A brief report on proto austroasiatic and proto vietic vocabulary in vietnamese (báo cáo tóm tắt về từ proto nam á và proto vietic trong tiếng việ

To appear in the proceedings of the HỘI THẢO QUỐC TẾ NGÔN NGỮ HỌC LẦN THỨ IV held by the Institute of Linguistics in Hanoi 19-20 December 2020 (conference information at http:// www.vienngonnguhoc.gov.vn/bai-viet/chuong-trinh-hoi-thao-quoc-tengon-ngu-hoc-lan-thu-iv_756.aspx) The related conference presentation in Vietnamese is at https://youtu.be/xRbUQppDkxI BÁO CÁO TÓM TẮT VỀ TỪ PROTO-NAM Á VÀ PROTOVIETIC TRONG TIẾNG VIỆT (A Brief Report on Proto-Austroasiatic and Proto-Vietic Vocabulary in Vietnamese) Mark Alves INTRODUCTION I have so far identified several hundred native Vietnamese words that are ProtoAustroasiatic etyma or regional Austroasiatic words (over 200 words) or Proto-Vietic etyma (over 500 words) These words are carefully selected based on comparative data of proto-language reconstructions and recurring phonological patterns among two dozen Vietic lects This is a considerable update to previous studies of native vocabulary of Vietnamese words These significant numbers of native vocabulary require that we change the perceived role of Chinese loanwords in the Vietnamese vocabulary Vietnamese is far from a relexified language, having a sizeable quantity of significant Austroasiatic and Vietic vocabulary However, how best to characterize this situation requires more consideration In this brief report, I (a) review the data sources and methods of analysis, (b) discuss the findings based on semantic domains, and (c) offer some thoughts on what the linguistic data suggests about the connection between Vietnamese and its linguistic predecessor A list of the 200-plus Austroasiatic items is provided at the end of the paper in Table 2 PREVIOUS STUDIES Vietnamese was first claimed to be related to other Austroasiatic languages in the early 1850s Logan (1852-1855) linked it to what he called the “Mon-Annam” language family Lexical data supporting this linguistic affiliation very gradually increased Maspero (1912) provided over a dozen lists of comparative data with Vietnamese, other Vietic languages, and Austroasiatic languages, even though he asserted Vietnamese was related to Tai In the second half of the 20th century, some basic wordlists were generated to propose possible Austroasiatic etyma in Vietnamese (e.g Thomas and Headley 1970, Huffman 1977, etc.) But generally, they focused on approximately 100 items of basic vocabulary Hồ Lê (1992) provided the longest list of possible Austroasiatic items, some 200 possible items However, he did not deal with issues of phonological correspondences or of broader regional comparative linguistic data, meaning that data must still be sifted Much of it is supported in this study, but many other items must be excluded In the 21st century, some 2,100 Proto-Austroasiatic items proposed by Shorto (2006) were published and then made available online in the Mon-Khmer Etymological Dictionary (2007) Also, 1,200 Proto-Vietic items were included in the same database, the tentative work of Ferlus Moreover, there are reconstructions of Proto-Tai (Li 1977 and Pittayaporn 2009), Old and Middle Chinese (I use Baxter and Sagart’s 2014 version), various electronic databases of Vietnamese (e.g the SEAlang Library Vietnamese), among other comparative resources These allow identification of etymological sources of Vietnamese words with more