction between syntax and morphology is The first chapter is about the general points of English Lexicology and Semantics with the general definitions and concepts This chapter is to help students understand fully and thoroughly about the sub-field of linguistics which is called morphology with its meaning, nature and problems It also provides various concrete explanations of related branches, their characteristic features and other aspects of the language 1.1 DEFINITION Lexicology is a branch of linguistics which studies the vocabulary of a language Its basic task is to study the origin, the different properties of the vocabulary of a language In other words, lexicology is concerned with words and set phrases which function in speech Lexicology also studies all kinds of semantic relations (synonyms, antonyms etc) and semantic grouping (semantic fields) Etymologically the word ―lexicology‖ is a Greek word: ―Lexis‖ means ―word‖ and ―logos‖ means learning Lexicology also means: - a science / study which deals with words, morphemes and word groups - a science which studies and describes systematically the vocabulary of a given language The word can be defined as a structural and semantic entity of the language system The word is simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit Lexicology studies various lexical units: words, variable word-groups, phraseological units, and morphemes which make up words The word as well as any linguistic sign is a two-faced unit possessing both form and content or in other words sound-form and meaning The term vocabulary means the total sum of words that there are in the language The size of the vocabulary of any language is huge No person can learn or know all the words of the language Individual people possess their own total vocabulary consisting of all the words they know Another word used to denote vocabulary is the term lexicon In modern Linguistics three main meanings of the term lexicon are distinguished: 1) the vocabulary which a speaker of a language has in his or her head, that is, mental lexicon; 2) the set of lexemes of a language and the processes which are related to them; 3) the set of lexical items of a language 1.2 LEXICOLOGY: SUBJECT MATTERS The subject matters of lexicology are separate words, their morphological and semantic structure, and the vocabulary of the language, which include words, word combinations, their origin, developement and current use We not know much about the origin of language and, consequently, of the origin of words We know almost nothing about the mechanism by which a speaker‘s mental process is converted into sound groups called ―words‖, nor about the reverse process whereby a listener‘s brain converts the acoustic phenomena into concepts and ideas, thus establishing a two-way process of communication We know very little about the nature of relations between the word and the referent (i.e object, phenomenon, quality, action, etc denoted by the word) If we assume that there is a direct relation between the word and the referent it gives rise to another question: how should we explain the fact that the same referent is designated by quite different sound groups in different languages We know by now that there is nothing accidental about the vocabulary of the language (the total sum of its words); that each word is a small unit within a vast, efficient and perfectly balanced system What we know about the nature of the word? First, it is known that the word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication Thus, the word can be defined as a unit of communication Secondly, the word can be perceived as the total of the sounds which comprise it Third, the word, viewed structurally, possesses several characteristics The modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing features between the external and internal structures of the word By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure For example, in the word post-impressionists the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-, the root press, the noun-forming suffixes –ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality -s All these morphemes constitute the external structure of the word postimpressionists The internal structure of word, or its meaning, is nowadays commonly referred to as the word‘s semantic structure This is certainly the word‘s main