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Vietnam National University, Hanoi University of Languages and International Studies Faculty of Post-graduate Studies LÝ THỊ THANH MAI The effects of games on helping high school English learners retain word meaning (HIỆU QUẢ CỦA TRÒ CHƠI TRONG VIỆC GIÚP HỌC SINH THPT GHI NHỚ NGHĨA TỪ VỰNG) M.A Minor Programme Thesis Field: English Teaching Methodology Code: 601410 Supervisor: Hà Cẩm Tâm (Ph.D) Hanoi, 2010 -iv- Table of Content Page Certificate of originality i Aknowledgement ii Abstract iii Table of Contents iv Part A: Introduction 1 Rationale Aims of the study Research question Scope of the study Research methodology Organization of the study Part B: Development Chapter 1: Literature review 2.1 Vocabulary teaching and learning 2.1.1 What learners need to know about word learning? 2.1.2.1 Word meaning 2.1.2.2 Word form 2.1.2.3 Stages in word learning 2.1.3 Factors affecting vocabulary retention 2.1.3.1 Depth of processing 2.1.3.2 Memory 10 2.1.3.3 Learning styles 11 2.1.3.4 Motivation 13 2.1.3.5 Attitude 14 2.2 Teaching and learning vocabulary through games 15 2.2.1 Games for language teaching and learning 15 -v- 2.2.1.1 Definition of games 15 2.2.1.2 Advantages of games 16 2.2.1.3 Which games to use? 19 2.2.1.4 When to use games? 19 2.2.2 Word games 20 Chapter 2: The study 22 2.1 Research question 22 2.2 Design of the study 22 2.2.1 Participants 22 2.2.2 Data collection instrument 23 2.2.3 Data collection procedures 25 2.2.4 Experiment procedures 25 2.2.4.1 The teaching to the experiment group 25 2.2.4.2 The teaching to the control group 26 2.3 Data Analysis and discussion 27 2.3.1 Analysis of test results 27 2.3.1.1 The pre-test 27 2.3.1.2 The progress tests 28 2.3.1.3 The final test 30 2.3.2 Discussion and findings Part C: Conclusion 31 35 Major findings 35 Implications 36 Limitations and recommendations for further studies 37 References 38 Appendices I Appendix 1: Tests Appendix 2: Games applied in the experimental process Appendix 3: Scores I IX XIV -1- Part A: Introduction Part A – Introduction- provides the background to the study and statement of the problem, the aims, the research question, the scope of the study as well as the research methodology It also outlines the organization of the thesis Rationale Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings As Steven Stahl (2005) puts it, "The knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world." Vocabulary knowledge is not something that can ever be fully mastered; it is something that expands and deepens over the course of a lifetime It cannot be denied that vocabulary is one of the vital parts in a language learning Wilkins (1972:111) emphasized that, “Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” Cook‟s (1991) conclusion is also consistent with Wilkins in that “Grammar provides the overall patterns, vocabulary the material to put into those patterns” Or some authors, led by Lewis (1993) argue that vocabulary should be at the centre of language teaching, because „language consists of grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar‟ It is clear to all of us that one cannot read, speak, listen, write, or understand a foreign language without knowing a certain number of words How can one appreciate the depth of meaning implied in discourse or become fluent conversationalists if lexis is not involved? Vocabulary learning is obviously an essential part of language learning Learning words can considered to be the most important aspect of second language acquisition (Knight, 1994) Candlin (1988) stated that "… the study of vocabulary is at the heart of language teaching in terms of organization of syllabuses, the evaluation of learner performance, and the provision of learning resources …." Maiguashca (1993) said that vocabulary is "perhaps the fastest growing area of second language education in terms of research output and publication." Thus, the importance of vocabulary in language learning cannot be denied Yet, although the issue of vocabulary teaching and learning is currently receiving attention of teachers and students in most of high schools in Vietnam and in my school as well, it is still far from clear how vocabulary items can be best taught and learned From my own experience and observation, vocabulary is often taught by the grammar-translation -2- approach, that is at the time for vocabulary, a vast amount of teaching time is consumed by explanation and definition, classroom blackboards are often littered with masses of new lexical items, and students compile page upon page of word-lists that they have few opportunities to practice This results in students‟ short-term memory of new vocabulary items They will very quickly forget the new words‟ meaning and use This also makes students get bored with learning vocabulary So what should a teacher if their students get bored? Nation (2001) suggests some interesting ways to help learners remember previously met words such as getting learners to graded reading or listening stories; speaking and writing activities based on written input that contains the words; taking part in activities that involved testing vocabulary such as Word and Picture Matching, Same or Difference, etc Gairn & Redman (1986) recommends classroom activities such as using visual aids, speaking activities (role play, narrative, etc.), games, questionnaires and problem solving and so on Whereas, Watcin-Jones (1993) proposes that teachers use games and activities in revising words because with games learning seems to become more active, the students get more involved and retention also improves enormously Therefore, it can be realized that the common tendency of these methodology writers is