precision than ever DATA, METHODS, AND PRELINARY RESULTS To Ferlus’s Proto-Vietic lists of a dozen Vietic language varieties, I have added data from wordlists of a dozen more lects (Arem (Kasuga 1994), So Thavung (Premsrirat 1998, 1999), Nguon (Nguyễn P P 1997), Muong Bi (Nguyễn V.K et al 2002), Babaev and Samarina 2018 (May), etc.) I compared this data with (a) Shorto’s Proto-Austroasiatic lexical reconstructions, (b) proto-language reconstructions of branches of Austroasiatic in the online Mon-Khmer Etymological Dictionary, (c) Early and Late Sino-Vietnamese words, and (d) databases and reconstructions of neighboring language families: TibetoBurman, Austronesian, and Hmong-Mien As I did so, I posited over 140 additional ProtoVietic etyma and some 40 Proto-Austroasiatic etyma I then ranked the Vietic data based on the number of Vietic sub-groups—including Viet-Muong, Pong-Cuoi, and the remaining archaic languages—with attestations for each posited Proto-Vietic etymon The evidence for sub-branching of Vietic is still being debated, so these sub-groups are only general indicators for purposes of determining occurrences of words Words with attestations in two or three sub-groups are considered viable Proto-Vietic etyma However, Proto-Austroasiatic etyma seen in one sub-group of Vietic are also considered likely ancient lexical retentions This criterion increases the likelihood that the words are indeed of considerable time depth in Vietic, potentially dating to the pre-Qin Đông Sơn era and even to the Neolithic period Phonological patterns of initials, vowels, finals, and tones were considered as well as other issues of semantic shift and the still poorly understood early history of language contact in the region The overall phonological correspondences are too complex to present in this report, and I have described them elsewhere (Alves 2020) In general, the patterns are sufficient to establish connections between these Vietnamese words and variously Austroasiatic, Vietic, Old or Middle Chinese, or Tai In some cases, the origins of words cannot be determined as they so widespread, but in general, when words are reconstructable in Austroasiatic, they are treated as Austroasiatic roots of the corresponding Vietnamese cognates The results so far are (a) nearly 200 Vietnamese words which are likely ProtoAustroasiatic etyma, (b) over two dozen words in Vietnamese which are cognate to words in other Austroasiatic languages but not reconstructable to Proto-Austroasiatic, (c) over 500 Vietnamese words of strictly native Vietic origin (i.e not in Proto-Austroasiatic or multiple branches of Austroasiatic), and (d) about 100 Vietnamese words with Vietic reconstructions of likely Chinese origin and several of possible Tai origin Another 150 Proto-Vietic etyma and about two dozen Vietic words which are Proto-Austroasiatic etyma are not attested in Vietnamese Thus, the data reveal several hundred native Austroasiatic and/or Vietic words in Vietnamese, the largest number identified to date with sufficient data and methodology to increase confidence in the claims As I assembled the data, I also marked them for part of speech and semantic fields, which allows for exploration of the culture and natural environment of Vietic people prior to and soon after (i.e widespread early Chinese loanwords) the arrival of people from northern China I summarize this matter in Section 4 SEMANTIC DOMAINS IN THE NATIVE LEXICON OF VIETNAMESE The primary