aspect, hence words serve the purposes of human communication solely due to their meanings The area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word is called semantics 1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY AND SEMANTICS With regard to special lexicology the synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a certain time The diachronic approach in terms of special lexicology deals with the changes and the development of the vocabulary in the course of time It is special historical lexicology that deals with the evolution of vocabulary units as time goes by The two approaches should not be contrasted, as they are interdependent since every linguistic structure and system actually exists in a state of constant development so that the synchronic state of a language system is a result of a long process of linguistic evolution As every word is a unity of semantic, phonetic and grammatical elements, the word is studied not only in lexicology, but in other branches of linguistics, too, lexicology being closely connected with general linguistics, the history of the language, phonetics, stylistics, and grammar 1.4 ITS RELATION TO OTHER BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS + Lexicology consists of essential branches : Branch Word structure and formation Branch Semiology (semantic structure of a word) Branch Phraseology (set expressions, word combinations, idioms, proverbs, etc.) Branch Etymology (history and origin of words) Branch Lexicography (dictionary compiling) + It is considered from different angles, so there are types of lexicology It falls into: Type General lexicology Type Special lexicology Type Historical lexicology (diachronic aspect) Type Descriptive lexicology (synchronic aspect) General lexicology is a part of General linguistics It is concerned with the study of vocabulary and its basic units, irrespective of the specific features of any particular language It works out basic notions and methods of vocabulary study Within the frames of General Lexicology many notions, such as the notion of the word, the notion of the meaning, the notion of the context, the notion of system relations are investigated General lexicology studies the general properties of words, the specific features of words of any particular language It studies the pecularities of words common to all the languages General lexicology attempts to find out the universals of vocabulary development and patterns.Linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages are generally called language universals Special lexicology deals with the words of a definite language Special lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language ( English, Russian, German, French, etc.) It describes words and vocabulary of one particular language Every Special Lexicology is based on the principles of General Lexicology Special Lexicology is further subdivided into Diachronic/ Historical and Synchronic/ Descriptive Historical or diachronic lexicology deals with the development of the vocabulary and the changes it has undergone To put it another way, Historical Lexicology deals with the evolution of any vocabulary, the origin of words, their change and development For example, In descriptive lexicology the words ― to take ― ,―to adopt ― are considered to be English They are not different from such native words as ― child ‖,‖ foot ―,‖ stone ― etc But in historical lexicology they are treated as borrowed words In examining the word ―information‖in terms of its historical development, we establish its French origin and study the changes in its semantic and morphological structures If we don‗t know the history of the language, it will be very difficult to establish different changes in the meaning and form of the words which have undergone in the course of the historical development of the language Descripitive/ Synchronic lexicology studies the words at a synchronic aspect It is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as they exist at the present time The subject matter of Descriptive/Synchronic Lexicology is the vocabulary of a particular language at a given stage of its development It studies mainly the structure and specific functions of words 10 Slang is nothing but a deviation from the established norm at the level of the vocabulary The term slang is so broad that it includes many variants: cockney, public-house, commercial, military, theatrical, parliamentary, journalist, political, military and school slangs For example, the following expressions belong to the school slang: bully, to crib, to smoke (to redden from shape), Dame (teacher), play hookey (truant) Common slang words and expressions: banana oil – flattery; ball up – make a mess; angel dust – drug; answer the call of nature – to relieve oneself; brain bucket – motorcycle helmet; cherry farm – penitentiary; culture vulture – sightseeing bragger; go-go kind of a guy – active vigorous young man There is a general tendency in England and the USA to overestimate the significance of slang which is regarded as the quintessence of colloquial speech and therefore stands above all the laws of grammar In spite of being regarded by some purists as a low language, it is slightly praised as ―vivid‖, ―flexible‖, ―picturesque‖ 6.4 Jagons Jargon is a group of words with the aim to preserve secrecy within one or another social or professional group Jargonisms are generally old words with new meanings imposed on them They are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them Jargon may be defined as a code within a code E.g grease – money; tiger hunter – gambler; loaf – head Jargonisms are social in character They are not regional Almost any social group of people has its own jargon: jargon of thieves (cant); of jazz musicians, of the military men; of sportsmen Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation It is not a secret code It is easily understood by native speakers Both slang and jargon differ from ordinary language mainly in their vocabularies, while syntax and morphology remain practically unchanged Some of jargonisms migrate and make their way into the literary language of the nation They may be said to become dejargonized There is a common jargon and also special professional jargons It is hard to draw a fast line between slang and common jargon: e.g man and wife – knife (rhyming slang); manany ( naval jargon)– a sailor who is always putting of a job till tomorrow, from Spanish manana-tomorrow; soap and flannel ( naval jargon)– bread and cheese Examples of Internet Jargon BTW - By the way CYA - See you around FAQ - Frequently asked questions HTH - Hope this helps MOTD - Message of the day IIRC - If I remember correctly IANAL - I am not a lawyer LOL - Laugh out loud BFF - Best friends forever 138 TTYL - Talk to you later YMMV - Your mileage may vary Examples of Medical Jargon Agonal - a major, negative change in a patient‘s condition BP - Medical shorthand for blood pressure FX - bone fracture JT - A joint NPO - A patient should not take anything by mouth IM – Intramuscular Examples of Political Jargon Getting on a soapbox - Making a speech in public POTUS - President of the United States SCOTUS - Supreme Court of the United States Example of Police Jargon Assumed room temperature: An individual has died 6.4 Vulgar words Vulgar words, according to the Shorter Oxford Dictionary, mean a) words or manes employed in ordinary speech, b) common, familiar words, c) commonly current or prevalent or widely disseminated words Vulgarisms, thus, are: 1) expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character: damn, bloody, hell, goddam; 2) obscene words E.g: American Swear Words (US): Fuck, Fuck you, Shit, Piss off, Dick head, Asshole, Son of a bitch, Bastard, Damn, Cunt, British Swear Words (UK): Bollocks, Bugger, Bloody Hell, Choad, Rubbish, Shag, Wanker, Taking the piss, Twat, Australian Swear Words (AU): Bloody Oath, Root, Get Stuffed, Bugger me, Fair suck of the sav Vulgarisms possess a strong emotional meaning which denotes the speaker‘s attitude towards the object in question They say in Middle Ages and down to the 16th century these words were accepted in oral speech and even in printed one Vulgarisms are often used in conversation out of habit, without any thought of what they mean, or in imitation, not to seem old-fashioned and prudent Their function is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like – in fiction and only in direct speech Not every coarse expression can be considered a vulgarism Coarseness may result from improper grammar, non-standard pronunciation, misuse of certain words, and deliberate distortion of words These are improprieties of speech but not vulgarisms Some coarse words become vulgarisms only