that teachers should be more active in using classroom activities to help students recycle lexical items One of the most recommended activities is games According to them, games are highly motivating, competitive and fun They also bring a relaxed atmosphere and create more opportunities for students to practice and revise vocabulary With games, students will enjoy themselves, be stimulated and get involved in vocabulary learning As a result, they can learn new lexical items faster and remember better With so many advantages, games seem to be an effective way in teaching and learning a foreign language in general and vocabulary in specific For those reasons, I have decided to choose the topic: “The effects of games on helping high school English learners retain word meaning” for my minor thesis with the hope that it might be of some help for teachers and students in teaching and learning vocabulary Aims of the study This study was carried out in order to: -3- o explore the effects of word games on helping 11th grade students at Tan Lap high school remember the meaning of previously met words o make recommendations on how word games might be exploited to make them more enjoyable and productive to the students Research question: The research was to seek answers to the following question: Are word games more effective than practice exercises in helping high school English learners retain word meaning? Scope of the study Learning a word means dealing with its various aspects such as meaning, spelling, pronunciation, part of speech, collocations, grammar, or restrictions on its use For each above aspect, various criteria need to be taken into account when being studied According to Nation (1994), teachers should spend time on a word by dealing with two or three aspects of a word However, in this study the researcher focused only on one aspect of word meaning because of the limited time, the shortage of reference books, and the students‟ language ability Research methodology The study used a combination of quantitative and qualitative research approaches, in which tests were carried out as the major and unique data collection instrument Five tests were designed in order to gain believable and honest scores that supported the study purposes One served as the pre-test, which aimed at testing the students‟ homogeneity of the two group joining the experiment Three of them were delivered to the students as progress tests right after the periods in which the students recycled previously met words with games or with exercises, and the final one was administered to the students two weeks after all the periods in which games were applied to help students retain word meaning Collected scores were then processed and analyzed organization of the study This minor thesis is composed of three parts as follow: Part A - Introduction: presenting rationale, aims, research question as well as scope of the study, methodology and design of the study -4- Part B - Development: consisting of two chapters Chapter is for literature review, which provides the theoretical background of the study Chapter is for the study which represents the research question, describes the design of the study then presents the data analysis and discussion Part C - Conclusion: summarizing the major findings of the experiment, voicing some implications for language teachers in teaching vocabulary and suggesting some recommendations for further studies -5- Part B: Development Chapter Literature review In this chapter, relevant literature is reviewed, underlying the necessity and the relevance of the study In other words, background knowledge on vocabulary teaching in general and vocabulary teaching through word games in particular is looked at critically to set up the theoretical framework for further investigation The first section of this chapter is devoted to theoretical aspects of vocabulary teaching and learning and the second section of this chapter deals with the main issue, i.e teaching and learning vocabulary through games 2.1 Vocabulary teaching and learning 2.1.1 What learners need to know about word learning? According to Gairns & Redman (1986) when studying a word, learners should pay attention to two large aspects: 1) Words and their meanings (conceptual and affective meaning, style, sense relation, collocation, etc.); 2) Words and their forms (grammar, word building, pronunciation) Nation (2001) shares the idea with Gairn & Redman but adds one more aspect, that is word use However, within the aims of the study, word meaning and word form will be further discussed 2.1.2.1 Word meaning In teaching and learning vocabulary, teachers should bear in mind the following important facts about lexical meaning that sometimes can be problematic: First, the same word can have very different meanings depending on linguistics and social context; Second, there is no one-to-one correspondence of words in any language with another; And no word is the exact synonym or antonym of another word Nguyen Hoa (2004) distinguishes four major components of word meaning which include denotation, connotation, structural meaning, and categorial meaning Denotation: includes conceptual and referential meaning It exists by virtue of what it refers to o Conceptual meaning is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication and it has a complex and sophisticated organization -6- E.g Woman = + HUMAN, - MALE, + ADULT as distinct from Boy which can be defined as + HUMAN, + MALE, - ADULT o Referential meaning is the ability to refer to objects or things (often called referent) E.g Can you give me a book? Vs I’ve bought a book this afternoon Connotation: includes stylistic, affective, evaluative, and intensifying It is