semantic fields used in this study including those of the Max Planck Institute’s WOLD (World Loanword Database at https://wold.clld.org/) The semantic domains are very broad and need additional subcategories for further exploration of cultural aspects: this matter is for a future study Table lists the semantic domains with numbers of words in each The several hundred items, including both Austroasiatic and Vietic etyma, clearly demonstrate a solid core of native vocabulary In Table 1, I have added a “supercategories” column to allow for convenience in making broader generalizations The first two supercategories of general experience (basic actions and technology, etc.) and consumption (agricultural and vegetation, etc.) each have some 200 items Words related to the individual (the body, the home, and clothing and grooming) consist of over 100 items These hundreds of native etyma not give the sense of a language that is highly separated from its predecessor: this lexical data very clearly connects Vietnamese to its Vietic and Austroasiatic origins As for society, the systems of Vietnamese terms for kinship and pronouns have seen restructuring through language contact with Chinese (cf Alves 2018) And yet, the core 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person pronouns are native words, and both ‘grandchild’ and ‘greatgrandchild’ are Austroasiatic etyma Nearly 20 words of emotions, cognition, and speech and over two dozen words of sense perception are native etyma Chinese loanwords have certainly entered these domains (e.g hiểu ‘to understand’, thấy ‘to see’, etc.), and yet a core native portion still remains Finally, dozens of Vietnamese words of spatial relations, time, and quantity are native etyma Vietnamese numbers are particularly notable: from ‘1’ to ‘10’ (as well as ‘100’), all are native etyma (cf Alves 2020 for complete discussion and lists of words) This is in contrast with Proto-Tai, which has borrowed Chinese numbers from to 99 Whatever status the Chinese-speaking community had in the first millennium CE, the daily social circumstances were such that native numbers were apparently used predominantly in the likely multilingual Vietic community Table 1: Semantic domains of Vietic and Austroasiatic etyma Supercategories General experience Consumption The individual Society Sentience Time and space Semantic Domains Basic actions and technology Motion Physical world Agriculture and vegetation Animals Food and drink Body House Clothing and grooming Kinship Social and political relations Warfare and hunting Possession Emotions and values Cognition Speech and language Sense perception Quantity Spatial relations Time Numbers 129 31 37 82 103 37 97 14 25 9 28 18 28 18 MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS The impact of Chinese loanwords on the Vietnamese lexicon, including both standard Sino-Vietnamese and Early Sino-Vietnamese, is unquestionably profound Many thousands of Chinese loanwords, especially those of the bisyllabic compounds, can be found in Vietnamese, and in virtually all the semantic domains considered in this paper However, the question is to what degree these words have entered those domains and how to characterize the resulting linguistic changes from Vietic to Vietnamese While some Chinese words for body parts have been borrowed (e.g gan ‘liver’, tim ‘heart’, etc.), the noticeably high number of native words in this domain (nearly 100, including body parts as