when used in a specific context: 139 Coarse word Refined term (literal) Refined term(figurative) Bullshit Excrement from a bull False or exaggerated statement Fart Break wind A person with stupid judgment Shit Feces Unreasonable treatment Bastard Child born to unwed parents Hateful, untrustworthy person Son of a bitch Male child born to unwed parents Hateful, untrustworthy person Kick ass (verb) Kick someone in the buttocks Soundly defeat a person 6.4 Professional words Professionalisms are words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home Professionalisms are correlated to terms They name anew already existing concepts, tools or instruments and have the typical properties of a special code The main feature of a professionalism is its technicality Let us compare professionalisms and terms: Terms Special words in the literary layer That are easily decoded because their semantic structure is transparent, they often enter the neutral stratum Professionalisms Special words in non-literary layer whose semantic structure is dim, generally they remain in circulation within a definite community E.g tin-fish (shipping) – submarine; block buster (military)– a bomb especially designed to destroy blocks of big buildings; piper (cooking) – a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a cream pipe; a midder case (judiciary)- a midwifery case; outer (boxing) – a knockout blow Professionalisms should not be mixed with jargonisms Like slangisms they not aim at secrecy They facilitate communication in professional sphere When certain fields of human activity enjoy nation-wide popularity or interest (like sports in Great Britain) their terminology is often used in a transferred way to add emotiveness to common prose: e.g from O‘Henry‘s ―Duel‖: ―Father Knickerbocker met them at the ferry giving one a righthander on the nose and the other an uppercut with his left just to let them know that the fight was on…‖ Professionalisms also help to depict the natural speech of a character, to show his occupation, education, breeding, environment, often even psychology 6.4 Dialectal words Dialectal words – those words which in the process of integration of the English national language remain beyond its literary boundaries and their usage is generally confined to a definite locality When these words are used in emotive prose they are meant to characterize 140 the speaker as a person of a certain local origin, breeding and education Some dialectal words have become familiar in a good and standard colloquial English and are universally accepted e.g lass (Scottish)– beloved girl; lad – young man; daft – silly mind; fash – trouble; cutty – naughty girl; tittie – sister; hinny – honey; Australian: brekky – breakfast, mossie – mosquito, Oz – Australia, Pommie – a Britisher, postie – postman Among other dialects used for stylistic purposes in literature, one should mention Southern dialect (Somersetshire, in particular) It has a phonetic peculiarity: initial [s] and [f] are voiced and written in the direct speech as [z] and [v]: e.g folk – volk, found – vound, see – zee, sinking – zinking Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose and very rarely in other styles Local lexical peculiarities, as yet the least studied, are most noticeable in specifically dialectal words pertaining to local customs, social life and natural conditions: laird — ‗landed proprietor in Scotland‘, burgh — ‗Scottish chartered‖ town‘, kirk — ‗church‘, loch — ‗Scottish lake or landlocked arm of the sea‘, etc There are many names of objects and processes connected with farming, such as the names of agricultural processes, tools, domestic animals and the like, e.g galloway — ‗horse of small strong breed from Galloway, Scotland‘, kyloe — ‗one of small breed of long-horned Scotch cattle‘, shelty — ‗Shetland pony‘ There is also a considerable number of emotionally coloured dialectal words, e.g Scot, bonny — ‗beautiful, healthy-looking‘, braw — ‗fine, excellent‘, daffy — ‗crazy, silly‘, cuddy — ‗fool, ass‘, loon — ‗clumsy, stupid person‘ In addition, words may have different meanings in the national language and in the local dialects, e.g in the Scottish dialect the word to call is used in the meaning of ‗to drive‘, to set — ‗to suit‘, short — ‗rude‘, silly — ‗weak‘, etc Dialectal lexical differences also embrace word-building patterns For instance, some