A contrastive analysis of metaphor in english and vietnamese idioms relating to numbers = so sánh đối chiếu phép ẩn dụ trong thành ngữ anh việt liên quan đến con số

vinh university foreign Languages department hoàng thị a contrastive analysis of metaphor in english and vietnamese idioms relating to numbers (SO SÁNH ĐỐI CHIẾU PHÉP ẨN DỤ TRONG THÀNH NGỮ ANH - VIỆT LIÊN QUAN ĐẾN CON SỐ) GRADUATION THESIS Field: Linguistics Vinh - 2012 vinh university foreign Languages department a contrastive analysis of metaphor in english and vietnamese idioms relating to numbers (SO SÁNH ĐỐI CHIẾU PHÉP ẨN DỤ TRONG THÀNH NGỮ ANH - VIỆT LIÊN QUAN ĐẾN CON SỐ) GRADUATION THESIS Field: Linguistics Supervisor : Student : Class : Trần Bá Tiến, M.A Hoàng Thị Hằng 49A - English Vinh - 2012 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For the completion of this thesis, I have been very fortunate to receive the invaluable contributions from many people First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Mr Tran Ba Tien, M.A With his profound knowledge and experience in English, he gives me a lot of enthusiastic assistance,excellent suggestions as well as detailed critical comments But for him, this work would not have been completed In addition, I am greatly indebted to all my teachers from the Foreign Languages Department of Vinh University for their lectures and to my friends for various kinds of help and encouragements My warmest thanks are due to my loving parents and my younger sister who are always besides and support me to overcome difficulties during the time of doing this thesis Finally, I am all too aware that despite all the advice and assistance, I feel that the study is far from perfect; it is, therefore, my sole responsibility for any inadequacies and shortcomings that the study may be considered to have Vinh, May 10, 2012 Hoang Thi Hang i ABSTRACT It can’t be denied that using idioms makes our conversation more vivid and lively However, it is not easy to master them at all The meaning of idioms is very complicated As V.V Vinogradov imaginatively expresses, the meaning of an idiom is “ the special chemical mixture” of meaning of all components This means idioms always contain images, which resulted from metaphors, in themselves In other words, metaphor is the most important device to build idioms Being awareness of its importance and associating the author’s interest, she decides to analyse the use of metaphors in English number idioms and Vietnamese counterparts In this paper, some similarities and differences between metaphors in English and Vietnamese idioms relating to numbers are pointed out With the hope of giving a practical way for the teachers and learners, the author also recommends some solutions for teaching and learning idioms ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i ABSTRACT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii ABBREVIATIONS v PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 Justification of the Study Aims of the Study Methods of the Study Scope of the Study Design of the Study PART II: DEVELOPMENT Chapter THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 1.1 An Overview of Contrastive Analysis 1.2 Words and Set Expressions 1.2.1 Words 1.2.2 Set expressions 1.3 Idioms 1.3.1 Definition of Idioms 1.3.2 Characteristics of Idioms 1.3.3 Classifications of Idioms 1.3.4 Distinction between Idioms and Free -Expressions 10 1.3.5 Distinction between Idioms and Proverbs 10 1.4 Metaphor 12 1.4.1 Definition of Metaphor 12 1.4.2 Classification of Metaphor 13 1.4.3 Metaphor and Simile 14 1.4.4 Metaphor versus Metonymy 14 1.4.5 The Use of Metaphor in Vietnamese and English Idioms 15 iii Chapter A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF METAPHOR IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE IDIOMS RELATING TO NUMBERS 17 2.1 The elements of Numbers in Idioms Relating to Numbers 17 2.2 Metaphor in Idioms relating to Numbers 18 2.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Metaphor in English and Vietnamese Idioms relating to Numbers 19 2.3.1 Metaphors are Applicable in both English and Vietnamese Idioms relating to Numbers 19 2.3.2 Metaphors are only Applicable in Vietnamese Idioms relating to Numbers 26 2.3.3 Metaphors are only Applicable in English Idioms relating to Numbers 33 Chapter SOME SUGGUESTIONS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH IDIOMS 37 3.1 Difficulties Faced by Learners in Learning Idioms 37 3.1.1 Difficulties in Understanding 37 3.1.2 Difficulties in Memorizing 39 3.2 Some Suggestions for Teaching and Learning English Idioms 40 3.2.1 For the Teachers 40 3.2.2 For the Learners 41 3.3 Some Suggested Samples