well as body functions and sensations) highlights the native elements of the Vietnamese lexicon Beyond basic categories of numbers, body parts, and natural phenomena all made up of native etyma, there is a core Proto-Vietic vocabulary of agricultural production, warfare and hunting, parts of the home, clothing and grooming, and basic concepts of trade In addition, while the Vietnamese syllable structure has gone from a more Austroasiatic type to a more Sinosphere type, like those of Chinese, Tai, and Hmong-Mien, Proto-Vietic consonants and vowels are readily found in Vietnamese As for etymological origins of syllables, in preliminary exploration (in collaboration with James Kirby) of the inventory of syllables in Vietnamese, less than 25 percent of the 3,000-plus syllables (not including tones) consist of monosyllabic morphs of Chinese origin, with some percentage of homophonous native morphs Thus, despite the many thousands of Chinese loanwords, over 75 percent of the inventory of Vietnamese monosyllable morphs are native in origin Thus, we can suggest that Vietnamese is a Vietic language at its core, but with surrounding transformative effects of contact with Chinese However, challenges arise in trying to understand developments of the period at the time of Chinese arrival Archaeological studies of northern Vietnam show material culture that is not widely supported in tribal Vietic groups, whose sociocultural circumstances are, of course, distinct, but which is lexically represented in Vietnamese (e.g thạp ‘situla’, sáo ‘flute’, vạc/ thố ‘cauldron’, đèn ‘lamp’, etc.) Also, original terms for items that, according to archaeological data, long preceded the arrival of the Chinese are today nevertheless of Chinese origin, such as those related to metallurgy (e.g đồng ‘bronze’, dao ‘dagger/large knife’, tên ‘arrow’, etc.) As for the several hundred native words that date potentially to Proto-Vietic or early Vietic prior to major language contact with Chinese, analysis of their semantic domains—combined with information from archaeological and historical data—can provide some tentative ethnolinguistic hypotheses about early Vietic culture at the time of Han Dynasty expansion into modern-day northern Vietnam Also, comparing the several hundred Vietnamese words of Austroasiatic and Vietic origin with the several hundred items of early Chinese loanwords should allow new hypotheses about sociocultural changes in pre-recorded history of early Vietic and Sinitic contact These are research topics that I am pursuing and will share as results are available However, ideally, interdisciplinary teams will take on such tasks to produce the most reliable results Research done in a mono-disciplinary vacuum is more likely to lead to incorrect assumptions about human history in the Red River Delta Note: Readers are welcome to contact me via the internet to obtain the full database with all Austroasiatic, Vietic, Chinese and Tai words and additional information The database is a work in progress and will undoubtedly change and hopefully expand over time REFERENCES Alves, Mark J 2016 Identifying Early Sino-Vietnamese Vocabulary via Linguistic, Historical, Archaeological, and Ethnological Data, in Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics (2016):264-295 https://doi.org/10.1163/2405478X-00902007 Alves, Mark J 2017 Etymological research on Vietnamese with databases and other resources Ngôn Ngữ Học Việt Nam, 30 Năm Đổi Mới