The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4 1 English Word Division Analyze the following words into morphs using the model given below Prefix(es) Root Suffix(es) inequality in equal ity (a) hospitalization (k) disfunctional (b) invisibly (l) inconsiderate (c) uninteresting (m) postcolonial (d) undercooked (n) unlikelihood (e) transcontinental (o) relationship (f) ungrammatical (p) asymmetrical (g) reinforcement (q) hypersensitivity (h) prototypical (r).

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.1: English Word Division Analyze the following words into morphs using the model given below: Prefix(es Roo ) inequality (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) in- t ) equal hospitaliz (k) Suffix(es -ity disfunctio ation nal invisibly (l) inconsiderate uninteresting (m) postcolonial undercooked (n) unlikelihood transcontinental (o) relationship ungrammatical (p) asymmetrical reinforcement (q) hypersensitivity prototypical (r) unfriendliness unforgettable (s) interdependence impropriety (t) monotheism Exercise 4.2: Inflectional Affixes For each of the bold words in the passage from Wallace Stegner's "The Dump Ground" below, label the inflectional suffix: pres past prsprt pstprt = = = = present tense past tense present participle past participle compr = supl = poss = pl = comparative degree superlative degree possessive case plural number The place fascinated us, as it should have For this was the kitchen midden of all the civilization we knew It gave us the most tantalizing glimpses into our neighbors' lives and our own; it provided an aesthetic distance from which to know ourselves The town dump was our poetry and our history We took it home with us by the wagonload, bringing back into town the things the town had used and thrown away Some little part of what we gathered, mainly bottles, we managed to bring back to usefulness, but most of our gleanings we left lying around barn or attic or cellar until in some renewed fury of spring cleanup our families carted them off to the dump again, to be rescued and briefly treasured by some other boy Occasionally something we really valued with a passion was snatched from us in horror and returned at once That happened to the mounted head of a white mountain goat, somebody's trophy from old times and the far Rocky Mountains, that I brought home one day My mother took one look and discovered that his beard was full of moths I remember that goat; I regret him yet Poetry is seldom useful, but always memorable If I were a sociologist anxious to study in detail the life of any community I would go very early to its refuse piles For a community may be as well judged by what it throws away - what it has to throw away and what it chooses to - as by any other evidence For whole civilizations we sometimes have no more of the poetry and little more of the history than this (from Wolf Willow 1955: 35-36) Exercise 4.3: Inflectional versus Derivational Affixes Is -ly an inflectional or a derivational affix? Like an inflectional affix, it seems to attach to many (though not all) of the members of the class of adjective, as in quickly, helpfully, sadly, regrettably, softly, sharply, foolishly If -ly is an inflectional suffix marking the grammatical category adverb, then it should meet the following criteria for inflectional suffixes: (a) never change the part of speech of a root, (b) follow, not precede, any derivational suffixes, (c) affix to virtually any member of the category adjective Does -ly meet these criteria? Try to think of examples which violate these principles Exercise 4.4: Morphological and Morphemic Analysis Divide the following words into morphs (use slashes) and then list the morphemes Note that some words may require more than one analysis into morphemes List the morphological realization rule(s) responsible for each formation Example: mice's Answer: mice/s {mouse} + {pl} + {poss} fusional and agglutinative (a) least (k) our (b) set (l) rings (c) fish (m) sayings (d) should (n) broken (e) hoped (o) these (f) hearing (p) whose (g) were (q) older (h) elder (r) her (i) must (s) taken (j) topmost (t) women's Exercise 4.5: Writing Morphemic Rules Examine the following past tense forms in English: hated raided faded fitted mated loaded Pulled Opened Groomed Mowed Cried Paid roared hugged robbed bruised loved judged walked pushed