Irish words contain the diminutive suffixes -an, -een, -can, as in bohaun — ‗cabin‘ (from Irish both — ‗cabin‘); bohereen — ‗narrow road‘ (from Irish bothar — ‗road‘); mearacaun — ‗thimble‘ (from Irish mear — ‗finger‘); etc Some of these suffixes may even be added to English bases, as in girleen, dogeen, squireen (squirrel), etc Some specifically dialectal derivatives are formed from standard English stems with the help of standard English affixes, e.g Scot flesher — ‗butcher‘, suddenty — ‘suddenness‘ 6.4 Colloqial coinages (nonce-words) Unlike those of a literary character colloquial coinages are spontaneous and elusive Not all of them are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and most disappear from the language leaving no trace Colloquial coinages are not usually built by means of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes or contraction e.g aggro – aggravation; caff – cafeteria; combo – combination; info – information; promo – promotion; deb – debutant; trad (itional) jazz, sarge - sergeant Therefore, they are not actually new words, but new meanings to existing words Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between nonce-words of bookish and colloquial origin Some words undoubtedly sprung from the literary stratum have become popular in ordinary colloquial language and acquired new meanings in new environment Some nonce-words may acquire legitimacy and become facts of the language There are also such nonce-words which become noticeable and may develop into catch words then they are fixed as new colloquial coinages and cease to be nonce - words They are labeled as slang, coll., vulgar or something of this kind 141 Some colloquial coinages are made by means of contamination: S‘long, c‘mon, gimme, dee jay, hatta, gonna, donna, leggo – and abbreviation Ally-Pally – Alexander Palace, archie – Archibald gun machine 6.5 QUESTIONS FOR DISSCUSSIONS What are the main layers of words ? What are the peculiar features of slang ? What are the types of literary coinages ? What is the difference between a coinage and a nonce-word ? What are the Peculiar features of English neutral words ? What is the phenomenon of semantic adaptation ? What is the difference between a jargon and a slang ? 6.6 EXERCISES 6.6.1 Choose the right stylistic device for each example Her smile is like the sun a allusion b metaphor c similie The stone made a plopping sound as it entered the water a ambiguity b alliteration c onomatopoeia The joke was seriously funny a inversion b oxymoron c parallelism The waves raced to shore a metaphor b personification c similie A silver snake slithered across the sand a alliteration b assonance c personification At o‘clock the suits streamed out of their offices a inversion b litotes c metonymy The rain fell hard on the tin roofs The rain was cold and wet The rain kept on for days a allusion b repetition c synecdoche When she started crying, I handed her a Kleenex a allusion b metaphor c synecdoche I‘m going to powder my nose a allusion b euphemism c parenthesis 10 They have a million things to today a ellipsis b hyperbole c understatement 6.6.2 Choose the best one to complete each sentence 142 Try to make your report as as possible: only give us the facts, and not your opinions (a) subjective (b) objectionable (c) subjected (d) objective Environmental inspectors regularly our kitchens and other food preparation areas to make sure they conform to regulations (a) inspect (b) control (c) study (d) analyze workers are often rewarded with higher salaries and other benefits (a) conscious (b) conscientious (c) conscience (d) consciousness Airlines are already increasing their prices on the that fuel prices are going to rise (a) consumption (b) destruction (c) assumption (d) presumption The fire caused a lot of to the building and factory machinery (a) damage (b) harm (c) injury (d) wound Government subsidies helped to many companies being forced to close down (a) prevent (b) preventive (c) avoidance (d) avoid The manager made it clear that he intended to down some new rules to enforce workplace discipline (a) lying (b) lie (c) laying (d) lay Cuts in advertising will have a serious on sales (a) effective (b) effect (c) affect (d) affection If you want to take photographs, you will need to apply for a (a) permit (b) permission (c) permissible (d) permitting 10 At the meeting, the manager talked