A contrastive analysis of commands in english and vietnamese=phân tích đối chiếu lời mệnh lệnh trong tiếng anh và tiếng việt đề trong các tin vắn trực tuyến tiếng anh về việt nam

VINH UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT ********** NGUYỄN THỊ PHƢƠNG THANH A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF COMMANDS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE (PHÂN TÍCH ĐỐI CHIẾU LỜI MỆNH LỆNH TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT) Graduation Thesis Field: Linguistics Vinh 2008 VINH UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT ********** A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF COMMANDS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE (PHÂN TÍCH ĐỐI CHIẾU LỜI MỆNH LỆNH TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT) Graduation Thesis Field: Linguistics Student : Nguyễn Thị Phương Thanh Class : 45B1 - English Supervisor : Trần Thị Ngọc Yến, M.A Vinh 2008 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to express my deepest thanks to my supervisor, Ms Tran Thi Ngoc Yen, M.A., whose advice, enthusiastic instructions and useful materials much encouraged me to complete this paper I am truly grateful to the Faculty of Foreign Languages for giving me a chance to carry out this research, as well as for their cares about students Also, my gratitudes are due to my family and friends who share with me my worries and my joyfulness in the studying process My heartfelt thanks to you all! Vinh, May 2008 Student Nguyen Thi Phuong Thanh LIST OF TABLES Table 1: The five general functions of speech acts Table 2: The research procedure Table 3: Statistic results of the survey of the funny stories Table 4: Comparison of the frequency of using commands in English and Vietnamese LIST OF CHARTS Chart 1: Comparison of commands in imperative form in English and Vietnamese Chart 2: Comparison of commands in interrogative form in English and Vietnamese Chart 3: Comparison of commands in declarative form in English and Vietnamese Chart 4: Comparison of direct command expression in English and Vietnamese Chart 5: Comparison of indirect command expression in English and Vietnamese TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF TABLES AND LIST OF CHARTS TABLE OF CONTENTS PART A : INTRODUCTION Rationale of the study Aims of the study Scope of the study Methods of the study Design of the study PART B: CONTENTS Chapter 1: Theoretical Background 1.1 Contrastive analysis 1.2 Speech acts 1.2.1 Definition of speech act 1.2.2 Types of speech acts 1.3 The sentence 1.3.1 Different definitions of the sentence 1.3.2 Classification of sentences 10 1.4 Command 11 1.4.1 Definition of command 11 1.4.2 The rules of command interpretation 11 1.5 Summary 13 Chapter 2: The study 2.1 Research questions 14 2.2 Data collection 14 2.2.1 Instrument 14 2.2.2 Data collection procedure 14 2.3 Research procedure 16 2.4 Results 17 Chapter 3: A contrastive analysis of commands in English and Vietnamese 3.1 Forms of commands in English and Vietnamese 18 3.1.1 Commands in form of Imperative sentences 18 3.1.2 Commands in form of Elliptical imperative sentences 19 3.1.3 Commands in form of “Wh” questions 21 3.1.4 Commands in form of “Yes/No” question 22 3.1.5 Commands in form of declarative sentences 23 3.2 Command expressions 24 3.2.1 Directness 24 3.2.2 Indirectness 25 3.3 Words used with commands 27 3.4 Vocatives 31 3.4.1 Endearment 31 3.4.2 Nouns 32 3.4.3 Professional vocatives 32 3.5 Frequency of using commands in English and Vietnamese 33 3.5.1 Requesting 33 3.5.1.1 Asking for help 33 3.5.1.2 Asking for information 33 3.5.2 Apologizing 33 3.5.3 Instructing 34 3.5.4 Advising 34 3.5.5 Suggesting 34 3.5.6 Inviting 35 3.5.7 Permitting 35 3.5.8 Warning 35 3.5.9 Begging 35 3.5.10.Encouraging 36 3.5.11.Attracting attention 36 3.5.12.Betting 36 3.5.13.Threatening 36 3.5.14.Borrowing 36 3.5.15.Offering 37 3.5.16.Informing 37 