the pragmatic communicative value of the words acquired by virtue of where, when, how, by whom, for what purpose and in what context it is or may be used This kind of meaning is rather unstable: that is they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual Structural/associative meaning: includes reflected meaning, collocative meaning, associative meaning, and thematic meaning It is the meaning of a word acquire by virtue of its membership in a system or a set o Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense E.g The 40th President of the US and the Great Communicator both refer to Ronald Reagan o Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment E.g pretty girl/boy/woman/flower but handsome boy/man/car/airliner o Associative meaning is also the meaning which arises because of its association with other meanings E.g good vs bad; buy vs sell, hard vs soft o Thematic meaning is the kind of meaning which is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis E.g A man is waiting in the hall vs There‟s a man waiting in the hall or The dog chased the cat vs The cat was chased by the dog Categorial meaning: is actually one part of grammatical meaning which words derive from being a member of one category rather than another Words fall into such categories as Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Prepositions, Conjunctions, etc It serves as a classificatory basis Meanwhile, Jackson & Amvela (2000) divide word meaning into denotation and connotation only According to them, denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, -7- the "dictionary definition."ă For example, if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will discover that one of its denotative meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes venomous reptiles, having a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most tropical and temperate regions" Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations that are connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word The connotative meanings of a word exist together with the denotative meanings The connotations for the word snake could include evil or danger Nevertheless, other linguists, Gairns & Redman (1986), classify the meaning of word into two types: conceptual meaning and affective meaning Conceptual meaning: According to Gairns & Redman (1986), if a word has reference to an object, action or even in physical world, this can be described as conceptual meaning, which deals with the fact that the knowledge of a word and what it refers to is not enough, but also how to conceptually separate it from words that have related meaning, for example “cup/mug” To understand a word fully, therefore, a student must know not only what it refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning Affective meaning: From Gairns & Redman‟s (1986) viewpoint, this term is used to cover the attitudinal and emotional factors which can be expressed in an item of vocabulary These are often referred to as connotation They gave an example in which “a single woman” is different from “a sprinter” because “sprinter” has a series of evaluative and emotional associations which, for an English native speaker, would not be true of “single woman” These associations may include old, isolated, on the shelf, a sad figure, etc Wallace (1983) defined that affective meaning is determined by cultural structure, the pattern of perception, thinking or feeling Affective meaning reflects “people perceiving, thinking, or feeling things together in space and/or time” 2.1.2.2 Word form Gairns & Redman (1986) emphasize that knowing word form is as essential as knowing word meaning Knowing word form includes word grammar, pronunciation (stress, sound, spelling) as well as word building (affixation, compounding and conversion) -II- A determined B appointed C admitted D assumed 20 Family _ is the process of controlling the number of children you have A building B controlling C housing D planning 21 _ is work that involves studying something and trying to discover facts about it A Resources B Research C Organisation D Figure C methods D plants 22 Iron, silver, and gold are _ A metals B oil 23 Some days before New Year, the English often _ greeting card with one another A exchange B show C receive D express 24 The yearly golf _ will be held in that resort next month A tournament B occasion C governing D finalist 25 He finally sold his old car and bought a _ one A brand-new B ordinary C delightful D prominent 26 He seemed to find fault on my doings He often gave negative _ A celebrations B responses C decorations D comments 27 The government _ a campaign to promote adult literacy A conducts B carries out C follows D A & B 28 A recent _ showed 75 % of those questioned were in favor of the plan A roll B show C survey D number 29 Do you know how Vietnamese people _ Lunar New Year? A celebrate B joke C blow D keep 30 _ anniversary is the day exactly 50 years after a marriage, often celebrated with a party A Silver B Copper C Diamond D Golden IV Choose the most appropriate word/phrase among A, B, C, or D that substitutes the underlined part: 31 Nowadays numerous marriages end in divorce A wedding party B birthday anniversary C marital status D formal ending of a marriage by law 32 Peter is busy mowing the lawn so he cannot answer the phone -III- A cutting the lawn with a knife B cutting the lawn with a pair of scissors C cutting the lawn with a sickle D cutting the lawn with a machine 33 The price of petroleum has decreased since last week A gone down B given up C let off D put away 34 Thank you very much for your gift on my birthday A present B flower C candy D plant 35 I wish you a speedy recovery from your illness