of Exercises with Idioms containing Numbers 42 PART III: CONCLUSION 47 Recapitulation 47 Suggestions for Further Studies 48 REFERENCES APPENDIX iv ABBREVIATIONS Ex: For example Etc: et cetera i.e.: that is st: something sb: somebody v PART I: INTRODUCTION Justification of the Study Every language has its own words and idioms Idiom is a language phenomenon and plays an important part in spiritual life of a country because it reflects a vivid picture of a nation’s customs and cultural traditions and is recollection of its part history as well as folklore Using idiom in communication is the most effective and interesting way It can carry not only literal meaning but also the figurative meaning, which makes our observation, judgments and explanations be more lively and interesting Although idioms help people to communicate more successfully and make languages more lively and smooth, it is not easy to master and use them appropriately at all because the meaning of most idioms cannot be deduced from their components In other words, learners have to consider the figurative senses For instance, instead of saying “There were very many things to at the festival”, we can say “There were a million and one things to at the festival” because “million and one” means “very many” It is said that metaphor is the one of best devices to build idioms It is the effective means of creating images Therefore, to understand the metaphorical expressions of idioms, we can’t rely on literal meaning but their figurative meaning Moreover, during the course of language, the author has many chances to deal with different aspects of English language And she is really interested in idioms, especially their semantics Also, she finds that idioms relating to numbers take a large portion and they are used very frequently in English and Vietnamese Up to now, idioms have interested many authors They have carried out many researches about idioms such as idioms relating to colour, to human’s body parts, about love, etc, however, there is not any study about idioms relating numbers For the reasons above, the author decides to choose the topic “A Contrastive Analysis of Metaphor in English and Vietnamese Idioms relating to Numbers” as the study of her graduation thesis with the hope that it can make a small contribution in teaching and learning English idioms Aims of the Study The aims and objectives of the study are as follow: - To make a clear distinction of metaphor in English and Vietnamese idioms relating to numbers - To provide learners with the fundamental understanding about words, metaphor, idioms in general and idioms relating to numbers in particular and also help them understand the cultural characteristics of English and Vietnamese people via the idioms - To give some suggestions for teaching and studying idioms - To satisfy the author’s interest Methods of the Study To finish this study, the author has used some methods - Statistic method - Contrastive and comparative method - Analytic and systematic method Scope of the Study In this study, we only take English and Vietnamese idioms relating to numbers into consideration The term “number” in “idioms relating to numbers” indicates cardinal numbers Also, we only analyze their semantic feaures in terms of metaphorical meaning Design of the Study Apart from Acknowledgement, Abstract, Table of Abbreviations and Appendix, the thesis consists of three main parts Contents, Part I is “INTRODUCTION” which consists of the author’s reasons for choosing the study, aims, method, scope and design of the study Part II entitled “DEVELOPMENT” includes three chapters Chapter 1, “Theoretical Background”, provides some background knowledge about words, idioms, metaphor and the use of metaphor in English and Vietnamese idioms Chapter is titled “ A Contrastive Analysis of Metaphor in English and Vietnamese Idioms relating to Numbers” This chapter mainly investigates the metaphor in English and Vietnamese idioms containing numbers Chapter entitled “Some Suggestions for Teaching and Learning English Idioms” point out some difficulties faced by learners and provides several suggestions for teaching and learning idioms Part III is “CONCLUSION” in which the author summarizes the main points in the study and suggests some topics for further studies A B It takes two to make a quarrel a Năm thỉnh mười thoảng Six of one and half of a dozen of other b Phải cái,rái đến già Two’s company, three’s a crowd c Tại anh, ả, đôi bên Once bitten, twice shy d Kẻ tám lạng người nửa cân Once in a while e Ba bà chín chuyện Match the idioms with available definitions Idiom Definition on cloud nine a having trouble making a decision