about the need for better attendance and punctuality (a) briefly (b) briefing (c) shortly (d) shorts 11 The office will be closed it is being decorated (a) during (b) while (c) for (d) throughout 12 Can you me on the best course of action to take? (a) advisory (b) advisable (c) advice (d) advise 13 Economic slowly stagnated as the recession became worse (a) active (b) action (c) activity (d) activist 14 their regular daytime job, many people extra work in the evening (a) by (b) beside (c) between (d) besides 15 The computer system crashed on Monday, then again on Wednesday and finally today These breakdowns are wasting us time and costing us a lot of money (a) continuing (b) continuous (c) continuation (d) continual 16 She was very of our efforts to help 143 (a) appreciable (b) appreciative (c) appreciating (d) appreciate 17 The manager said he believed we would win the contract, but I knew that we didn't really stand a / an (a) possibility (b) probability (c) chance (d) opportunity 18 The proposals he put forward were excellent , it quickly became apparent that they would work when put into practice (a) Moreover (b) However (c) Nevertheless (d) Although 19 We need to remain to the needs of our customers, and react accordingly (a) sensible (b) sensitive (c) sensitivity (d) sensibility 20 A amount of working hours are lost every year because of illness and absenteeism (a) considerate (b) considerable (c) consistent (d) convenient 6.6.3 Choose the best one to complete the sentence Jargonisms are words aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group a whose b which c what d when Argot is a secret language used by various groups – including thieves and other criminals to outsiders from understanding their conversations a make b force c prevent d cut Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work at home: a for b when c after d and Vulgarisms are a group of words of standard English They are: 1) expletives or swear words and 2) obscene words a non b no c none d not The function of words is to express strong emotions like anger and vexation They are to be found in the emotive prose style a common b vulgar c professional d new Colloquial coinages are spontaneous and elusive They are on a certain semantic changes in words a expressing b made c expressed d based Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at sounds produced in nature a imitation b imitating c imitate d imitated Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic to the utterance 144 a effecting b effected c effective d effect The essence of alliteration lies in the of similar sounds in particular consonant sounds, in close succession a repeat b repetition c repeating d repeated 10 Transferred meaning is practically the interrelation two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual meaning a between b after c with d under 11 Alliteration like most phonetic expressive means does not bear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound exists as such a meaning b meaningful c meaningless d meanness 12 Alliteration that a certain amount of information is contained in the repetition of sounds, as in the case with the repetition of lexical units a suggestion b suggested c suggests d suggest 13 A variant of alliteration is assonance, that‗s of the same or similar vowels only: eg.: My shoes show signs of wear and tear) a repeating b repeated c repetition d repetitive 14 Assonance is sometimes in poetic speech: Tenderly bury the fair young dead — the repetition of the sound [e] a found b founded c find d finding 15 Rhyme is a repetition of or similar terminal sound combinations of words a identification b identity c identically d identical 16 Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other In verse (they are usually placed at the end the corresponding lines a for b about c of d with 17 Rhythm in poetic speech is a regular alternation of stressed unstressed syllables a and b but c for d or 18 A division of the poetic line from stress to stress contains one stressed syllable and one or two unstressed syllables is called a ―foot‖ a which b what c when d why 19 Figures of speech are stylistic devices that language elements and thus create a vivid image a made b makes c make use of a figurative meaning of the d making 20 Pun is another stylistic device based the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or