missed hoped fetched laughed a) Determine the allomorphs of this inflectional suffix b) Determine the conditioning environments for each of the allomorphs c) Decide on the underlying (or "elsewhere") form of this morpheme from which the other allomorphs are derived For what reasons did you choose this particular form as the base? d) Write a morphemic rule e) Consider the following past tense forms How are they conditioned? How are they realized? sang rang f) bought fought cut put went were How you account for the following variants: learned/learnt, dreamed/dreamt, burned/burnt? Consider the following words illegal irrelevant impossible immoral impatient ineligible intolerant insecure infamous injury inactive indeterminate illogical imbalance ingrate imbalance immature irregular injudicious incongruous a) Determine the allomorphs of this derivational prefix b) Determine the conditioning factors for each of the allomorphs c) Decide on the underlying (or "elsewhere") form of this morpheme from which the other allomorphs are derived Justify the base form d) Write a morphemic rule e) State the meaning of the morpheme Exercise 4.6: Derivational Prefixes and Suffixes Sort the prefixes in the words below into the following seven categories according to meaning: a) Time d) Degree b) Number e) Privative c) Place f) g) Size Negative, and Each category has two prefixes After you have classified the prefixes, use a dictionary to identify whether the prefix is native English, Latin, or Greek in origin postdate bifocal megawatt disclose polygon subway ultraconservative maladjusted Outdoor Defrost foreshadow Bisexual Disarm hyperthyroidism macrocosm hyperactivity polyglot macroeconomics postelection megalosaur subfloor forewarn demilitarize nonentity malpractice nonsmoker outhouse ultraviolet Sort the suffixes in the words below according to their class-changing function The categories include the following: a) N > N b) V > N c) A > N d) N/A > V (There are two examples of each suffix.) e) N > A f) V>A g) N/A > Adv broaden syntactic width Idealism participant falsehood closure Straighten rhetorician clockwise refusal Vaccinate gangster stardom warmth Tireless a) Can you think of a reason why -en may attach to some adjectives, but not to others, as twofold trial accidental Selfish shown below? blacken stiffen ripen advisorybroadenlikelihood friendless Politician deafen tighten soften loosen conservatism kingdom Facilitate *thinen *longen mobster *slimen inhabitant Seizure *nearen *slowen contradictory *narrowen boyish *highen *holyen stepwise *noblen \ thankless Global manifold historic (b) Can you reason why -ed may some nouns, but not brown-haired left-handed *brown-coated *one-childed kind-hearted narrow-minded *heavy-pursed *two-catted penniless low-spirited strong-headed *long-skirted *silly-hatted think of a attach to to others, as shown below? Which is the proper derivation of unknowledgeable? Explain (a) (b) (c) Exercise 4.7: Prefixation Consider the following words: a) What kinds of disbelief discomfort disharmony disorder displeasure dishonest discharge dishonorable dispassionate dismissive disgraceful disorderly dissimilar disobey dislike disconnect disclose disinfect disown discontinuous distrust roots does the prefix dis- attach to? Explain b) Is it a class-maintaining or class-changing prefix? c) What are the two meanings of the prefix? Name and give an example from the list above of each of the two meanings d) In addition to derivation, what process of word formation is involved in the formation of the following words? disarm disband distrust discolor dismember discourage disfigure disbar e) Analyze the following words into morphs and label each morph as R (= root), DP (= derivational prefix), DS (= derivational suffix), and IS (= inflectional suffix) Specify the grammatical function of the affixes and the part of speech of the root Example: DISCOURAGEMENT dis- (DP) + courage (R - noun) + -ment (DS - nominalizer) disheartening disproportionately disqualification disenchantments disinterested f) Draw a tree diagram showing the derivation of the word disreputable Consider the following words antisocial antibody anticlimax antibacterial antinuclear antihero antihistamine antihygienic antiseptic a) What kinds of roots does the prefix anti- attach to? Explain b) Is the prefix class-changing or