in two shakes b very happy in two minds c have too much alcohol to drink a dime a dozen d very cheap,common dressed to the nines e very soon have one too many f dressed formally and elaborately Match to make complete idioms Two wrongs a to the wind One man’s man meat is b short of a picnic Three sheets c another man’s position One sandwich d don’t make a right Two bricks shy e of a load Sample V Reorder the words to make a correct idiom shy/ once/ two/ bitten one/six/dozen/of /and/a/of/other/half/the two/planks/thick/short/as to/tango/takes/two/it are/two/one/better/than/heads 44 Sample VI Correct mistakes Each sentence below has an idiom, but there is something wrong with each idiom Can you find and correct each one? The schedule of my boss is always changing but nine time out of ten he is in his office on Monday morning We talked to the employees one in one when we learned of the serious financial problems in the company I'm in two mind about this weekend: should I go hiking with John or dancing with Joe? Ichiro was on clouds nine when he learned that he passed the university entrance exam Everyone at the dinner party was dressed to the nine Sample VII: Guess Meaning John was on cloud nine because he had a promotion and a huge salary increase I'm in two minds about my future: Shall I stay in Canada or shall I go to Japan? Joe is going to meet the Emperor so he is dressed to the nines Happy new year to all and one Our coach is one in a million He is fantastic Sample VIII Find out English idioms that are equivalent in Vietnamese Năm thỉnh mười thoảng Tại anh, ả, đôi bên Kẻ tám lạng người nửa cân Cùng hội thuyền Phải cái,rái đến già 45 Sample IX Find out Vietnamese idioms that are equivalent in English It takes two to make a quarrel Six of one and half of a dozen of other One man’s meat is another man’s position Two’s company, three’s a crowd Sample X Explain the meaning of these idioms At sixes and sevens All rolled up in one One of the boys Hundred to one shot Get forty winks Look like a million dollars 46 PART III: CONCLUSION Recapitulation Idioms in general and idioms relating to numbers are very popular They plays an important role in making people’s communication more smooth and vivid However, when we talk about idioms, it is not impossible to mention the use of metaphor Among many other stylistic devices, metaphor is regarded as the most effective means of creating images Being awareness of its importance and associating the author’s interest, she decides to analysis the use of metaphors in English number idioms and Vietnamese counterparts In the first chapter, the author has briefly presented the general knowledge about words, idioms and metaphors In the next chapter, besides mentioning something about idioms relating to numbers and the use of metaphors in those idioms, the author concentrates on pointing out the similarities and differences between two language number idiom systems in terms of metaphorical meaning According to the analysis, we can see that there are some metaphors shared in both English and Vietnamese number idioms, such as cooperation, unity and help; knowledge and experiences; precaution; the agreement and disagreement; stupidity; similarity; frequency and duration Besides, the findings show that English idioms containing numbers involve many metaphors that Vietnamese ones not have and vice versa The two different countries, of course, lead to the dissimilar metaphorical features between them For instance, Vietnamese idioms embody metaphors of exploitation, superstition, polygamy while those are not applicable in English ones In chapter three, the thesis also mention the difficulties faced by learners in studying English idioms With the hope of giving a practical way for the teachers and learners, the author recommends some solutions This chapter ends with some sample exercises to give learners chances to practice 47 Suggestions for Further Studies As the limitation of an assignment and the author’s knowledge as well, the study only convey the similarities and differences of metaphor in English and Vietnamese idioms containing numbers For the further studies on this matter, the author attempts to give some suggestions as follows:  Contrastive analysis of semantic and structural features in Vietnamese and English idioms relating to numbers  Contrastive analysis of Vietnamese and English proverbs and idioms relating to numbers 48 REFERENCES In English Cowie,A.P., Mackin,R & Mccaig, I.,R (2009).Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms New York: Oxford University Press Curry, D.(1982) Illustrated American Idioms Washington, D.C Hornby,A.S (2005).Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary of current English NewYork: Oxford university press Mc Graw - Hill (2006) Oxford Idioms Dictionary New York: Oxford University Press Nguyễn Hòa (2004) An Introduction to Semantics Ha Noi : Vietnam National University Press Nguyễn Hòa (2004) Understanding English Semantics Ha Noi : Vietnam National University Press Richards,C ,J & Richard, S (2010) Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Language Great Britain : Pearson Education Limited In Vietnamese Bùi Phụng (1997) Từ Điển Thành Ngữ ,Tục Ngữ Anh- Việt Tường Giải Hồ Chí Minh: Nhà Xuất Bản Văn Hóa Hồng Phê (1988) Từ Điển Tiếng Việt Hà Nội : Nhà Xuất Bản Khoa Học Xã Hội Hoàng Tất Trường (1993) Từ Vựng Học Tiếng Anh Cơ Bản Hà Nội : Nhà Xuất Bản Đại Học Sư Phạm Ngoại Ngữ Hà Nội Hoàng Văn Hành (2004) Thành Ngữ Học Tiếng Việt Hà Nội : Nhà Xuất Bản Khoa Học Xã Hội Nguyễn Lực & Nguyễn Văn Đang.(1993) Thành Ngữ Tiếng Việt Hà Nội : Nhà Xuất Bản Khoa Học Xã Hội Nguyễn Như Ý (Ed.).( 1998) Từ Điển Giải Thích Thành Ngữ Tiếng Việt Hà Nội :Nhà Xuất Bản Giáo Dục Nguyễn Văn Chiến (1992) Ngôn Ngữ Đối Chiếu Đối Chiếu Các Ngôn Ngữ Đông Nam Á Hà Nội :Nhà Xuất Bản Đại Học Sư Phạm Hà Nội Vũ Ngọc Phan (2000) Tục ngữ - Ca dao - Dân ca Việt Nam Nhà xuất Bản Văn Học Websites http://www.idiomconnection.com/number.html http://tailieu.vn/xem-tai-lieu/tuyen-tap-thanh-ngu-tuc-ngu-ca-dao-vietanh.286154.html http://www.learn-english-today.com/idioms/idiom-categories/number idioms.htm http://2ndnature-online-eikaiwa.com/Idioms/Idioms-Numbers.htm http://dictionary.cambridge.org http://idioms.thefreedictionary.com http://giadinh.net.vn http://diendankienthuc.net http://www.baomoi.com http://dantri.com.vn http://www.anhvangiaotiep.vn APPENDIX ENGLISH IDIOMS CONTAINING NUMBERS Number Idioms All at once At once For once Once a ,always a Once and for all Once bitten, twice shy 10 11 12 Once in a blue moon Once too often Once or twice Once upon a time Once in a while Be twice the man/ woman 13 14 Twice over Cheap at twice the price 15 Lightning never strike (at the same place )twice 16 Think twice about st/ doing st All in one breath All in one piece As busy as a one-armed paperhanger As one At one time At one with someone Back to square one Do (someone) one better (I/you/he) for one For one thing Have one too many Hundred and one Hundred to one chance/ shot 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Metaphorical meaning Suddenly Immediately On this occasion In a certain respects people not change although circumstances change Finally and definitely If someone has gone wrong one, you are very careful not to let st similar happen again Very rarely To make mistake after mistake A few times A long time in the past Sometimes Be much stronger ,better, healthier than before Not just once but twice Worth more than the price paid even though it is expensive An unusual or unpleasant event is not likely to happen in the same place or to the same person twice Think carefully before deciding to st Speak rapidly while one is very excited Safely, without damage Very busy As if a group were one person At a time in the past Be in agreement with someone Back to where one started To st superior to what sb else has done As one example, even if the only one For one reason Have too much alcohol to drink Very many A small chance that is not likely to bring success 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 In one fell swoop Look after number one Million and one Not one iota (get) one over sb/st Get st in one Number one On the one hand One after another One and all One and only One and the same One at a time One by one One for the (record) books One for the road 46 One good turn deserves another One heck/hell of a (st) 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 one in a million One man’s meat is another man’s poison A one-night stand One of the boys One of these days One of those days One of those things 55 one person’s trash is another person’s treasure 56 One sandwich short of a picnic One thing leads to another/other One way or another Quick one 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 Ten to one There are more than one way to skin a cat The all and the one A thousand and one In one incident, as one event To only look after or think about oneself Very many Not even a tiny bit To gain an advantage over sb/st To understand the point, an explanation Oneself From one point of view or opinion One thing or person follows another Everyone The only person or thing, unique Exactly the same Individually Individually A record-breaking act One last drink( usually of alcohol) before one leaves for home If someone help you then you should help