NHỮNG đặc điểm về mặt từ VỰNG và HÌNH THÁI học của các văn bản y dược và ỨNG DỤNG TRONG GIẢNG dạy

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT OF GRADUATE STUDIES NGUY N TH VÂN H NH LEXICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDICO-PHARMACEUTICAL TEXTS AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS (NH NG C I M V M T T V NG VÀ HÌNH THÁI H C C A CÁC V N B N Y-D C VÀ NG D NG TRONG GI NG D Y) M.A Combined Programme Thesis Field: English linguistics Code: 602215 HANOI, APRIL 2008 IETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT OF GRADUATE STUDIES _ NGUY N TH VÂN H NH LEXICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDICO-PHARMACEUTICAL TEXTS AND THE PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS (NH NG C I M V M T T V NG VÀ HÌNH THÁI H C C A CÁC V N B N Y-D C VÀ M T S NG D NG TRONG GI NG D Y) M.A Combined Programme Thesis Field: English linguistics Code: 602215 Supervisor: Dr Ki u Thu H HANOI, APRIL 2008 ng i STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by other person, except where due to references have been made in the text Hanoi, April 2008 Nguyen Thi Van Hanh ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like first and foremost to express my sincere and deep gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Kieu Thi Thu Huong, for her deliberate guidance and invaluable critical feedback and suggestions during the writing of this study Her constant support, encouragement and patience are highly appreciated But for her help, this work would not have been completed I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks for the support and encouragement from Assoc Prof Dr Le Hung Tien toward the completion of my thesis I would also like to thank all teachers from the English Department at Hanoi University of Pharmacy for their unconditional support and their useful ideas for my study Particularly, I owe my thanks to Mrs Nguyen Do Thu Hoai, Head of the English Department, who has continuously encouraged me and shared with me her experience relating to teaching and learning ESP at HUP My appreciation is also to the professors who participated in my inter-rater reliability check for their valuable feedback I am also indebted to all other people whose suggestions, support and encouragement have contributed to the completion of my thesis iii ABSTRACT English for pharmacy at Hanoi University of Pharmacy (HUP) has been taught for three decades; however, there has been little empirical research on medico-pharmaceutical English texts which are used for this English for Specific Purposes (ESP) course This research has been conducted in order to provide teachers and students at HUP with a detailed analysis of the lexical and morphological characteristics of the corpus of texts they are working with and drawing implications for teaching and learning To achieve the above aims, this corpus-based study investigates lexical characteristics of the corpus of medico-pharmaceutical texts used in a pilot ESP course at HUP This is carried out by classifying vocabulary into four levels using primarily the RANGE program (Nation, 2006) and the four-point rating scale by Chung and Nation (2003), and by exploring the morphological characteristics of this ESP corpus mainly with the Simple Concordance Program (Reed, 1997-2008) The results show that the size and the coverage of technical vocabulary are relevant as compared to the previous results of similar studies, strongly suggesting that the coursebook materials are manageable for students The morphological analysis presents the frequency, origin, formation, meanings and functions of the most frequently used affixes in the corpus, revealing that there is a high frequency of words in the corpus from technical vocabulary which share the same origin and formation by means of their affixes The morphological characteristics are, therefore, important in helping students to acquire technical vocabulary The results brought about by the lexical and morphological analyses in this study suggest various implications for course design, materials evaluation, and materials development, as well as for teaching, learning, and testing ESP at HUP in a narrow focus and in EFL teaching and learning in a wider context The tools and methods employed in this study are also intended to assist teachers and researchers in the field of ESP to deal with technical vocabulary iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ii Abstract iii PART ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 Rationale Aims of the study Research questions Research methods Scope of the study Significance of the study Structure of the thesis PART TWO: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 1.1 An overview of lexicon 1.1.1 Some basic concepts .6 1.1.1.1 Word and lexeme .6 1.1.1.2 Word classes .8 1.1.1.3 Closed system versus open