class-maintaining? c) Give the meaning of the prefix d) In addition to derivation, what process of word formation is involved in the formation of the following words? antiwar antitrust antifreeze antiknock antislip antiwrinkle e) What problem the following words pose for morphemic analysis? Explain antacid f) antarctic antepileptic Analyze the following words as in (1e) above: antibacterial antiperspirant antirevolutionary anticommercialization antidisestablishmentarianism g) Give a tree diagram showing the derivation of the word antidepressant Exercise 4.8: Compounding Identify the syntactic pattern in each of the following compounds and express it in a lexical rule Example: gravedigger N + V + -er > N The (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) hovercraft dairyman bath-towel goldfish inroads bystander setback meltdown blackout stand-in turnout money-hungry (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w) (x) dugout hardhearted homesick proofread overqualified overachieve badmouth redhead birth control breakfast thoroughgoing quick-change (y) (z) (aa) (bb) (cc) (dd) (ee) (ff) (gg) (hh) (ii) (jj) lukewarm law-abiding far-reaching homemade clean-cut fighter-bomber earthenware driver's seat baking powder drip-coffee wisecrack snowplow following words are compounds which also include derivational affixes Analyze the words, identifying the roots and their parts of speech, as well all the affixes and their function as nominalizer, verbalizer, adjectivalizer, or adverbializer Example: housekeeper house (root - noun) + keep (root - verb) + -er (nominalizer) a flightworthiness c owner-occupied b chatterbox d freedom-loving e handicraft i antiaircraft f j machine-readable broken-hearted g safety-tested k chartered accountant h worldly-wise Exercise 4.9: Minor Processes of Word Formation Identify the process of word formation responsible for each of the following words Try to determine the process before you consult a dictionary, though it may be necessary for you to so The words in column A have been created from the corresponding words in column (a) curio (j) serendipity (s) (b) (to) laze (k) diesel (t) the (c) (to) network (l) (a) ha-ha (u) (d) (to) cohere (m) (to) make up (v) (e) (a) sitcom (n) (to) total (w) (f) (the) muppets (o) (the) hereafter (x) (g) (a) what-not (p) amphetamine (y) (h) margarine (q) (a) construct (z) (i) dystopia (r) (the) chunnel responsible for the creation of each word in column A B guestimate canary brain-gain boojum gaffe-slack psycho walkie-talkie bonfire Indicate word formation process Column A Column B (a) Stagflation stagnation + inflation nosu + thyrl 'hole' (in Old English) Answer (b) to Ex 4.1:Nostril English Word Division (c) Bookie bookmaker Prefix(es) Root Suffix(es) (d) Van caravan (a) hospital (e) Amerindian American Indian -ize -ation (b) in- compact vis disc -ible -ly (f) CD (c) uninterest -ing (g) RAM random access memory cook -ed (h) Televise (d) undertelevision (e) transcontinent (i) Xerox xeroxography -al grammar -ic -al (j) Telethon (f) un- television + marathon (g) re- inforce (k) sci-fi science fiction -ment (h) prototype -ic -al (l) Elect election (i) un- forget -able (m) Deli delicatessen (j) improper -ity (n) Scuba self-contained underwater breathing apparatus function -al (o) Scavenge(k) dis- scavenger consider -ate (p) Hazmat (l) in- hazardous material (m) postcolony -al (n) unlike -ly -hood (o) relate -ion -ship (p) asymmetry -ic -al (q) hypersense -itive -ity (r) unfriend -ly -ness (s) interdepend -ence (t) monothe -ism Note: It might be possible to break down some of these words further, especially if you have KEY a knowledge of Latin, e.g (l') in- con- sider -ate (o') relate -ion -ship (s') inter- de- pend -ence If you so, you will end up with bound roots in most cases Answer to Ex 4.2: Inflectional Affixes should past most supl neighbors' pl (+ poss)* ourselves pl took past bringing prsprt used pstprt gathered past lying prsprt renewed pstprt families pl returned pstprt somebody's poss brought past remember pres would past its poss judged pstprt chooses pres more compr *There is really no inflection for case in the plural In writing, the apostrophe indicates possessive Answer to Ex 4.3: Inflectional versus Derivational Affixes (a) NO: -ly changes the part of speech of the root, deriving adverbs from adjectives: happily < happy oddly < odd strangely < strange rarely < rare loudly < loud It may also derive adverbs from nouns: weekly < week daily < day yearly < year It can derive adjectives from nouns or other adjectives: manly < man sickly < sick princely < prince goodly < good lovely < love kindly < kind portly < port leisurely < leisure It may also change the meaning of an adjective or adverb: hardly/hard lately/late highly/high (b) NO: -ly normally follows derivational suffixes (adjectivalizers): famously woodenly usefully foolishly acceptably But -ly may precede certain derivational suffixes: manliness manlier princeliness loveliness lovelier kindliness (Since no derivational suffix may be attached to an adverb, we cannot test to see whether adverbializer -ly can be followed by a derivational suffix.) Although adverbs inflect for comparison (e.g fast, faster, fastest or late, later, latest), adverbs in -ly form comparison with more and most Hence, -ly is never followed by an inflection: more usefully *usefullier most usefully *usefulliest (This is accounted for, though, by the fact that -er and -est are generally attached only to monosyllabic words.) (c) NO: many adverbs are not formed with -ly: just tomorrow always here now then late near slow (or slowly) fast cheap (or cheaply) hard Furthermore, many adjectives cannot take -ly: tall *tally Canadian *Canadianly blue *bluely two-toed *two-toedly little *littly this, my *thisly, *myly (It seems that when adjectives describe an intrinsic quality, they cannot take -ly because they cannot modify verbal action.) Answer to Ex 4.4: Morphological and Morphemic Analysis (a) least (b) set (c) fish (d) should (e) hop/ed {LITTLE} + {supl} {SET} + {pres} fusional null realization {SET} + {past} zero {SET} + {pstprt} zero {SET} + {sg} {FISH} + {sg} null realization null realization {FISH} + {pl} zero {FISH} + {pres} {SHALL} + {past} {HOPE} + {past} null realization fusional agglutinative {HOPE} + {pstprt} (f) hear/ing {HEAR} + {prsprt} agglutinative agglutinative (g) were (h) elder {HEAR} + {gerund} + {sg} {BE} + {past} + {pl} {OLD} + {compr} agglutinative and null fusional fusional (i) must {ELDER} + {sg} {MUST} + {pres} null null realization {MUST} + {past} (j) top/most {TOP} + {supl} (k) our {1st} + {pl} + {poss} (l) ring/s {RING} + {pl} (m) say/ing/s (n) brok/en (o) these (p) who/se (q) old/er (r) her {RING} + {pres} {SAY} + {gerund} + {pl} {BREAK} + {pstprt} {THIS} + {pl} {WHO} + {poss} {OLD} + {compr} {3rd} + {f} + {sg} + {poss} zero agglutinative fusional agglutinative null realization agglutinative fusional fusional agglutinative agglutinative fusional {3rd} + {f} + {sg} + {obj} (s) tak/en {TAKE} + {pstprt} (t) women/s {WOMAN} + {pl} + {poss} fusional agglutinative fusional and agglutinative Answer to Ex 4.5: Writing Morphemic Rules (a) The allomorphs of the past tense all have the orthographic form -ed, but phonologically they are [əd], [d], and [t] (b) The [əd] allomorph follows roots ending in [t] or [d]; the [t] allomorph follows roots ending in voiceless obstruents, and the [d] allomorph follows roots ending in voiced stops and fricatives, liquids, nasals, and vowels (c) The underlying or "elsewhere" form is likely to be [d] since it is found after the greatest variety of sounds In addition, it is easy to derive the other allomorphs from it by natural phonological processes: schwa insertion to break up a cluster of two alveolar stops will yield [əd], and voice assimilation will yield [t] (d) {past} → [əd] / after alveolar stops [t] / after voiceless consonants [d] / elsewhere Note that the rule is read downward Thus, since [t] and [d] occur in the first line, they are not included among the voiceless consonants in the second line or other sounds in the third line (e) These forms are all grammatically rather than phonologically conditioned Some are realized by a vowel change (sing/sang), some by a vowel change plus an inflectional ending (bring/brought), some by a zero morph (cut/cut), and some by a (f) (a) different form entirely (go/went) These forms are in free variation The allomorphs appear to be il-, ir-, im-, and in- Note, however, that il- and ir- are both pronounced [ɪ], im- is pronounced [ɪm], in- is pronounced [ɪn] (in intolerant, (b) insecure, infamous, etc.) but [ɪŋ] in ingrate and incongruous The [ɪ] allomorph is conditioned by a following liquid (as initial sound