them in return The emphasis that sb/st is very good or very bad at st Unique, one of a very few St that one person likes may not be liked by another person An activity that lasts only one night An accepted member of a group Soon, before long, someday A bad day when many things go wrong Something is unfortunate but it must be accepted Something that one person considers of no value may be considered value by someone else Not very smart Doing one thing or one event will set the stage for something else Somehow A single drink of alcohol taken before one does something else Very likely There are more than one way to something Unity Very many 64 Two heads are better than one 65 66 If ever there was one One hell of a narrow 67 One fell swoop 68 One foot in the grave 69 70 71 72 The one about something To be made one In the year one One with sb/st 73 Cut two ways 74 Have two strike against (one) 75 In /of two minds about(something) In two shakes of a lamb’s tail It takes two to tango 76 77 78 79 Kill two birds with one stone Know a trick or two 80 Lesser of the two 81 82 83 Lesser of two evils Like two peas in a pod Not give two hoots about(sb/st) Put in one’s two cent’s (worth) Put two and two together 84 85 86 87 Stand on one’s own two feet Two or three Two people working together can achieve better results than one person working alone There is no doubt, that’s certainly true A dreadful, terrible quarrel; an exceptional ,outstanding person In a single action, usually rapidly and ruthlessly A person is very old, very ill and close to death A joke about st Get married Once upon a time United with, forming an integral part of someone/something To be capable of having two opposite effects, to produce advantages and disadvantages To have a number of things that are working against you which make success more To be undecided about something Very quickly If a problem or an argument involve two people then both people are responsible for the problem To achieve two aims with one effort or action To know a special way to deal with a problem The smaller of two things, the one with the least amount The less bad thing of two bad things Very similar To not care about sb/st To add one’s comments to a discussion To make a correct guess, to figure st out from the information that you have To be independent and self-sufficient Small number 88 91 92 93 Two can live as cheaply as one Two minds with but a single thought Tell (sb) a thing or two (about st) That makes two of us Two bricks shy of a load Two can play that game 94 Two of a kind 95 Two-time (sb) 96 Two wrongs don’t make a right 97 101 102 103 Two’s company, three’s a crowd In two twos By in twos and threes As thick as two short planks Two a penny For two pins Like a dog with two tails 104 105 Learn/know a thing or two Fall between two stools 106 In two shakes/ in a couple of shakes Have two left feet 89 90 98 99 100 107 108 109 110 111 Not have two brain cells/pennies/ to rub together Put your two penny worth An argument advanced in favor of two people living together Two people concern with the same subject, intent or purpose To scold sb, to become angry at sb The same thing is true for me To be not very smart or clever You can treat another person in the same way as they have treated you People or things that are of the same type or similar in character or attitude,etc To cheat on one’s partner by seeing sb else You can’t justify doing st wrong or bad just because sb else did the same thing to you Two people are happier when nobody else is around At a glance Each couple and each triple Very stupid Be cheap, numerous, not valuable With very little persuasion or provocation Be delighted, proud, happy ,etc because one now owns or has achieved st Learn, know much about st Not be successful , acceptable because it is neither one thing nor another Very soon Be very awkward in your movements, especially when you are dancing or playing sports Be very stupid/ have no money/ Give your opinion about st, even if other people don’t want to hear it Two sides of the same coin Used to talk about two ways of looking at the same situation A bird in the hand is worth It is better to be satisfied with what you two in the brush have got than to lose it trying to get st more and better 112 113 114 115 116 Your (someone’s s) number two Sever two masters In twos and threes One step forward, two steps back 118 As phony as three-dollar bill Give three cheers for(sb)/ give (sb) three cheers Three R’s 119 120 Three sheets to the wind Three score years and ten 121 Give me five! 122 Nine-to-five attitude 123 Nine-to –five job 124 Take five 125 126 On all fours with These four walls 127 Hit/ knock