classes 1.1.2 Lexical relations 10 1.1.2.1 Collocation 10 1.1.2.2 Polysemy and homonymy .11 1.1.3 Word types, word tokens and lemmas 14 1.2 An overview of morphology 15 1.2.1 Some basic concepts 15 1.2.2 Inflection, derivation and compounding .17 1.2.2.1 Inflection 17 1.2.2.2 Derivation 18 1.2.2.3 Compounding 19 1.2.2 The historical sources of English word formation .20 1.2.3 Characteristics of Germanic and non-Germanic derivation 21 1.3 Text analysis 22 v 1.3.1 Quantitative versus qualitative text analysis 22 1.3.2 Corpus linguistics and corpus-based approach to text analysis 22 1.3.4 Tools for corpus-based analyses 26 1.4 ESP texts 26 1.4.1 ESP texts and technical vocabulary 26 1.4.3 Corpus-based approach and analysis tools in ESP .28 1.5 English for medicine and pharmacy 31 CHAPTER 2:LEXICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDICO-PHARMACEUTICAL TEXTS AT HANOI UNIVERSITY OF PHARMACY 33 2.1 Methodology 33 2.1.2 The selection of texts 34 2.1.3 Major methods for data analysis 35 2.1.4 Major tools for data analysis 35 2.1.5 The inter-rater reliability check 37 2.1.5.1 Introduction of the inter-rater reliability check 37 2.1.5.2 The results of the inter-rater reliability check 41 2.2 Lexical features of the corpus of texts at HUP 42 2.2.1 Initial description and discussion of the data .43 2.2.1.1 General statistics of the corpus 43 2.2.1.2 Processing of the data against the first 2,000 most frequent words in GSL .45 2.2.1.3 Processing of the data against the AWL 47 2.2.1.4 Processing of the data from word list 48 2.2.2 In-depth description and discussion of technical vocabulary .49 2.2.2.1 The size of technical vocabulary in the ESP texts .49 2.2.2.2 The importance of technical vocabulary in the ESP texts 51 CHAPTER 3:MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDICO-PHARMACEUTICAL TEXTS AT HANOI UNIVERSITY OF PHARMACY .55 3.1 Methodology 55 3.2 Discussion of inflectional suffixes in the corpus 56 3.2.1 Suffix -ed 56 3.2.2 Suffix -ing 58 3.3 Discussion of derivational affixation in the corpus 60 vi 3.3.1 Suffix –tion 61 3.3.2 Suffix –al 62 3.3.3 Suffix –ic, -ical and -ous 63 3.3.4 Suffix -ine, -ium and -ia .64 PART THREE: CONCLUSION 68 Conclusion 68 Major findings 69 2.1 Major findings concerning lexical characteristics 69 2.2 Major findings concerning morphological characteristics 69 Implications 70 3.1 Implications for course designers, materials evaluators and materials developers .70 3.1.2 For course designers 70 3.1.3 For materials evaluators 71 3.1.4 For materials developers 72 3.2 Implications for EFL/ESP teaching and learning 73 3.2.1 Implications for teachers 73 3.2.2 Implications for students 77 3.3 Implications for testing 78 3.4 Other implications 79 Suggestions for further research 79 REFERENCES 81 APPENDIX I APPENDIX IV vii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Typical differences between lexical words and function words Germanic and non-Germanic derivation 21 Association patterns in language use 24 Percentage of each vocabulary level in academic language courses 27 Effectiveness of the four ways of identifying technical terms 30 Sample classification in the inter-rater reliability check 39 Marked words for the inter-rater reliability check 40 Inter-rater reliability accuracy score calculated by the number of words assigned to four steps by rater and by the researcher .41 Table Inter-rater reliability accuracy score calculated by the number of words assigned to four steps by the rater and by the researcher .42 Table 10 Coverage of texts by the various levels of vocabulary types and tokens by RANGE program .43 Table 11 Ratio between number of input files and number of types found 44 Table 12 Word classes vs word list 45 Table 13 The most frequent words vs word list 46 Table 14 The most frequent words vs word list 47 Table 15 The most frequent words vs word list 48 Table 16 The most frequent words vs word list 49 Table 17 Coverage of levels of vocabulary types in the corpus of ESP texts 50 Table 18 Coverage of levels of vocabulary frequency in the corpus of ESP texts 52 Table 19 A sample of raw data for developing a glossary of technical words .53 Table 20 A sample of raw data for developing a glossary from low frequency words 54 Table 21 Past participles and their frequency of occurrences 57 Table 22 Present participle/gerund and their frequency of occurrences 59 Table 23 The most common suffixes in the corpus 61 Table 24 Words with suffix –ation and their frequency 62 Table 23 Words with suffix –al and their frequency 63 Table 25 Words with suffix –ic and their frequency 64 Table 26 Summary of the most frequently met suffixes 67 Table 27 Sample of an exercise applicable to teaching technical vocabulary 76 Figure Antonymy and synonymy for polysemic and homonymic words 13 Figure Word morphological structure 16 viii Figure A sample of word morphological structure 