3.5.17.Making rules 37 3.5.18.Exchanging 37 3.5.19 Reminding 38 3.6 Summary 39 PART C: CONCLUSION Summary 40 Implications 40 Suggestions for further study 41 REFERENCES 42 APPENDIX PART A : INTRODUCTION Rationale of the study At secondary and high schools, while learning English, I was taught to pay much attention to words, sentence patterns, grammatical rules, etc out of contexts, i.e we only focused on the linguistic competence To go further, I had a chance of studying Pragmatics, Contrastive Analysis and Discourse Analysis in which I was much interested, especially the notion of Speech act which explains that “communication competence includes not only knowledge of the linguistics forms of a language but also knowledge of when, how and to whom it is appropriate to use these forms” (Hymes, 1976) I thought that a research on speech acts will be helpful to my communication competence in real contexts In addition, speech acts are also the concern of the whole community using the language It can be said that “how to things with words” is an issue throughout the ages Speech acts help the language speakers mutually understand and communicate effectively Among various kinds of speech acts such as apology, invitation, offer, complaint, advice, promise, command, greeting, ect the speech act of command interests me most for its popularity and diversity People widely use it in daily conversation (e.g Give her my thanks!/ Này, khẽ chứ!), in instruction (e.g Trước hết lấy xoong / Now you sit in my chair, watch my way of doing it and take a lesson!), in advertising (e.g Hãy thưởng thức! Let‟s join!) Those who are close, as well as those who first meet each other, also use it, regardless of their ages Moreover, the research on commands, as far as I am concerned, has not been carried out yet For the above things, I decided to choose the topic „Contrastive analysis of commands in English and Vietnamese‟, the research on which is very useful for Vietnamese learners of English and also for those who care about the way English and Vietnamese speakers express commands The aims of the study The study aims to:  Investigate how the English speakers express commands in different situations  Find out how commands are expressed differently by the Vietnamese speakers  Help English or Vietnamese learners improve their sociocultural competence in order to appropriately express commands in the second language  Show the different forms of commands in English and Vietnamese and some factors that have influences on them  Show the frequency of using commands in communication Scope of the study The research is towards a contrastive analysis of commands in English and Vietnamese Within the scope of study, we mainly focus on the forms which English and Vietnamese speakers use to give commands and the ways of expression in order to achieve effectiveness in communication We also study some factors related to the speech act of command and its frequency in a micro scope Research methods Several methods are used in the study: 4.1 Descriptive method This method is used for describing theoretical background, such as the definition of CA, classification of speech acts, the rules of command interpretation, ect 4.2 Collective method This method is used for collecting materials and funny stories from a variety of sources 4.3 Analysis method This method is used for analysing the materials and the data before we achieve results 4.4 Contrastive and comparative method This method is used for contrasting and comparing the way English and Vietnamese speakers use to express commands Design of the study The thesis comprises of three main parts: introduction, contents and conclusion In part A, introduction, we introduce the rationale, the aims, the scope, the methods and the design of study Part B, contents, is the most important one which consists of three chapters Chapter provides an overview of the theoretical background