Phát Triển (Kỷ Yếu Hội Thảo Khoa Học Quốc Tế), 183-211 Hà Nội: Nhà Xuất Bản Khoa Học Xã Hội Alves, Mark J 2018 Chinese Loanwords in Vietnamese Pronouns and Terms of Address and Reference, in Proceedings of the 29th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-29), 2017, Volume 1, ed by Marjorie K.M Chan and Hana Kang, 286-303 Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University https://www.academia.edu/33556335/Chinese_Influence_on_Vietnamese_Pronouns_a nd_Terms_of_Address_and_Reference_ToA_R_ Alves, Mark J 2020 Historical Ethnolinguistic Notes on Proto-Austroasiatic and ProtoVietic Vocabulary in Vietnamese Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 13.2: xiii-xlv http://hdl.handle.net/10524/52472 Babaev, Kirill V and Irina V Samarina 2018 May language: Materials of the RussianVietnamese linguistic expedition (in Russian) YASK Publishing House Baxter, William H and Laurent Sagart 2014 Baxter-Sagart Old Chinese reconstruction, version 1.1 (20 September 2014) http://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/BaxterSagartOCbyMandarinMC2014-0920.pdf Blust, Robert and Stephen Trussel 2010 Austronesian Comparative Dictionary Web http://www.trussel2.com/ACD/acd-ak_a.htm Last accessed: 15 August 2020 Hà, Văn Tấn 2018 The Making of Việt Nam Thế Giới Publishers Hồ, Lê 1992 Từ Nam Á tiếng Việt [Austroasiatic words in Vietnamese] in Tiếng Việt Các Ngơn Ngữ Dân Tộc Phía Nam, 65-110 Hà Nội: Nhà Xuất Bản Khoa Học Xã Hội Huffman, Franklin E 1977 An Examination of Lexical Correspondences Between Vietnamese and Some Other Austroasiatic Languages Lingua 43.2:171-98 Kasuga, Atsushi 1994 A Study on Arem Phonology Master’s thesis Tokyo University Logan, J R 1852-1855 Ethnology of the Indo-Pacific islands The Journal of the Indian Archipaelago and Eastern Asia VI (1852), VII (1853), VIII (1854), IX (1855) Maspero, Henri 1912 Etude sur la phonétique historique de la langue Annamite: Les Initiales Bulletin de lẫcole Franỗaise dExtrờme-Orient 1-127 Mon-Khmer Etymological Dictionary SEAlang Mon-Khmer languages project http://www.sealang.net/monkhmer/dictionary/ Last accessed 20 August 2020 Munda Etymological Dictionary SEAlang Mon-Khmer languages project http://www.sealang.net/munda/dictionary/ Last accessed 20 August 2020 Nguyễn, Phú Phong 1997 Le parler Nguồn: Language d’un minorité ethnique des hautes vallées du Sơng Gianh Quảng Bình, Việt Nam Université Paris 7, Denis Diderot Nguyễn, Văn Khang, Bùi Chi, and Hoàng Văn Hành 2002 Từ điển Mường-Việt (A Mường-Vietnamese dictionary) Hà Nội: Nhà Xuất Bản Văn Hoá Dân Tộc Shorto, Harry L 2006 A Mon-Khmer Comparative Dictionary Paul Sidwell, Doug Cooper, and Christian Bauer eds Canberra: Pacific Linguistics The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus The University of California, Berkeley http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl Last accessed: 15 August 2020 Suwilai, Premsrirat 1998 So (Thavung)-English-Thai Glossary, Part I The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal 28:189-218 Suwilai, Premsrirat 1999 So (Thavung)-English-Thai Glossary, Part II The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal 29:107-132 Thomas, David D and Robert K., Jr Headley 1970 More on Mon-Khmer Subgroupings Lingua 25:398-418 SEAlang Library Vietnamese http://www.sealang.net/vietnamese/dictionary.htm Last accessed: 20 August 2020 Table 2: Austroasiatic etyma in Vietnamese (# indicates tentative reconstructions I have proposed