16 Figure A sample of concordance of words with suffix -ed 56 XIII TEXT TYPES OF DOSAGE FORM I Introduction Dosage forms are the means by which the molecules are delivered to the sites of action within the body The pharmacological effects of a drug are generally related to the concentration of the drug at its sites of action and include both of the undesirable (toxic) effects and the desirable (therapeutic) effects The aim of successful drug therapy is to deliver the appropriate concentration of the drug molecules to the appropriate sites in order to achieve maximum therapeutic benefit with minimum toxicity Some dosage forms are designed to produce only a local effect of the drug on the skin or on mucous membranes, including those of the eye, nose, stomach, rectum, vagina or respiratory tract Although systemic absorption from such formulations should be minimal, some drug inevitably enters the blood stream with potentially undesirable effects Many dosage forms are designed to produce significant absorption of the drug into the blood stream from the gastrointestinal tract, through the skin or from mucous membranes at various sites in the body Parenteral dosage forms are designed for administration by injection to various depths beneath the skin surface The absorption and distribution of drugs in the body is largely influenced by the release of the drug from the dosage form and the ability of the drug to cross biological membranes II Routes of administration Routes of administration for systemic effects Oral route The most commonly used route of administration is the oral route It is convenient for self administration and effective for most drugs except for those that are rapidly inactivated by gastric or intestinal secretions or by passage via the hepatic portal circulation through the liver The oral route is unsuitable for surgical patients immediately and pre- and post-operatively, for patients who are unconscious or vomiting and for those with malabsorption states Buccal route The buccal route is useful for self-administered drugs and may be used to overcome some of the problems of the oral route Blood flow through the buccal mucosa XIV is high and drugs are absorbed into the systemic rather than the hepatic portal circulation thus avoiding immediate inactivation by the liver This route may also be used in the unconscious patient Rectal route Drugs administered into the rectum are absorbed mainly into the systemic circulation although some entry into the hepatic portal circulation may occur Absorption from the rectal mucosa is less predictable than from the small intestine following oral administration However, the rectal route is useful for the systemic administration of drugs known to cause gastrointestinal irritation or to a patient who is unconscious or vomiting Inhalational route The high blood flow through the lungs and the large surface of the alveolar membrane provide a route for rapid absorption of drugs into the general circulation Anaesthetic gases, volatile liquids and drugs that can be dispersed in an aerosol form may be administered by inhalation in order to produce a systemic effect The nasal mucosa may also be used as route of systemic administration Transdermal route Drugs applied to the skin surface may be absorbed slowly into the systemic circulation This route is useful for drugs with a short duration of action after oral administration, particularly those rapidly metabolized by the liver, and may provide a sustained concentration of the drug in the circulation Parenteral routes Drugs may be administered directly into the circulation by the intravenous route Distribution of the drug throughout the circulatory system is rapid and this route bypasses many biological membranes which may delay absorption into the circulation The dose volume of an intravenous injection may vary from a fraction of a milliliter given as a bolus injection to 500ml or more given as a slow infusion Intra-arterial injections are used mainly for diagnostic purposes and rarely for the administration of drugs except in neonates Routes of administration for local effects Oral route Dosage forms of adsorbents, antimicrobial compounds and antacids may be designed to exert a local effect within the gastrointestinal tract after oral administration XV Topical route Application of a dosage form to the epithelium covering one of the body surfaces may be used to exert a local effect at the site of application Examples include preparations applied to the skin, the cornea of the eye, the nasal, rectal, vaginal or urethral mucosa III Types of dosage form The different forms in which drugs may be supplied to a patient are described briefly in this section All dosage forms should be free from gross microbial contamination and standards of cleanliness in preparation must be high For some dosage forms, sterility, that is a total