of the research Chapter briefly presents the research questions, data collection instruments and procedures used in the study The results are also outlined in the chapter Chapter gives a full presentation and discussion for the contrastive analysis of commands in English and Vietnamese Part C, conclusion, summarizes what we mention and discuss in the previous part Some suggestions for further studies are pointed out in this part References are listed in the last page something in return for something received, the act of changing one thing for another thing E.g - I‟ll give you $10 if you pick up my mother-in-law at the station - Tôi cho anh 10 đô-la anh ga đón mẹ vợ tơi (33) - Tơi bỏ qua chuyện tối mai anh chịu sang nhà hàng lớn bên đánh chén quỵt bữa anh làm hôm (54) 3.5.19 Reminding Reminding means putting (one) in mind of something; bringing to the remembrance of something; or bringing to the notice or consideration of (a person) E.g - Why have you not brought my big pot back yet? (31) - Carole, next time remember to mess the blankets on your bed (65) - Trước ngày anh tặng em hồng, không thấy nữa? (9) - Sao không bưng cơm nước ra, chờ đến nữa? (103) The portion that each function we mentioned above is shown in the following table: Functions English (%) Vietnamese (%) Asking for help Requesting Asking for information Other purposes Betting 2.63 3.29 1.97 39.47 0.66 14.14 4.71 4.71 36.65 0.52 Attracting attention 1.32 1.57 Advising 5.92 5.76 Suggesting 5.26 3.66 Instructing 5.92 2.62 Encouraging 1.32 2.09 Begging Offering 0.66 3.66 10 Inviting 11 Borrowing 0.66 0.52 0.66 1.57 12 Permitting 13 Making rules 1.32 0.52 0.66 0.52 14 Reminding 15 Informing 7.24 5.76 3.29 2.09 16 Threatening 17 Warning 1.32 0.52 1.97 0.52 18 Apologizing 19 Exchanging 0.66 0.52 1.05 20 Other functions 13.8 6.32 Table 4: Comparison of the frequency of using commands in English and Vietnamese 3.6 Summary In this chapter, the uses of command forms, the finding, the discussion have been presented Although the two languages are similar in some cases Both English and Vietnamese speakers seem to vary their choice of commanding forms in relation to contexts and communicative purposes and they follow different trends The Vietnamese speakers seem to be more sensitive than the English ones In the same situation, the Vietnamese may use different ways to expresss commands appropriately There are much more words used with commands in Vietnamese than those in English, such as “xin”, “vui lòng”, “làm ơn”, “đi”, “chứ”, “nào”, “hãy”.etc This shows us the abundance of Vietnamese language PART C: CONCLUSION Summary Briefly, in this paper, we provided an overview of the theoretical background of the research, which consists of contrastive analysis, speech acts, the sentence and commands Then, basing on the theoretical background, the research on the speech act of command in English and Vietnamese was carried out We presented the discussion of command forms, command expressions, some factors related to commands and the frequency of using commands in English and Vietnamese Through the thesis, we hope that the language learners and users will understand more about how the English speakers express commands, how Vietnamese and how they are different Implications The findings of this study suggest that when giving commands in both English and Vietnamese, the speakers should be aware that there are a number of ways to express, among which the most popular one is the commands in form of imperative sentences We should avoid using elliptical imperative forms because these forms sound impolite and lacking respect for the hearers The findings of this study also suggest that the intention of the Vietnamese speakers when expressing a command can be deduced from studying the words chosen in different contexts To achieve politeness, when commanding Vietnamese speakers often use the words “làm ơn”, “vui lòng, “xin”…, the vocatives “thưa…” (e.g thưa ngài, thưa bà, thưa giáo sư, etc.) Besides, the personal pronouns have a great influence on this type of speech act For example, in English, the robber in a bank says: “Give me your money!” In Vietnamese he will say “Đưa tiền cho tao!” The pronoun “tao” is considered to be more effective for communicative purpose in this case If he says “Đưa tiền cho tôi”, it does not sound a robber‟s utterance Therefore, in this thesis we tried to show out the ways English and Vietnamese speakers make commands so that the readers can master their social competence in command expressions and communicate appropriately in different contexts Suggestions for further studies Within the scope of a graduation thesis, the limitation of time and materials, this paper cannot fufil all the issues related to the speech act of command For further studies, some following suggestions are recommended  To study on the social variables related to the speech act of command The example question is “How does the S with more power than the H make commands?”  To study on commands in spoken language with questionaires and taperecording as the data collection instruments The thesis cannot be completed perfectly because of many factors, we would be really grateful to receive remarks, comments, suggestions and advice from teachers and readers REFERENCES Austin, J (1975) How to Do Things with Words, Clarendon Press Bản, Nguyễn (1996) Truyện cười song ngữ Anh -Việt, NXB Công An Nhân Dân Corder, S P (1973) Introducing Applied Linguistics, Penguin Hương Thuỷ, Anh Đào (2004), Nụ cười Anh - Việt, NXB Thanh Niên James, C (1980) Contrastive Analysis, Longman Group Ltd John, S (1975) Speech Acts, Academic Press, New York Labov, W (1972) Sociolinguistics Oatterns, University of Pennsylvania Press Miles, M B & Huberman, A M (1984) Qualitative Data Analysis: A sourcebook of new methods Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Quế Chi (2005), Giai thoại Trạng cười Xiển Bột, NXB Văn Hoá Thông Tin 10.Thomson, A.J & Martinet, A.V (1986) Practical English Grammar, Oxford University Press 11.Yin, R K (1984) Case Study Research: Design and methods Newbury Park, CA: Sage 12.Yule, G (1996) Pragmatics, Oxford University Press Websites http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:TW7wP3qHi4sJ:www.bu.edu/ linguistics/UG/course/lx400/handouts/lx400-2a history.pdf+%22contrastive+analysis%22&hl=vi&ct=clnk&cd=48& gl=vn&client=firefox-a http://www.26.24h.com.vn/news.php/ http://www.35.websamba.com/vuicuoibn/ http://5nam.ttvnol.com/joke/ http://bowlandfiles.lancs.ac.uk/chimp/langac/LECTURE10/10cont.ht ml http://cuoi.hoibi.net/truyen-cuoi/ http://cuoi.xitrum.net/hocsinh/1866.html http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~guion/444notes/contranal.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page 10.http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/exp_lang/sente nce.html 11.http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetail s/detailmini.jsp? 12.http://globaledu.com.vn/Course/GrammarDetail.aspx?grammarID=3 69 13.http://www.gslis.utexas.edu/~ssoy/usesusers/l391d1b.htm 14.http://www.iscribe.org/english/sent.html 15.Lacviet – multimedia tool for building multilingual dictionaries 16.http://www.maiyeuem.net/vtopic17112.html 17.http://news.smartweb.vn/newsDetails.do?news_id=70&cat_id=90&t ype_id=1 18.http://www.saigoninfo.com/truyencuoi/ 19.http://www.sil.org/LINGUISTICS/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/What IsACommand.html 20.http://www.thefreedictionary.com/command 21.http://www.thoiaotrang.com/truyen_cuoi/ 22.http://thuongviet.com/library/study/daytiengviet/bai14/bai14.html 23.http://www.tiengnuocngoai.com/vietlang/bai9.asp 24.http://tuoitrecuoi.com/phorum/ 25.http://vdict.com/encourage,7,0,0.html 26.http://www.vietdictionary.com/wordev/command.html 27.http://www.vnn.vn/vnn4/funny_story/ LIST OF FUNNY STORIES In English In Vietnamese