based on available linguistic data) Semantic Fields agr Vietnamese English Gloss Austroas iatic #Cduŋ Proto-Vietic nong agr agr agr agr agr agr agr agr mói (梅) si vừng mít tranh / gianh sồi buồng bí agr agr agr cành cau basket for winnowing/flat basket a thing used when transplanting banyan sesame jackfruit/breadfruit thatch-grass mango bunch (of bananas) squash/pumpkin/waxgourd (Bennicasa cerifera) branch arecanut tree #C-mɔːl #ɟri #lŋaː #mi:t #plang #svaaj *buuŋ *cpiir *c-mɔːlʔ *ɟ-riː *vɨŋ #mi:t *p-lɛɲ NR *bɔːŋ *k-biːrʔ / k-piːrʔ *t-kɛːŋʔ / gɛːŋ *kaw *gəl / kəl betel leaf press (fruit)/wring (v) fruit *kaŋ *kaw *kəl ‘to cut down/fell trees’ *k-raːŋʔ *lngal, *ŋgal ‘plough’ *ml[əw] *pit *pləjʔ agr agr sàng cày winnow (n) plough (v)/a plough (n) agr agr agr trầu / giầu vắt trái agr agr rễ flower/blossom root *pnpuŋ *ris agr agr agr agr gạo cám măng rice, husked bran leaf bamboo shoots, edible *rk[aw]ʔ *skaamʔ *slaʔ *t1ɓaŋ *ɗoːŋʔ *g-raːŋ *gal *b-luː *pat *p-leːʔ > pleːʔ / tleːʔ *poːŋ *k-riɛs / k-rɛs | res *r-koːʔ *t-kaːmʔ *s-laːʔ *t-ɓaŋ Semantic Fields agr agr agr agr agr agr animals animals animals animals Vietnamese English Gloss chuối sọ bưởi riềng mía săng cơng sủa rắn rận banana taro pomelo galangal (Alpinia galanga) sugarcane wood/plant peacock bark (v) snake louse on the body animals animals animals animals animals rái [rắn] mối chó cầy gấu otter lizard dog dog bear (n) animals animals animals animals animals animals animals animals animals animals chim cúi (heo cúi) sừng mỏ cánh cá khái mọt sấu trâu bird pig horn of animals beak wing fish tiger termite/weevil crocodile/alligator buffalo animals animals animals animals animals animals animals animals animals animals cục tác vượn ác rệp ‘bedbug’ muỗi cú sóc ruồi tơm trăn cackle (v) gibbon crow centipede mosquito/fly owl squirrel fly (n) crayfish/shrimp python animals ve vẩy ‘to wag’ bè mục ‘rotten, rot’ cạo ‘to scrape/scratch/ shave’, ( nạo ) basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech Proto-Vietic shake/wag (the tail) (v) Austroas iatic *t1luuj[ ] *t2rawʔ NA NA NA NA #k-voːŋ #-roh/rɔh *[b]saɲʔ *[d]mrəɲ ʔ *bheʔ *ɓulʔ *cɔʔ *cgəj *c-guːʔ / c-kuːʔ *-ciːm *cur *d2raŋ *ɟɓuəh *kaiɲʔ *kaʔ *klaʔ *kmuət *krɓə[ə]ʔ *krpiiw, *krpuʔ *ktaat *kwaaɲʔ *kʔaak *kʔip *muujs *ŋk[awʔ] *prɔɔk *ruj *sum *t1lan, *t1laan *was raft (n) #bɛ: #bɛ: rotten/moldy #ɓuk #ɓuk scratch/scrape #ka:w #ka:wʔ *caːjʔ *s-roːʔ *paːs *b-riɛŋ *k-mɛːʔ *s-raŋ *k-voːŋ *k-rɔh *p-səɲʔ *m-rəɲʔ *p-seːʔ *ɓoːlʔ *ʔa-cɔːʔ #gəj *c-guːʔ / c-kuːʔ *-ciːm *guːrʔ | kuːrʔ *k-rəŋ *k-ɓɔh *kɛːŋʔ *ʔa-kaːʔ *k-haːlʔ > kʰaːlʔ *k-mɔːc *k-ruːʔ *c-luː *k-taːk *k-vaɲ *kr-?aːk *kr-siːp *mɔːs (final *-l?) *kuːʔ *p-rɔːk > kʰlɔːk *m-rɔːj *soːm *k-lən *vasvas Semantic Fields basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech Vietnamese English Gloss nhắp basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech basic act./tech Proto-Vietic close (eyes, mouth) (v) Austroas iatic #k-ɲVp tát bail out/drain water (v) #ksaːc *ʔa-saːc rút gather/pull out w hands (v) #p-ruuc *p-ruːc vòng ‘circle/round’ liếm round/circle #wV:ŋ #βɔŋ lick (v) *[c]limʔ *-lɛːmʔ gãy break/break off/snap (v) *[d]kah #gas vác carry (on shoulder) (v) *ɓaːk múc draw water (v) *ɓɔʔ (tentative #bak) *ɓək méo misshapen/malformed #ɓiəwʔ nổ burst/explode (intr.) (v) *ɓiəwʔ ‘aslant’ *bt1uh đập dam/dike #təp gõ knock/rap (v) *dəp ‘to dam’ *g[uə]h cắt cut (v) *kat *kac lấy / lậy take (v) *liʔ *leːʔ / -leːʔ ngồi sit/sit down (v) *ŋguj *ŋuːj vả ‘to