absence of micro-organisms, is essential Some of the dosage forms described below may be prepared extemporaneously for an individual patient, other dosage forms may be prepared by the pharmacist as stock products Many of the dosage forms supplied routinely to patients on prescription are manufactured and packaged by the pharmaceutical industry Applications Applications are fluid or semi-fluid preparations intended for application to the skin Usually they are suspensions or emulsions Cachets The shells of cachets are moulded from rice paper and are used to enclose quantities of medium-dentistry dry powder up to g in weight Because of large size, cachets should be immersed in water for a few seconds Capsules The shells of capsules are made from gelatin and, like cachets, may be used as oral dosage forms to mask the unpleasant taste of their contents Creams These are semi-solid emulsions for external use There are two kinds, aqueous and oily creams, in which the emulsions are oil-in-water and water-in-oil respectively Aqueous creams are relatively non-greasy Creams may be used to exert emollient or moisturizing effects on the skin or to deliver drugs for percutaneous absorption Creams intended for application to large open wounds should be sterile Dusting powders These are free-flowing very fine powders for external use but not for use on open wounds unless the powders are sterilized XVI Eardrops Ear drops are solutions, suspensions or emulsions of drug that are instilled into the ear with a dropper Gels Gels are translucent or transparent non-greasy semi-solid preparations mainly used externally Inhalations These are liquid preparations consisting of, or containing, volatile substances They are used to relieve congestion and inflammation of the respiratory tract Ointments Ointments are semi-solid, greasy preparations for application to the skin, rectum or nasal mucosa Ointments may be used as emollients or to apply suspended or dissolved medicaments to the skin Pills Pills are oral dosage forms which consist of spherical masses prepared from one or more medicaments incorporated with inert excipients Pills are now rarely used The term “pill” is used colloquially (yet incorrectly) as a synonym for oral contraceptive tablets which are actually prepared by compression Pressurized dispensers (aerosol sprays) Several different types of pharmaceutical product may be packaged in pressurized dispensers, popularly known as “aerosols” Pharmacists should be aware that the abuse of aerosol propellants, as with abuse of other solvents, may cause hallucinations, severe toxicity and possible death Tablets Tablets are prepared by compression of medicaments with a variety of excipients into a solid dosage form Each tablet contains a single dose of the drug(s) Tablets for oral administration are usually swallowed with water but it may be recommended that they be chewed before taking Other types of dosage are listed as follows: Collodions Elixirs Eye drops Eye lotions Eye ointments XVII Gargles Granules Implants Insufflations Irrigation solutions Linctuses Liniments Lotions Lozenges Mixtures Mouthwashes Nasal drops and sprays Oral emulsions Oral liquids Paints Parenteral preparation (injectable preparations) Pastes Pastilles Pessaries Poultices Powders (oral) Pressurized inhalations (aerosol inhalations) Sprays Syrups XVIII TEXT Section I Natural Medicine Doctors in India and China are famous for their knowledge of medicinal plants, but healers in many countries all over the world use natural medicines Many modern drugs come from a few of thousands of plants with medicinal uses For example, aloe vera is good for the skin It helps minor burns, such as sunburn Camomile and sage teas are good for stomach problems Mint or ginger teas often relax people There is new interest in natural medicine all over the world Scientists want to learn more about medicinal plants and their uses The World Health Organization (WHO) has a program to study natural medicines in many countries For hundreds of years, native healers used plants to help the sick Natural medicines, such as the opium poppy or the outside bark of the cinchona tree from South America were common Then in the 1800s, pharmacists recognized their value and began to study them In 1803, Friedrich Serturner took morphine from the opium poppy He was the first pharmacist to extract a drug from a plant Later, scientists extracted quinine, which is a treatment for malaria from the cinchona bark Since then, scientists have extracted natural drugs from many plants They found aspirin in willow bark tea, which is a natural treatment for headaches Scientists have studied medicinal plants and use the knowledge to make synthetic drugs in the laboratory As a result, they can produce a large quantity of synthetic drug for some natural drugs that are not always common or easy to get At the