http://news.smartweb.vn/newsDetails.do http://www.maiyeuem.net/vtopic171 ?news_id=70&cat_id=90&type_id=1 12.html Absolutely dead Ăn chay Bad luck Cảnh sát kẻ trộm Lipstick No title Six inches of Snow Chương trình bảo vệ sức Bản, Nguyễn (1996) - Truyện cƣời song ngữ Anh -Việt - NXB Công An ND To be angry with each other Just the women manner Way to paradise I only want Rich‟s hand 10.I‟m not stupid khoẻ bắt buộc Ngôn ngữ Chọn bệnh mà đau Xin lấy chân mà đá Thực tế vợ chồng No title http://news.smartweb.vn/newsDetails.d o?news_id=87&cat_id=90&type_id=1 11.Give me the conqueror 10.Người đuổi theo xe 12.Lock the door quickly 11.Tôi đâu phải đến để… 13.The King and the poet 12.Khơng sợ đuổi 14.A lesson 13.Cịn thừa đồ ăn 15.The painter‟s advice 14.Tiếc 16.Don‟t tell anybody Hƣơng Thuỷ, Anh Đào (2004) - Nụ 17.I would rather take poison cƣời Anh - Việt - NXB Thanh Niên 18.You‟ll have something in both of your hands 19.But I started my journey less than an hour ago 15.Duy 16.Nguyện vọng 17.Đừng làm thế! 18.Lý ly hôn 20.Like a gentleman 19.Hãy cho em chết sớm 21.Before the trouble starts 20.Tôi chết hay bà chết 22.Return ticket 21.Anh thấy chưa? 23.Another ten pence 22.Làm mà hót chẳng hay 24.You must make copies 23.Đuổi trộm 25.I went out in my slippers 24.Ông ai? 26.To hit something behind 25.Chẳng cần tìm 27.Up for the new crop 26.Dàn hồ 28.She wants to keep them 27.Bằng nửa 29.What leg you prefer? 28.Câu hỏi hóc búa 30.Naivety 29.Bệnh nghề nghiệp 31.The big pot died 30.Sao vậy? 32.At a meeting of shareholders 31.Cắt đứt thói quen xấu 33.But I‟ve been to school 32.Bảo vợ 34.The diet is only for lunch? 33.Được gấp đôi 35.They are still damp! 34.Thế nói http://www.vnn.vn/vnn4/funny_story/ 35.Anh đừng lo 36.Serving the public 36.Em khơng cần đâu 37.Good advice 37.Rồi có 38.Kiss-a-me 38.Ký sổ cho 39.After the office party 39.Vậy mà khơng nói 40.Getting a day off 40.Người hồn hảo 41.The Blessing 41.Thích 42.Pretend 42.Đáng giá 100 đô-la 43.Hair-cut 43.Mẹ nhận bà 44.Abstract noun 44.Thầy thử mà xem 45.Jesus, help me please 45.Hãy đổi dao cho ông 46.College Dorm 46.Thêm 47.Donkey‟s son 47.Hãy nộp phạt 48.Answer questioningly 48.Tưởng bở 49.Bring it back 50.Insist 49.Rất tốt 51.Telephone 50.Xin anh chiếu cố 52.Retaliation 51.Có 53.The pious and the atheist 52.Đúng luật sư 54.The artist and the fisherman 53.Câu trả lời thông minh 55.Only when he is drunk 54.Không đâu 56.Grandma wouldn‟t lie http://cuoi.xitrum.net/hocsinh/1866 html 57.Housewife 58.Radio broken 55.Tiếc 59.Why should I talk to you 56.Sinh viên…quỷ 60.Tooth pull out 57.No title 61.Whisper 58.Sinh viên 62.A small change 59.No title 63.It‟s coconut 60.No title 64.Last request 61.Khi nàng giận 65.Next time 62.Hai người phụ nữ 66.No car has passed 63.No title 67.A careless answer 64.Ngừng nói 68.That‟s odd 65.Chẳng có kết 69.A new trick 66.No title 70.Modern love 67.Cẩn thận 71.Two reasons 68.No title 72.The voice 69.No title 73.I thought 70.Tình trạng thất nghiệp 74.I am a dog 71.No title 75.Perhaps the cat is trying to 72.No title telephone now 76.Please buy the chicken Quế Chi (2005) - Giai thoại Trạng cƣời Xiển Bột - NXB Văn Hố Thơng Tin 77.The mind is a terrible thing to waste 78.The lawyer 79.A Texan in Ireland 73.Di chúc cụ cố 74 Kẻo lạc đàn 75 Mày chào tao http://www35.websamba.com/vuicu oibn/ 80.Scott man 81.This beer is for my friend 82.How you stop this car 83.Don‟t be stupid 84.Grass 85.No title 86.No title 76 Rước ông Táo http://www26.24h.com.vn/news.php/ 77.Xếp thật tuyệt vời http://www.thoiaotrang.com/truyen cuoi/ 78 Chuyện nhân viên 79.Vợ 80.No title 81.