st/sb for six 128 129 130 131 132 133 At sixes and sevens Deep-six (sb/st) Six feet under Six of one and half a dozen of the other One over the eight Behind the eight balls 134 135 Dressed to the nines Nine-day wonder 136 137 138 Nine times out of ten On cloud nine You and the other (ninety) nine 117 The second most important person in a company, an organization Support two opposite parties, principles two or three at a time; in small numbers Every time you make a progress, st bad happens that means that the situation is worse Phony, not genuine To give praise or approval to sb who has done well The three basic skills in school- reading ,(w)riting, (a)rithmetic Drunk Seventy years as an expected human life span Hit me with your hand to show that you are happy about something An attitude towards work where you don’t anything beyond the minimum that is required of you A routine job in an office that involves standard office hours To take one brief (about five minutes) rest period The same type, similarity Used when you are talking about keeping st secret Surprise a lot/ completely destroy a plan or an idea In a state of confusion To get rid of or dispose of sb/st Dead and buried There is little difference between two things or situations Be drunk Very difficult situation ,with many risks and disadvantages To be dressed in one’s best clothes Sb/ st who was briefly attracts a lot of attention but is soon forgotten Almost always Very happy about something Sb doesn’t believe you can 139 The whole nine yards 140 A stitch in time saves nine 141 142 143 Have nine lives To crack sb up to the nines Ten out of ten (for st) 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 The upper ten Ten a penny By the dozen A baker’s dozen Talk nineteen to the dozen Dime a dozen Feel like a million bucks Fell like a million dollars Look like a million dollars Million dollar question Million miles away 155 156 157 Bat a thousand Sixty s four thousand dollar question Catch c twenty-two 158 159 Catch forty winks Sweet sixteen Everything or a situation which include everything Any damage or mistake should be correct immediately in order to prevent it from becoming worse Be very lucky in dangerous situation To extol to someone to the skies Used to say that sb has guessed st correctly or done st very well aristocracy Very cheap, common Many at the same time Thirteen Talk a lot and very fast Be very cheap, common To feel great, to feel well and healthy To feel great, to feel well and healthy Look very good An important but difficult question To not be paying attention to st, to be distracted and daydreaming about st Extremely successful at st Very difficult but crucial question A situation in which whatever decision is made the outcome will have the negative consequence To take a nap ,to get some sleep Past hood but still young enough to be innocent and unworldly ANSWER KEYS Sample I 1) 1.B 2.B 3.B 4.D 2) 1.C 2.D 3.D 4.A 5.C Sample II 1) twice two thick wind five 2) put feet peas sheets serve Sample III one .’s company, three’s a crowd two three nine √ √ Nine to job √ Hundred to chance √ sheets to the wind √ A stitch in time saves √ Like peas in a pod Sample IV 1) 1.C 2.D 3.E 4.B 5.A 2) 1.B 2.E 3.A 4.D 5.F 3) 1.D 2.C 3.A 4.B 5.E 6.C Sample V Once bitten, twice shy six of one and half of a dozen of the other thick as two short planks It takes two to tango Two heads are better than one Sample VI time -> times in -> by five mind -> minds clouds -> cloud nine -> nines Sample VII very happy to be undecided to be dressed in one’s best clothes everyone to be unique Sample VIII Once in a month It takes two to make a quarrel Six of one and half of a dozen of other All fours with Once bitten, twice shy Sample IX Tại anh, ả, đôi bên Kẻ tám lạng người nửa cân Trăm người trăm ý Ba bà chín chuyện Sample X In a state of confusion Combined in one person or thing An accepted member of a group A small chance that is not likely to bring success To take a nap, to get some sleep Look very good ...vinh university foreign Languages department a contrastive analysis of metaphor in english and vietnamese idioms relating to numbers (SO SÁNH ĐỐI CHIẾU PHÉP ẨN DỤ TRONG THÀNH NGỮ ANH - VIỆT LIÊN... used in their literal meanings and it is easy for leaners to understand 16 Chapter A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF METAPHOR IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE IDIOMS RELATING TO NUMBERS 2.1 The elements of Numbers. .. TO NUMBERS 17 2.1 The elements of Numbers in Idioms Relating to Numbers 17 2.2 Metaphor in Idioms relating to Numbers 18 2.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Metaphor in English and Vietnamese