present, pharmacists and physicians are studying drugs from different plants to treat cancer Many of these natural drugs are effective in the treatment of cancer Many different kinds of scientists such as physicians, biologists, and anthropologists are studying medicinal plants One kind of scientist who specializes in collecting medicinal plants is the ethnobotanist Ethnobotanists study groups of people and their medicines They travel to many places, such as South America and Africa, where there are thousands of medicinal plants They live with the native people and learn how the people use these plants Then the ethnobotanists bring the plants back to the laboratory where other scientists extract and study the drugs in them These studies are helping doctors find new cures for many diseases XIX Section II Concept of Chinese drugs Chinese drugs: The traditional Chinese drugs are of two major characteristics most of which are produced in China and they are clinically to treat diseases according to the basic theory of traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese materia medica Chinese drugs reflect traditional cultural features in the Chinese history in certain aspects Herbs: Chinese drugs largely come from plants with medicinal herbs as their mainstays Therefore, since ancient times, Chinese drugs have been called herbs The Chinese Materia Medica: The Chinese materia medica, an important component part of the traditional Chinese medicine, is a special subject for studying the theory on properties of Chinese drugs, their producing areas, collection, preparation, effects, dosage and administration Theory on Drug Properties Diseases are caused by pathogenic factors which affect the human body, resulting in disfunction of the internal organs and in hyperactivity or hypoactivity of Yin, Yang, Qi and blood Drugs are used to eliminate pathogenic factors, restore normal function of the internal organs and rectify hyperactivity or hypoactivity of Yin, Yang, Qi and blood, enable the body to recover from illness Curative effects of drugs come from their polarizing properties Rectification of deviation by polarity is the essence of their curative effects The theory on drugs properties and the law governing applications and pharmacology of Chinese drugs include four natures and five flavours, effects of lifting, lowering, floating or sinking, channel tropism and toxicity I Four natures and Five Flavours Four natures and five flavours are the main contents of the theory on drug properties Natures and flavours of drugs are the first principle of all indicated in books on materia medica of all ages Four natures 1.1 Concept of four natures Four natures are cold, hot, warm and cool natures of drugs Cold and cool natures are different in essence form and antagonistic against warm and hot natures forming the two major properties Cold nature is the same in essence but stronger than cool nature and hot nature is the same in essence but stronger than warm nature XX 1.2 Determination of four natures Four natures of drugs are determined by their curative effects on cold and heat syndromes For example, patient with extreme heat, extreme thirst and energetic pulse, belong to heat syndrome of excess type, are treated with gypsum, anemarrhena rhizome and other drugs If these heat symptoms are alleviated, gypsum and anemarrhena rhizome should belong to cold nature Warm and hot natures of drugs are determined according to the same principle 1.3 Effects of four natures In general, warm and hot drugs have the effects of warming and clearing the channel, warming the interior to disperse cold, supplementing fire to support Yang, warming Yang to induce diuresis and recuperating depleted Yang to rescue patients from collapse; cold and cool have the effects of clearing heat to purge fire, removing heat from blood to eliminate toxicity, purging heat to relax the bowels, including diuresis to treat stranguria and removing heat from the heart and liver “To treat cold syndrome with hot and to treat heat syndrome with cold drugs” is the basic principle of using Chinese drugs That is to say warm and hot drugs are used to treat cold syndrome and cold and cool drugs are used to treat heat syndrome In addition, neutral drugs such as liquorices, which has mild effects without obvious cold or hot properties, can be used for both cold and heat syndromes Five flavours 2.1 Concept of five flavours Five flavours are pungent, sweet, sour, bitter and salty tastes of drugs representing their different effects In addition, tasteless and puckery flavours still belong to five tastes 2.2 Determination of five flavours Five flavours are determined by actual tasting and experience of clinical applications Therefore, five flavours as a theory of drug properties are far beyond the concept of tasting sensations but closely linked to effects of drugs That is the reason