Đòi nợ 82.Thực tập thú y http://tuoitrecuoi.com/phorum/ 83.Tha thứ 84.Quá đáng 85.Muốn nghe ngày 86.Cái khó ló khơn 87.Cướp 88.No title 89.Bạn 90.No title 91.No title 92.No title 93.No title 94.Siêu lười 95.No title 96.Người hành tinh 97.Thuốc diệt muỗi 98.Ba điều ước http://www.saigoninfo.com/truyencuoi/ 99.Sát sinh tội nặng 100 Kén rể lười 101 Dốt sĩ diện 102 Bắt bẻ 103 Dấu đầu hở đuôi 104 Cháy 105 Tham ăn 106 Chả có nhỏ 107 Rượu chua 108 Cưỡi ngỗng mà 109 Tiếc da cọp 110 Xem ngày 111 Khơng đâu http://cuoi.hoibi.net/truyen-cuoi/ 112 Bợm nhậu khách sạn 113 Người yêu thú nuôi 114 Uy tín bố em 115 Ngơn ngữ luật sư 116 Hương vị tây 117 Nội quy nhà tù 118 Xem nốt 119 Cứ tưởng 120 Tài bịa 121 Nhất tự vi sư 122 Vơva làm tính 123 Nhầm lẫn tai hại 124 Sành điệu http://5nam.ttvnol.com/joke/ 125 No title 126 No title 127 No title 128 No title 129 Máy nhầm 130 No title 131 No title 132 No title 133 No title 134 Tự lực 135 Mẹo 136 Nếu không dùng 137 Hỏi không kỹ 138 Rất đặc biệt APPENDIX Some of the funny stories as the data collection instruments: In English Just the women manner Anna didn‟t see the red light, so her car hit the one before Then, she jumped out of her Jaguar, and shouted angrily at the driver of the car before: “What is the matter with you? You must drive more carefully From the morning to now, there were five cars hit by mine” At a meeting of shareholders In a london shipping company there was a meeting of shareholders One of them said: „It is useless to discuss the matter any further Half the members of the Board of directors are idiots‟ The chaiman tapped the table with his hand: „I request you to take back those insolent words‟ This man: „All right, then: half of them are not idiots‟ Getting a Day Off Smith goes to see his supervisor in the front office "Boss," he says, "we're doing some heavy house-cleaning at home tomorrow, and my wife needs me to help with the attic and the garage, moving and hauling stuff." "We're short-handed, Smith," the boss replies "I can't give you the day off." "Thanks, boss," says Smith, "I knew I could count on you!" Donkey's son A car was involved in an accident in a street As expected a large crowd gathered A newspaper reporter, anxious to get his story could not get near the car Being a clever sort, he started shouting loudly, "Let me through! Let me through! I am the son of the victim." The crowd made way for him Lying in front of the car was a donkey Answer questioningly Police: "What you do?" Jewberish: "Is that important?" Police: "why don't you answer me?" Jewberish: "what makes you think I will tell you my job?" Police: "OK Where were you last night?" Jewberish: "Did you see me?" Police: "Why you always answer my question with a question?" Jewberish response: "What you want me to say?" In Vietnamese Còn thừa đồ ăn Cậu bé nhà ăn thịt người dẫn bạn nhà nói với bố mẹ: - Mẹ ơi, bạn con.Con dẫn nhà ta chơi Bà mẹ nhìn cậu bạn thằng bé nói: - Con cho vào tủ lạnh đi, hơm nhiều đồ ăn lắm!!! Tiếc gì? Chồng làm về, vợ trẻ khóc sướt mướt kể: - Em làm cho anh bánh nhân thịt, em sơ ý để mèo ăn hết rồi! - Nín em! Nếu có chuyện xảy với nó, anh mua cho em mèo khác! Khơng sợ đuổi Ơng chủ khó tính hầm hầm bước vào văn phịng, nhìn thấy vài mẫu giấy vương vãi đất hách dịch hỏi nhân viên: "Tại thứ lại có sàn?" "Báo cáo giám đốc, lực hấp dẫn ạ!" Đuổi trộm - Hình trộm vào nhà Anh có nghe thấy khơng? Dậy ngay! - Nhưng anh dậy làm bây giờ? -chồng bảo – Đánh thức chó dậy Chẳng cần tìm Một bà vợ vào đồn cảnh sát đề nghị tìm chồng tích tuần nay: - Bà miêu tả ơng nhà Viên cảnh sát nói - Thấp, gù, ốm, hói, mắt lác, chân vịng kiềng Các ơng nhận chưa? Mà thơi chả cần tìm ... form in English and Vietnamese Chart 2: Comparison of commands in interrogative form in English and Vietnamese Chart 3: Comparison of commands in declarative form in English and Vietnamese Chart... Chapter 3: A contrastive analysis of commands in English and Vietnamese 3.1 Forms of commands in English and Vietnamese 18 3.1.1 Commands in form of Imperative sentences 18 3.1.2 Commands. .. CHAPTER 3: A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF COMMANDS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE 3.1 Forms of commands in English and Vietnamese 3.1.1 Commands in form of Imperative sentences The most familiar form of