of the root), the [ɪm] allomorph by a following bilabial, the [ɪŋ] by a following velar stop, and (c) [ɪn] by a following vowel, or labiodental, alveolar, or alveopalatal consonants [ɪn] appears to be the underlying form since it is found in the greatest variety of environments and is the form from which the other forms can be derived most easily: [ɪm] and [ɪŋ] by assimilation in place of articulation to the place of the following sound (with no change in manner of articulation), and [ɪ] by loss of the (d) nasal {IN} → [ɪ] / before liquids [ɪm] / before labials [ɪŋ] / before velars (e) [ɪn] / elsewhere The meaning is 'not' (f) Q: Why are the forms ignoble and ignominious, which presumably contain the same prefix, a problem? Try to account for this problem (Hint: Look up the etymologies of these words.) A: The word ignoble comes from Latin gnōbilis 'noble' (which later lost its initial consonant to give nōbilis, hence noble) When in- was combined with gnobilis, the first n dropped out, giving English ignoble The g is thus part of the root, not part of the prefix The word ignominious comes from Latin nōmen 'name'; it acquired a g by mistaken analogy with gnōsco, a process called "contamination" Answer to Ex 4.6: Derivational Prefixes and Suffixes (a) Time post- postdate, postelection (b) Number forebi- forewarn, foreshadow bifocal, bisexual (c) Place polyout- polyglot, polygon outdoor, outhouse (d) Degree subhyper- subway, subfloor hyperactivity, hyperthyroidism (e) Privative ultrade- ultraviolet, ultraconservative demilitarize, defrost (f) disnon- disclose, disarm nonentity, nonsmoker malmega- maladjusted, malpractice megawatt, megalosaur Negative (g) Size macro- macrocosm, macroeconomics English: fore-, outLatin: post-, bi-, sub-, ultra-, de-, dis-, non-, malGreek: poly-, hyper-, mega-, macro2 (a) N > N (b) V > N -dom kingdom, stardom -ster gangster, mobster -(ic)ian politician, rhetorician -al refusal, trial -ant inhabitant, participant -ure -th seizure, closure warmth, width -ism conservatism, idealism (d) N/A > V -hood -en falsehood, likelihood broaden, straighten (e) N > A -ate -ic facilitate, vaccinate historic, syntactic -less friendless, penniless (c) A > N (f) V>A -ish -ory -less (g) N/A > Adv -wise -fold selfish, boyish advisory, contradictory tireless, thankless stepwise, clockwise twofold, manifold (a) The reason here is phonological: -en may attach only to monosyllabic adjectives ending in obstruents (stops and fricatives), not to those ending in vowels, nasals, or liquids (b) The reason here is semantic: -ed may attach only to adjectives denoting inalienable possession (things that are possessed intrinsically) and not to those denoting alienable possession (things that may be separated from the possessor) (a) This is incorrect because un- does not attach to nouns; it produces the nonword of English *unknowledge (b) This is correct; every stage in the derivation produces a word of English (c) This is incorrect because while un- does attach to verbs, this also produces the nonword of English *unknowledge Answer to Ex 4.7: Prefixation (a) dis- attaches only to noun and verb roots The adjectives in the list given are all derived from nouns by the addition of adjectivalizers (- (b) (c) ate, -ive, -ful, -able, -ly) The prefix is class-maintaining The two meanings are privative (as in disconnect, disinfect) and (d) negative (as in disharmony, disorder) All of these words involve a shift in the part of speech (from N to V) as well as derivation (e) dis- heart (R - -en (DS - verbalizer) -ing (IS - prsprt) (DP) + noun) + dis- pro- (DP) + + portion (R - noun) + (DP) + dis- qual (R - adjectivalizer) + -ify (DS - verbalizer) + -cation (DS - (DP) + noun) + dis- en- (DP - chant (R - noun) + (DP) + verbalizer) + dis- interest (R - -ed (DS (DP) + noun) + adjectivalizer) -ate (DS - nominalizer) -ment (DS nominalizer)+ -ly (DS _ adverbializer) -s (IS - pl) (f) (a) anti -attaches only to noun roots The adjectives in the list given are all derived (b) (c) (d) from nouns by the addition of adjectivalizers (-al, -ic, -ar) The prefix is class-maintaining The meaning is 'counter, opposite, inverse' These words all involve a conversion, either from N > A (antiwar, antitrust, (e) antiwrinkle) or from V > N (antifreeze, antiknock, antislip) These words show an allomorph ant- of the morpheme occurring with roots