slap’; vỗ ‘to clap/slap/flap’ bóc slap (v) *pah ‘to slap’ ; #mpo:h *pɔɔk #tVmpa:h bửa split/cleave (wood) (v) chát sour/bitter/acrid *puh *bah | pah (tentative #paah in Vietic, Bahnaric, Vietic) *sraat #ca:t đâm ‘to stab/pierce’ dập beat/punch/pierce (v) *t1əm *təm bury/cover (v) *t1əp #dVp vẫy wave (v) *was #wVs vứt ‘to throw away’ / vất vặn throw (v) *wat *-vət twist/wring (v) *wiɲ *vaɲʔ peel (tr.) (v) *k-ɲap > kʰɲap *ɓuːk *ɗoh #gɔ:h #pɔ:k Semantic Fields basic act./tech Vietnamese English Gloss Proto-Vietic tooth/fang/canine/tusk stick/pull out tongue (v) knee forehead belly/stomach Austroas iatic NA (cf Bahnaric *pat, Katuic *tampat, Khmuic *bi:t) NA (cf Bru patɯ̤ŋ) NA (cf Katuic *duom) NA (cf Katuic *tʄoh) NA (cf WestBahnaric *snap) #Cnaɲ #lVl *[ ]kuul *[k]liəŋ *buuŋʔ tắt put out (a fire) (v) basic act./tech dựng build (v) basic act./tech đùm wrap (v) basic act./tech nhỏ drip (v) basic act./tech nắp cover/blanket/lid body body body body body body body nanh lè gối trán bụng ( cf lao *buŋỈ xác xương body bone *cak *cʔaaŋ cằm chân mật gãi chết cổ khạc địt nách ngứa mắt miệng mũi vai sống ruột tay chin leg/foot gall scratch (due to itch) (v) die (v) neck/throat spit (v)/spittle fart/pass gas (v) armpit itch/be itchy (v) eye mouth nose shoulder back/ridge intestines arm/hand lách tóc spleen tooth hair on the head/feather *dgam *ɟəŋ *k.mət *kais *kc[ə]t *kɔʔ *khaak *kt1iit *kʔik *lŋaaʔ *mat *miəɲʔ *muh *paʔ *ruŋʔ *ruuc *sii[ʔ]; *t1iiʔ *slaʔ *sraŋ *suk *cak *tʃ-ʔaːŋ > ɟaːŋ / tʃɨəŋ #gam *ɟiːŋ | ciɲ *məc *-kaːs *k-ceːt *koh *kr-haːk #ti:t *-nɛːk #ŋa:ʔ *mat *mɛːŋʔ *muːs *ɓaːj *k-roːŋʔ *rɔːc *siː body body body body body body body body body body body body body body body body body body body body *p-sət / p-sat *pr-təŋʔ > pdəŋʔ ? *duːm *k-̨ʄɔh *s-nəp (< s-rnəp) *k-nɛːŋ *t-lɛːl *t-kuːlʔ *k-laːɲʔ *buŋʔ *laːʔ ~ laː *k-saŋ *-suk Semantic Fields body Vietnamese English Gloss ngáp yawn (v) body móng nail/hoof/claw body vú breast body iả feces/defecate body body óc giết brain kill (v) body điếc deaf body ngửi ‘smell/sniff’ breathe (v) body đốt joint/internode body khoanh cross (arms, legs) (v) body má cheek body ngực chest body sinh đẻ give birth/lay/be born (v) clothing/gro oming nón hat, conical Austroas iatic *sʔaap *t1m[uə] ŋʔ *ʔbuuʔ *ʔic “excreme nt” (cf Katuic *ʔɛh) *ʔuək *kcet NA (cf Bahnaric *tik ~ *təc) NA (cf Katuic (Pacoh tər.ŋɯh and Kui ŋɤh) NA (cf Katuic *toot, *ʔatoot) NA (cf Monic *khwi̱ an ‘to curl up’, Khmer kvien ‘curled up’; etc.) NA (cf Palaungi c *cmaaʔ) NA (cf Palaungi c *nuk) NA (NOTE: Only Vietic and Bahnaric *dɛh) *ɗuən Proto-Vietic *sŋ-?aːp > s-ŋaːp / -ʔaːp *-mɔːŋʔ *b-rn-uːʔ / kbuːʔ *ʔɛh *c-?ɔːk *k-ə-ceːt (< k-pceːt ?) *dɛːk | tɛːk *t-ŋəs *tuːc *k-vɛːŋ *-maːʔ *ŋək *tɛh *ɗɔːnʔ Semantic Fields clothing/gro oming cognition emotions/va lues food and drink food and drink Vietnamese English Gloss Austroas iatic *taaɲ Proto-Vietic đan weave (v) bao hôn dream (n) kiss (v) *mp[ɔ]ʔ *ɟhuuɲ ‘to sniff’ *[ ]ŋuuc *s-poː *huːɲ nhậu drink (v) (of alcohol) muối salt *ɓɔːjʔ ripe/cooked *ɓɔɔh ‘salt’; cf Katuic *ɓɔɔj ‘salt’ *ciinʔ food and drink food and drink food and drink food and drink chín cối mortar (for rice) *guul *t-koːlʔ vôi lime, mineral *knpur *k-puːr chày pestle *tʃ-reː food and drink food and drink food and drink function words kinship kinship kinship kinship kinship kinship thịt meat/flesh *nrəjʔ, *nrəəj[ ], *rnəjʔ *sac nướng roast (on embers) (v) *t1aŋ *ɗaːŋʔ bú suckle/suck at breast (v) *ʔbuuʔ this chắt