why flavours recorded in books on materia medica are sometimes different from actual tasting sensations 2.3 Effects of five flavours are briefly described as follows: Pungent flavour has the effects of including diaphoresis, promoting flow of Qi and blood circulation Sweet flavour has the effects of tonification, relieving spasm and gentling other herbs XXI Sour flavours have the astringent effect of suppressing sweating, arresting bleeding, relieving diarrhea and controling nocturnal emission Bitter flavour has the effects of eliminating dampness, lowering rebellious Qi purging heat and relaxing the bowels Salty flavour has the effects of softening and resolving hard lumps to treat scrofula, subcutaneous nodule, mass in the abdomen In addition, tasteless flavour belongs to sweet with the effect of inducing diuresis to remove dampness Tasteless drugs include poria and lophatherum Puckery flavour belongs to sour has the effect of astringency Puckery drugs include dragon’s bone and cuttle bone Natures and flavours reflect properties and the principle of applications in aspects Therefore, only by combining natures with flavours, can the properties be comprehensively grasped For example, both scutellaria root and dried rehmannia root are cold with the effect of clearing heat However, scutellaria root, bitter in taste and cold in nature for clearing heat and dampness is indicated for damp-heat syndrome; while dried rehmannia root, sweet in flavour and cold in nature for clearing heat and nourishing Yin, is indicated for Yin deficiency and interior heat syndrome All the drugs for relieving exterior syndrome belong to pungent flavour It can thus be seen that natures and flavours are inseparably linked to each other XXII TEXT LIFESAVING SULFURIC ACID Faced with problems such as soil depletion, animal fertilizer quality, and population increases, farmers around the world are finding it difficult to grow sufficient supplies of food As a result, within the next hour about 1,100 people (mostly children) will starve to death, and another 50,000 undernourished people will suffer permanent mental or physical injuries For thousands of years, civilizations such as the Roman empire used animal fertilizers (manure) to help grow crops Then, around 1750, Benjamin Franklin invented chemical fertilizers that were man-made salts Ammonium phosphate and potassium nitrate are two examples Because approximately one third of all food grown today is dependent upon these types of compounds, it is easy to understand why so many people owe their lives and well-being to man-made chemical fertilizers With an increasing worldwide demand for fertilizers, it is not surprising that many of the top dozen chemicals produced in the United States are used in the production of fertilizers Most sulfuric acid goes into the production of fertilizers Most of it is used to treat a mineral called “phosphate rock”, which is primarily calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2, and calcium triphosphate fluoride 1, Ca5(PO4)3F Phosphate rock is the primary source of phosphorus in man-made fertilizers; Florida sits on one of the richest deposits of phosphate rock However, without sulfuric acid, the phosphate rock is essentially useless to plant life, because it is not very soluble in water Plant nutrients must be soluble so that plants can obtain nutrients through their roots Treating phosphate rock with sulfuric acid produces soluble calcium dihydrogen phosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2, and phosphoric acid, H3PO4 2Ca5(PO4)3F + 7H2SO4 + 17H2O → 7Ca(SO4)2 + 2H2O + 3Ca(H2PO4)2 + H2O + 2HF Ca3(PO4)2 + 3H2SO4 + 6H2O → 2H3PO4 + 3Ca(SO4)2 + 2H2O Phosphoric acid, produced by the second reaction, is used in a variety of ways to produce other fertilizers For example, ammonium phosphate is produced when phosphoric acid reacts with ammonia 3NH3 + H3PO4 ↔ (NH4)3PO4 XXIII The chemical industry’s primary products are fertilizers or chemicals such as sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, which are used to make fertilizers Thanks to the insight of Benjamin Franklin more than two hundred years ago, we have been able to nourish more people than would have been possible otherwise Calcium triphosphate fluoride is commonly called fluorapatite or apatite It is the chief component of the bony structure of teeth Hydrogen fluoride, which is produced by the reaction shown in the first equation, is very toxic It causes bone deformities in animals and interferes with plant growth HF is trapped to prevent it from escaping into the atmosphere Soaps Soap has been known since at least 600 BC, when the Phoenicians reportedly prepared a curdy material by boiling goat fat with extracts of wood ash The cleansing properties of soap were not generally recognized for a long time, however, and the use of soap was not widespread until the