a phrase a at b on c in d under 145 ANSWER KEY I Answer key to Chapter I: Introduction to English Lexicology and Semantics 1.1 Answer key to 1.11.1 as all of the much than to about into 10 and 11 between 12 that 13 to 14 the 15 in 16 to 17 about 18 within 19 as 20 for 1.2 Answer key to 1.11.2 to about that as the several/ some on and the 10 and 11 constitute/ form 12 to 13 purposes 14 in 15 that 16 all/ the 17 from 18 is 19 as 20 and 1.3 Answer key to 1.11.3 a c d a b d c a 15 b 16 d 17 d 18 a 19 d 20 c a 10 b 11 d 12 c 13 a 14 b 1.4 Answer key to 1.11.4 h e k a b c f d g 10 i 1.5 Answer key to 1.11.5 1, word 2, than 3, from 4, sound 5, definitely 6, defined7, more 8, consist 9, words 10, of 11, unit 12, and 13, criterion 14, can 15, meaning II Answer key to Chapter 2: Word Structure and Formation 2.1 Answer keys to 2.11.1 a morpheme b spelling, sound, sound c spelling d root, bound e root morpheme f bound morpheme, free root, bound root g root, fundamental/ basic h free, bound i functional, derivational k prefixes, suffixes l grammatical m simple, derived, compound n stem o base 2.2 Answer keys to 2.11.2 abnormal adhere subterranean antepenultimate bimonthly contradict dissect dyspepsia atypical 10 affix 11 euphemism 12 exculpated 13 prenuptial 14 conspire 15 circumference 16 antacid 17 bipartisan 18 antithesis 19 demote 20 decrease 2.3 Answer keys to 2.11.3 interjects gratuity ruptured credence cursive induce fiduciary immortal evict 10 deflected 11 fractured 12 consecutive 13 tangible; intangible 14 carnivorous 15 vivid 16 omnipotent 17 pedestrian 18 incorporation 19 fragile 20 Gradually III Answer key to Chapter 3: Semasiology (Semantics) 3.1 Answer keys to 3.11.1 b a b c b a c c b b 16 a 17 a 18 c 19 b 20 c 10 c 11 c 12 b 13 a 14 c 15 3.2 Answer keys to 3.11.2 a c c b a b b a a 10 a 11 b 12 b 146 13 c 14 a 15 a 16 b 17 c 18 b IV Answer key to Chapter 4: 19 a 20 c Phraseology 4.1 Answer key to 4.10.1 1) Before you buy it, you should try it out 2) He spent years building it up 3) They want to buy it out 4) You should back them up 5) Can you help me out with this report? 6) Why you always put him down? 7) Have you filled it out in bold print? 8) My New Year‘s resolution was to give them up 9) I don‘t believe her; she‘s making it up 10) Do you know if the meeting is going to be put off? 4.2 Answer key to 4.10.2 1) back up 2) built up 3) closed down 4) filled in 5) given up 6) buying out 7) to help me out 8) look it up 9) pick me up 10) put off 11) to try out 12) to turn off 13) broken down 14) call on 15) went through 16) to take up 17) turn up 18) look after 19) met up with 20) run out of 4.3 Answer key to 4.10.3 1, E 2, M 3, D 4, J 5, L 6, A 7, O 8, F 9, N 10, I 11, B 12, H 13, C 14, K 15, G 4.4 Answer keys to 4.10.4 1, P 2, I 3, A 4, M 5, Q 6, D 7, E 8, B 9, C 10, O 11, N 12, F 13, J 14, H 15, L 16, G 17, K 4.5 Answer keys to 4.10.5 C 2, K 3, E 4, J 5, P 6, O 7, H 8, A 9, F 10, M 11, G 12, B 13, I 14, L 15, N 16, D 4.6 Answer keys to 4.10.6 1, K 2, F 3, N 4, E 5, B 6, I 7, P 8, M 9, D 10, A 11, J 12, C 13, H 14, O 15, L 16, G 4.7 Answer keys to 4.10.7 down away at into down in down off out 10 on 11 down 12 on 13 for 14 off 15 out 16 in 17 down 18 at 19 for 20 off 4.8 Answer keys to 4.10.8 away back up off for back off out off/out 10 up 11 down 12 up 13 away 14 out 15 up 16 away 17 on 18 in 19 up 20 off 4.9 Answer keys to 4.10.9 away back down in through off off out of off 10 in 11 away 12 up 13 down 14 out 15 out 16 on 17 in with 18 down/on 19 down 20 up/ away 4.10 Answer keys to 4.10.10 147 about for away with for out/off over/about for up away 10 off/out 11 through 12 for 13 up 14 round/to 15 out 16 up 17 up 18 over 19 up 20 up V Answer key to Chapter 5: Etymology and The English language in the USA 5.1 Answer key to 5.13.1 of through/ via and the of from 7.in which by 10 and 11 Germanic 12 were 13 make/ produce 14 name/ call 15 for 16 their 17 of 18 this 19 that 20 remain 5.2 Answer key to 5.13.2 1, b 2, a 3, b 4, c 5, c 6, a 7, b 16, b 17, c 18, b 19, a 20, c 8, c 9, c 10, a 11, b 12, b 13, c 14, c 15, a 5.3 Answer key to 5.13.3 k c e a f b g d m 10 h VI Answer key to Chapter 6: Stylistic aspects of the English vocabulary 6.1 Answer key to 6.6.1 1, c 2, c 3, b 4, b 5, a 6, c 7, b 8, c 9, b 10, b d a b c a a d b a 13 c 14 d 15 d 16 b 17 c 18 a 19 b 20 b 10 a 6.2 Answer key to 6.6.2 11 b 12 d 6.3 Answer