to return to work soon A thoughtful B gradual C courteous D quick 36 Tropical forests have supplied us with many sorts of plants for food, medicine and industry A affected B influenced C changed D provided 37 The transition from school to work does not happen smoothly to everybody A without difficulties B full of troubles C with problems D plenty of challenges 38 How many contestants were there in all? A as a total B as a result C as expected D as usual 39 Landslides have cut off many villages in remote areas A suburb B central C faraway D natural 40 The boy glanced at me and turned away A looked carefully B looked quickly C looked attentively D looked suspiciously Progress test Time allowed: 10 minutes Fill in each gap in the sentence with one word from the box Each word is used once only infinite electricity nuclear windmill plentiful renewable geothermal panel exhausted radiation alternative Significant progress in the physical sciences, in reactor development, and in other atomic-energy programs resulted from the research efforts of scientists and engineers world-wide -IV- In certain countries, medical practices are the most widely used methods of health care They showed concern for the fact that the high grade iron ores of the country would be by the late 2010’s During the 1800’s a new source of energy, , was used and had so many practical applications that it greatly changed the way people lived When a is used to extract with power, only part of the energy of the wind is transferred to the blades of the device Most pocket calculators are powered by a small battery or by a of solar cells power plants use steam for the depths of the earth to run turbines that drive electric generators The supply of iron ore in the world remains even though the steel industry continually uses huge amount of it Soil may be considered a resource because crops can be grown on the same land for years if the soil is cared for properly 10 The electron can occupy any of an number of possible orbits Progress test Time allowed: 10 minutes Use the right form of the word in the box to fill in the gap Each word is used once only consumption survival cut down fertilizers exhaust pesticides discharge energy enforce prohibit dump Oil shortages have brought on a/an crisis Large amount of dangerous waste are daily by the factory Some sources of energy are being Petroleum-producing nations tend to be, in general, smaller and poorer than petroleum nations and must be carefully used in agriculture Smoking has recently been in public places in Vietnam The government has the law that requires people on motorbikes to wear helmets -V- Air, water and soil are necessary to the of all living things Many forests have been for people’s need of wood Progress test Time allowed: 10 minutes Fill in each gap in the sentence with one word from the box Each word is used once only indulge accomplish landscape admire occupied avid tank discard tune hobby accompany To the goal of fitting into its surroundings, the furniture designers reduced their forms to basic outlines As individuals advance through stages of school, they some attitudes and roles and take on new ones Some of the most delightful passages in Shakespeare’s early comedies are those in which characters in funny contests An aquarium is a water-filled in which fish swim about His parents made him the gardening to keep him during the days off Many New Zealanders were readers who had achieved a high level of literacy through a free public school education Melody and rhythm are two basic elements of music Melody is a basic element of music with series of notes known as architect design and develop yards, gardens, parks, and other land areas Most people take up a for relaxation, pleasure, friendships, or to develop new interests 10 Large numbers of people travel to Egypt to such wonders as the giant pyramids and the Great Sphinx at Giza Final test Time allowed: 40 minutes I Match a word in column A with one in column B to make a pair of antonyms: A 41 prohibit B tiny -VI- 42 gigantic available 43 broaden keep 44 survival lose 45 exhausted deep 46 win slow 47 host allow 48 discard death 49 rapid guest 50 shallow narrow II Match the word in A with its definition in B: A 51 pesticide B a story for children about fairies or other imaginary beings and events, often containing a moral message 52 host the best achievement so far in a particular activity, especially in sports 53 record mutual agreement and support 54 fairy tale somebody who invites and entertains guests or the country which provides the space and facilities for an event such as an international sporting competition 55 solidarity a chemical substance used to kill insects III Choose the most appropriate word/phrase among A, B, C, or D to fill in the gap 56 Oil, coal, and natural gases are fuels made from decayed materials from animals or plants A unleaded B smokeless C solid D fossil 57 is the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time A Solidarity B Friendship C Event D Culture 58 A nuclear reactor releases which is dangerous to the environment A radiation B heat C energy D carbon dioxide 59 The government has spent $1 million on an advertising to encourage energy conservation -VII- A campaign B promotion C operation D enterprise C racing D athletic 60 Swimming is one of the sports A aquatic B mountainous 61 The Asian Games take every four years for the countries in Asia to compete A seat B step C place D spot 62 We should develop such sources of energy as solar energy and nuclear energy A tradition B alternative C revolutionary D surprising 63 The gymnasium has just been equipped with some new sports A facilities B events C athletes D medals 64 The of these toxic substances