eighteenth century Chemically, soap is a mixture of the sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids produced by saponification of animal fat with alkali Wood ash was used as a source of alkali until the mid-1800s, when the Leblanc process for producing NO2CO3 was invented and NaOH thus became commercially available Where R = C15 – C17 aliphatic chains The crude soap curds contain glycerol and excess alkali as well as soap, but purification can be effected by boiling with a large amount of water, followed by precipitation of the pure sodium carboncylate salts on addition of sodium chloride The smooth soap that precipitates is dried, perfumed, and pressed into bars for household use Dyes can be added if a colour soap is desired, antiseptics can be added for medicated soaps, pumice can be added for scouring soaps, and air can be blown in for a soap that floats Regardless of these extra treatments, though, all soaps are basically the same The mechanism by which soaps exert their cleansing action derives from the fact that the two ends of a soap molecule are so different The sodium salt end of the longchain molecule is ionic and therefore hydrophilic (water loving); it tries to dissolve in water The long aliphatic chain portion of the molecule, however is a nonpolar hydrocarbon and is therefore lipophilic (fat loving); it tries to dissolve in grease The net XXIV effect of these two opposing tendencies is that soaps are attracted to both greasy dirt and water, and are therefore valuable as cleansers When soaps are dispersed in water, the long hydrocarbon tails cluster together in a lipophilic ball, while the ionic heads on the surface of the cluster stick out into the water layer These spherical clusters, called micelles, are shown schematically in the following figure Soap micelle solutions are good cleanser because grease and oil droplets are coated by the non-polar tails of soaps molecules and are then dispersed in water where they can be washed away Soaps make life much more pleasant than it would otherwise be, but they have certain drawbacks In hard water, which contains metal icons, soluble sodium carboxylates are converted into insoluble magnesium and calcium salts, leaving the familiar ring of scum around bathtubs and the “tattletale gray” on white clothes Chemists have circumvented these problems by synthesizing a class of synthetic detergents based on salts of long-chain alkylbenzenesulfonic acids The principle by which synthetic detergents operate is identical to the principle of soaps – the alkyl bezene end of the molecule is lipophilic and attracts grease, but the sulfonate salt end is ionic and is attracted to water Unlike soaps, however, sulfonate detergents not form insoluble metal salts in hard water XXV TEXT National Drug Policy I An NDP is a guide for action It is a document specifying the goals set by the government for the pharmaceutical sector, their relative importance, and the main strategies for attaining them It provides a framework to coordinate activities of the pharmaceutical sector: the public and private sectors, NGOs (non-government organizations), donors, and other interested parties In the developed world, many countries not have written NDPs yet are successful in pursuing pharmaceutical sector goals However, even in these countries, some experts advocate having a document that clearly outlines the objectives of an NDP, such as the one recently formulated in Australia In countries where resources are severely limited, an integrated approach to solving problems is valuable to encourage the best use of limited resources Without a formal policy document, there may be no overall view of what is needed or how to proceed Policies may be in conflict with one another: for example, in some East African countries, difficulties in collecting direct taxes have led to a heavier reliance on import duties and manufacturing taxes, including those from drugs This makes imported drugs more expensive and discourages local production, so low-cost drugs are less likely to reach the people II The overall goal of an NDP in most cases is very general For instance, in Malawi, the aim of the drug policy is "to develop within the available resources, the potential that drugs have to control common diseases and alleviate suffering" In Tanzania, the drug policy states that the goal is "to make available to all Tanzanians at all times the essential pharmaceutical products which are of quality, proven effectiveness, and acceptable safety at a price that the individual and the community can afford, when these are needed to prevent, cure, or reduce illness and suffering" Although specific objectives differ according to the priorities set by the government, the most common are - to make essential drugs available and affordable to those who need them; - to ensure the safety, efficacy, and quality of all