key to 6.6.3 a c 13 c 14 a d 15 d a b d b d 16 c 17 a 18 a 19 c 20 b b 10 a 11 a 12 c 148 GLOSSARY abbreviation: n phép viết tắt từ, phép rút gọn từ acronym: n phép viết tắt từ chữ đầu ablaut combination: n phép lặp từ có biến đổi nguyên âm affixation: n thành tố phái sinh/ thành tố tạo từ affixal: adj thuộc thành tố phái sinh alliteration: n phép lặp lại phụ âm đầu từ, ngữ ancestral: adj tổ tiên, ông bà approach: n quan điểm, phương pháp nghiên cứu archaic word: n từ cổ associative meaning: n nghĩa liên hệ base word: n từ gốc borrowed suffix: n hậu tố vay mượn bound root: n hình vị phụ thuộc/ phái sinh branches: n ngành nghiên cứu classification: n phân loại coining: n tạo từ mới, nghĩ từ component: n thành phần từ, nghĩa completive: n từ đệm, chêm vào conceptual meaning: n nghĩa khái niệm, biểu niệm conjunction: n liên từ connotational meaning: nghĩa biểu cảm, thái độ context: n bối cảnh, văn cảnh contracted word: n từ viết tắt conversion: n chuyển đổi từ loại coordinative component: n thành phần từ đồng đẳng criterion: n tiêu chí denotational meaning: n nghĩa biểu vật, biểu niệm derivational morpheme: n hình vị phái sinh derivative words: n từ phái sinh degradation of meaning: n chuyển sang nghĩa xấu derogatory: adj đánh giá thấp, hạ thấp, khơng tích cực diachronic approach: n phương pháp nghiên cứu lịch đại dialect; n phương ngữ differentiate: v làm cho khác biệt, tách biệt elevation of meaning: n chuyển sang nghĩa tích cực endocentric word-group: n nhóm từ nội ngơn etymology: n từ ngun học exocentric word group; n nhóm từ ngoại ngơn explicit meaning; n nghĩa hiển ngôn, mạch lạc external structures: n cấu trúc bên ngồi/ cấu trúc hình vị figure of speech: n hình thái tu từ figurative meaning: n nghĩa bóng, nghĩa gián tiếp free word group: n nhóm từ tự free root: n hình vị gốc, gốc từ function: n chức từ ngữ functional morpheme: n hình vị chức năng, hình vị ngữ pháp generation of meaning: n mở rộng nghĩa 149 grammatical meaning: n nghĩa ngữ pháp hyperbole: n lối nói ngoa dụ, lối nói cường điệu idiomatic: adj thành ngữ, khơng suy luận implicit meaning: n nghĩa hàm ẩn, hàm ngơn infix: n trung tố inflectional morpheme: n.hình vị ngữ pháp integrity: n thống nhất, bền chặt, tương thích interjection: n thán từ internal structures: n cấu trúc bên trong/ cấu trúc ngữ nghĩa intransitivity: n nghĩa nội động từ irony: n lối nói mỉa mai, châm biếm lexical meaning: n nghĩa từ vựng lexicography: n biên soạn từ điển lexicology: n từ vựng học lexicon: n lượng từ vựng ngôn ngữ linguistic sign: n ký hiệu ngôn ngữ literal meaning: n nghĩa đen metaphor: n ẩn dụ metonymy: n hoán dụ miscellaneous: adj từ pha tạp, hỗn hợp morpheme: n hình vị morphology: n hình vị học motivated: adj suy luận non-idiomatic: adj phi thành ngữ, suy luận non-motivated: adj khơng suy luận non- productive affixes: n phụ tố khơng có khả tạo nhiều từ nonce-words: n từ tạo tình cụ thể notion: n quan niệm, khái niệm numerous: adj nhiều, đa số obsolescent word: n từ lỗi thời, từ cũ paradigm: n hệ biến đổi từ paralinguistic features: n yếu tố phụ họa ngôn ngữ ( cử chỉ, nét mặt, giọng nói) part of speech: n từ loại periphrase: n từ ngoại biên, phụ từ, trợ từ perspective: n luật phối cảnh xa gần, khía cạnh nghiên cứu, góc độ nghiên cứu pragmatic meaning: n nghĩa ngữ dụng phraseology: n nhóm từ học phraseological unit: n nhóm từ prefix: n tiền tố prosodic features: n chất thơ ngôn từ (vần, điệu, âm luyến) productive affixes: n phụ tố có khả tạo nhiều từ reduplicative: adj phép lặp nguyên từ rhyme combination: n phép lặp từ theo vần semi-bound :n bán hình vị semiology: n ngữ nghĩa học set expressions: n nhóm từ cố định shortenings: n từ viết tắt, từ rút gọn specialization of meaning: n khu biệt nghĩa, thu hẹp nghĩa stem: n gốc từ structural integrity: n thống nhất, bền chặt cấu trúc 150 stylistic: adj văn phong subclass: n phân nhỏ ra, phân nhánh subordinative component; n thành phần từ phụ substitution: n phép suffix: n hậu tố synchronic approach: n phương pháp nghiên cứu đồng đại syntagm: n ngữ đoạn, hệ mệnh đề syntax: n cú pháp, cú đoạn transference of meaning: n tượng chuyển nghĩa transitivity: n nghĩa tác động bên ngoài, nghĩa tân ngữ utterance meaning: n nghĩa phát ngôn variable: adj khác valency: n khả kết hợp hình vị/ từ 151 REFERENCES Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy ( 2002 ), An Introduction 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