beginning in a vowel However, this allomorph is not consistently used in this context, as evidenced by antiaircraft, antiallergenic, antienzyme, anti- inflammatory (f) bacteria (R - -al (DS - anti- (DP) + noun) + adjectivalizer) antiperspire (R - -ant (DS (DP) + verb) + antirevolve (R - nominalizer) -ution (DS - (DP) + verb) + nominalizer) + anticommerce (R -ial (DS - -ary (DS adjectivalizer) -ize (DS - -ation (DS - (DP) + - noun) + antidis -(DP) + adjectivalizer) + verbalizer) + establish (R -ment (DS - nominalizer) -arian (DS - (DP) + verb) + adjectivalizer) + nominalizer) nominalizer) + (g) Answer to Ex 4.8: Compounding (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) V+N>N N+N>N N+N>N N+N>N Prt + N + -s > N Prt + V + -er > N V + Prt > N (conversion) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w) (x) (y) A + N > V (conversion) A+N>N N + N/V > N/A V+N>N A + V + -ing > A A + V > A (conversion) A+A>A -ism (DS - (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) V + Prt > N (conversion) V + Prt > N (conversion) V + Prt > N (conversion) V + Prt > N (conversion) N+A>A V + -en + Prt > N (conversion) A + N + -ed > A N+A>A N+V>V Prt + V + -en > V/A Prt + V > V (z) (aa) (bb) (cc) (dd) (ee) (ff) (gg) (hh) (ii) (jj) N + V + -ing > A A + V + -ing > A N + V + -en > A A + V + -en > A V + -er + V + -er > N N + -en + N > N V + -er + 's + N > N V + -ing + N > N V+N>N A + V > V/N N + V/N > V/N (a) flight (root - worth (root - noun) + -y (adjectivalizer) -ness (nominalizer) noun) + (b) chat (root - -er (nominalizer) + + box (root - noun) verb) + (c) own (root - -er (nominalizer) + occupy (root - verb) + (d) free (root - -dom (nominalizer) + verb) + participle/adjectivalizer) love (root - verb) -ing (present adjective) + (e) hand (root - -y (adjectivalizer) + + participle/adjectivalizer) craft (root - noun) (f) noun) + break (root - -en (past verb) + (g) safe (root - heart (root - noun) -ed (adjectivalizer) participle/adjectivalizer) + + -ty (nominalizer) + test (root - verb) adjective) + (h) world (root - -ly (adjectivalizer) + + wise (root - (i) noun) + anti -(prefix) air (root - noun) + adjective) craft (root - noun) (j) + machine (root read (root - verb) + -able (suffix - - noun) + adjectivalizer) (k) charter (root - -ed (suffix - adjectivalizer) account (root noun) + + -en (past -ed (past participle/adjectivalizer) -ant (suffix - nominalizer) verb) + Answer to Ex 4.9: Minor Processes of Word Formation (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) clipping < curio(sity) back formation < lazy — -y conversion N > V back formation < coherence — -ence clipping < sit(uation) com(edy) blend < m(arionette) (p)uppets phrasal compound clipping < (oleo)margarine (N.B oleo is an alternate clipped form) false morphological division < dis- + -topia < u/topia (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v) literary coinage (by Horace Walpole) commonization < Rudolf Diesel reduplication < French phrasal verb conversion N > V compounding, conversion Prt + Prt > N acronym < a(lpha) m(ethyl) phe(ngl) t(hyl)amine conversion V > N blend < ch(annel) (t)unnel blend < gu(ess) + estimate or guess + (es)timate commonization < Canary Islands reduplication root creation (used by physicist N David Mermin following creation by Lewis (w) (x) (y) (z) Carroll) reduplication clipping < psycho(path) reduplication, diminutive, conversion amalgamated compound < bān' 'bone' + fyr 'fire' in Old English) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) blending amalgamated compound clipping, diminutive clipping blending initialism acronym back formation clipping, commonization blending, false morphological analysis clipping back formation clipping, false morphological analysis (delicat/essen) acronym back formation clipping ... example from the list above of each of the two meanings d) In addition to derivation, what process of word formation is involved in the formation of the following words? disarm disband distrust... that the rule is read downward Thus, since [t] and [d] occur in the first line, they are not included among the voiceless consonants in the second line or other sounds in the third line (e) These... kinds of roots does the prefix anti- attach to? Explain b) Is the prefix class-changing or class-maintaining? c) Give the meaning of the prefix d) In addition to derivation, what process of word