medicines provided to the public; XXVI - to improve prescribing and dispensing practices and to promote the correct use of medicines by health workers and the public In addition to basic health-related goals, there may be others, including economic goals (for example, to reduce the use of foreign exchange for drugs imports or to provide jobs in areas such as dispensing, prepackaging, or production of drugs) and national development goals (for example, to improve internal transportation and communication systems, develop national pharmaceutical production, or protect intellectual property rights or avoid establishing them) Regardless of the country's specific circumstances, comprehensive NDPs should clearly specify the roles of both the public and the private sectors In addition, the policy should be concerned with efficiency (delivery of the maximum level of services given a certain level of resources), equity (fairness in access), and sustainability (the ability to provide benefits into the future without external support) III A good policy presents approaches or strategies for achieving the goals of the policy: for each objective, strategic decisions need to be made about how to attain it For instance, the supply of essential drugs can be improved through the public sector by increasing the drug budget, introducing cost-sharing mechanisms, and allocating more resources to underserved populations and areas Drug supplies can also be increased through the private sector by introducing economic incentives for drug manufacturing and transportation The optimal solution will likely involve applying different policies to the private and public sectors This combination of different approaches and strategies form the core of an NDP IV Objectives and strategies may differ from country to country due to differences in the structure of the health care system, the number of trained pharmacists and physicians, the capacity of the drug regulatory agency, features of the pharmaceutical distribution system, and the level of funding for pharmaceuticals In most industrialized countries, health care coverage is broad, and access to drugs per se is not prominent issue (although cost is likely to be a concern) The roles of the government is to set up rules for the operations of the private sector without becoming directly involved in the provision of drugs or in the pharmaceutical industry This model requires the existence of an active private sector that is capable of developing, manufacturing, marketing, and distributing drugs the entire population In these settings, XXVII pharmaceutical policies are oriented toward containing costs without decreasing access and equity In the least developed countries, total spending on pharmaceuticals is very low (less than US$ 10 per person per year) The private sector has traditionally failed to supply drugs to more than a fraction of the population (the most affluent sector) Consequently, governments have attempted to supply and distribute essential drugs through the public sector, often with donor support In addition more attention is given to such matters as ensuring the proper use of medicines and encouraging the private sector to play a more constructive role in supplying essential drugs V National governments are the principal agency and driving force in drug policies The state hopes to guarantee availability and access to effective, high quality essential drugs for the population and to ensure that they are properly used This holds true whether the government is directly involved in procurement and distribution of drugs, empowers a parastatal institution to carry out this function, or is mainly a regulatory authority for a largely private pharmaceutical market The government is not, however, the only actor involved with the NDP A partnership is required, involving government ministries of health, finance, and industry; health professionals, including doctors and other prescribers and pharmacists; public and private wholesalers and retailers; consumers; and the pharmaceutical industry (national and multinational) With such diverse groups and conflicting interests, development of a sustainable NDP is not easy With patience and good will, however, an environment conductive to success can be created ... Sense Synonym Antonym easy, clear simple plain complex undecorated stretch of water sound ?? ?? noise Figure Antonymy and synonymy for polysemic and homonymic words (Finegan, 2000:196) Homonymy and... word The same polysemic word, moreover, may share the same synonyms and antonyms, however, this type of word is limited in number, i.e., not all words have synonyms and/or antonyms Let us take... phonologically, may be preceded and followed by a pause; orthographically there are spaces of punctuation marks; syntactically, they may be used alone as a single utterance; and semantically, words