cháu mẹ mày he/she/3s great grandchild grandchild child/person mother > female you/2s kinship kinship kinship bay em he/she/3s you (plural)/2p younger sibling motion motion sá chảy way/path flow/run (v) motion motion motion motion chạy đứng lội bay run (v) stand up/get up (v) swim/wade/float fly (v) *niʔ; *nih *[ʔ]anʔ *ceʔ *cuuʔ *kuun *meeʔ *mi[i]ʔ; *miih *nVʔ *pɛj NA (cf Katuic *ʔaʔɛɛm “younger sibling”) #kra:ʔ *cuur, *cuər, *car[s] *ɟarʔ *ɟəŋ *lujʔ *par *b-ʔuːʔ > PPC ʔuːʔ / buːʔ *-niː *taːɲ *ɲuːʔ *ciːnʔ (< c-ʔiːnʔ) *-siːt *hanʔ *cat *cuːʔ *kɔːn *meːʔ ~ mɛːʔ *miː #na:ʔ #baj *ʔɛːm *k-raːʔ > kʰlaːʔ *cas *ɟalʔ *təŋʔ #lo:jʔ *pər Semantic Fields motion Vietnamese English Gloss Proto-Vietic cloud Austroas iatic NA (cf Katuic *ɗol) #Cmil float on water (v) physical world physical world physical world physical world physical world physical world physical world physical world physical world physical world mây củi fire/firewood *[ ]ʔus rú forest *briiʔ *guːs | kuːs (final *-l?) *m-ruːʔ nước water *ɗaak *ɗaːk sấm thunder *grəm[ʔ] *k-rəmʔ gió wind *kjaal *k-jɔːʔ > kʰjɔːʔ sáng shine (moon)/be bright (v) *p-laːŋʔ vỏ bark/shell (n) *plaaŋʔ ‘to shine’ *pus sông river *ruŋ *k-roːŋ rừng forest *k-rəŋ possession possession possession vay mượn lose (v) borrow (v) borrow (v) quantity two quantity quantity quantity hai (cf vài ‘a few’) chín ba NA (cf Katuic *kruuŋ ‘forest’; *krɨŋ, *crɨŋ ‘virgin forest’) #bit *pəl/*pul *smaaɲ ‘to ask’ *ɓaar *ciːnʔ *moːc *paː quantity sensory sensory sensory sensory sensory bốn nhẹ ấm thơm chua ‘sour’ cứng four light (in weight) warm/lukewarm fragrant bitter/sour hard/solid sensory sensory sensory đắng mắng bitter sweet hear/listen (v) *dciin[ʔ] *muuj *piʔ (or #pee) *punʔ *[s]ɟaal *[s]ʔəm *dhum *ɟuʔ *kr[ɔ]ŋ; also, Katuic *kəŋ; *kt2aŋ *lŋuut *rməŋ nine one three *ɗoːs (final *-l?) *k-məl *-pɔh *ɓət #βal *maːɲʔ *haːr *poːnʔ *-ɲɛːlʔ *s-ʔəmʔ *tʰəːm *coːʔ *kəŋʔ *taŋʔ *t-ŋɔːc *c-maŋʔ Semantic Fields sensory Vietnamese English Gloss nặng heavy social/politi cal người human/people social/politi cal quê village spatial spatial spatial spatial ngái đăm (archaic) thấp sấp far right side short/low face down (lying) spatial spatial ngiêng nít ‘small (of children’), ‘few’ inclined to/on the side of small năm ngày hết chài căm ‘spokes’ (dialect) bắn spatial spatial time time time time time warfare/hun ting warfare/hun ting warfare/hun ting Austroas iatic NA (cf Katuic *ʔntəŋ, *ʔntaŋ) NA (cf Bahnaric *bŋaːj) NA (cf Katuic *wiil, *weel) #cŋaaj #Ctam #tVVp *gruup, *[p]kup *ɟkii[ŋ] *kɗit Proto-Vietic *k-lɔːŋ under year about to/prepared to new day finished net, casting *kluuŋ ‘belly/mi ddle’ *kt1aal *cn1am *srap *tmiʔ *tŋiiʔ *ʔət #ɟaːl arrow/arrowhead *kam *kam shoot (v) *paɲʔ *pəɲʔ inside *-naŋʔ *ŋaːj *k-veːr *s-ŋaːjʔ *dam / tam #tVp *k-rəp *s-gɛːŋ *ɗiːt (cf ?it ‘few’) *-taːlʔ *c-n-əm < cəm #srap *ɓəːjʔ *-ŋiː *heːt *ɟaːl ... via the internet to obtain the full database with all Austroasiatic, Vietic, Chinese and Tai words and additional information The database is a work in progress and will undoubtedly change and hopefully... bưởi riềng m? ?a săng cơng s? ?a rắn rận banana taro pomelo galangal (Alpinia galanga) sugarcane wood/plant peacock bark (v) snake louse on the body animals animals animals animals animals rái [rắn]... lexical reconstructions, (b) proto-language reconstructions of branches of Austroasiatic in the online Mon-Khmer Etymological Dictionary, (c) Early and Late Sino -Vietnamese words, and (d) databases