into the environment is potentially devastating A delivery B release C distribution D research 65 heat comes from deep inside the earth A Geothermal B Solar C Nuclear D Hydro 66 The winners of each event were presented with gold, silver, and bronze A flags B banners C sheet D medals 67 is an activity which someone does for pleasure when they are not working A Collection B Entertainment C Keeping D Hobby 68 He got the stamps and the envelops into the wastebasket A kept B discarded C gathered D collected 69 can help an athlete to improve the strength of the muscles and the appearance of the body A Playing chess B Table tennis C Weight lifting D Shooting 70 I love champagne but I don’t myself A accompany B indulge C accomplish D prohibit IV Choose the most appropriate word/phrase among A, B, C, or D that substitutes the underlined part: 71 Solar energy is not only plentiful and infinite but also clean and safe A unlimited B uncountable C boundless 72 I would not call myself an avid stamp collector D inflexible -VIII- A interesting B exciting C amateur D enthusiastic 73 Fossil fuel will be exhausted within a relatively short time A shortly B comparatively C disadvantageously D rapidly 74 The quiet country roads are ideal for cycling A going for a walk B riding a bicycle C riding a motorbike D driving a car 75 The potential of alternative sources of energy is great A ability to achieve B solar system C use D heat C rule D energy 76 Nuclear power is cleaner than coal A strength B might 77 They live in a modest house in the countryside A expensive B fairly small C very cheap D very big 78 The game is an international sporting event with about three thousand participants A competitors B referees C holders D organizers C interesting D admired 79 She is an accomplished pianist A skilled B beautiful 80 Scientists and engineers are trying their best to find ways to lessen the amount of pollution A provide B increase C reduce D enforce -IX- Appendix 2: Games applied in the experimental process Lucky number Time: 15-20 minutes Preparation: 20 pieces of paper with a question related to vocabulary items revised on each except pieces On the three of five pieces without a question, write lucky number, and on the other two, write unlucky number Number them 1-20 Work arrangement: Team work Vocabulary items: fossil fuel, exhausted, alternative, nuclear energy, geothermal, windmill, release, nuclear reactor, radiation, hydroelectricity, renewable, ecologist, solar energy, potential, infinite Procedures: o Draw a grid with 20 cells Number the cells from to 20 o Divide the whole class into teams o Get them to make creative team names o Each team in turn choose a number and receive the piece of paper corresponding to the number they have chosen If there is a question on the paper, they have to answer it and get one point for a correct answer If there is the phrase “Lucky Number” on the paper, they get one point without answering anything If there is the phrase “Unlucky Number” on the paper, they are subtracted one point If any team cannot answer the question, the chance is left for another team o The team who has the higher points wins the games Crossword puzzle Time: 10-15 minutes Preparation: A1 paper with a crossword on it Work arrangement: Team work Vocabulary items: athletics, weight lifting, table tennis, football, tennis, cycling, squash, fencing, rugby, basketball, gymnastics, volley ball, wrestling Procedures: o First, split the class into teams o Introduce the rules of the game: Each team takes turn to choose a number horizontally then find out the word to fill in the gap in the crossword based on hints -X- given If one team cannot find out the correct word, the chance is left for the other team One point for each correct answer in the horizontal line From the 6th turn, the team who can guess the key word in the highlighted vertical line can give out their answer Three points for the correct keyword The team who has the higher points wins the games o Let the students play the game 10 11 12 13 -XI- Hints: the general name for a particular group of competitive sports, including running, jumping and throwing the activity of lifting heavy objects either as a sports or for exercises something made of gold, given as a first prize for excellence or winning a competition sports which are played or performed in or on water a game in which two or four people use rackets to hit a ball across a net A player scores a point when the opponent cannot hit the ball back a sport or an activity of riding a bicycle a game played between or people on a specially marked enclosed playing area which involves hitting a small rubber ball against the wall a sport of fighting with a light thin sword a game played by two teams of 13 or 15 players, using an oval ball which may be kicked or carried Teams try to put the ball over the other team’s line 10 a game played by two teams of players who gets points by throwing a ball through a net 11 physical exercises that develop and show the body’s strength and ability to move and bend easily, often done as a sport in competitions 12 a sport in which two teams use only their hands and arms to hit a ball to each other over a high net, trying to prevent the ball from touching the ground on their side 13 a sport in which two players fight by holding each other in special positions and throwing each other Key word: The Asian Games -XII- Password Time: 15-20 minutes Preparation: sticky notes with new words on them, a chair Work arrangement: Whole class Vocabulary items: consumption, survival, exhaust, discharge, enforce, cut down, fertilizers, pesticides, dump, prohibit Procedures: o Choose two students to be the "contestants." You can always use the "I'm thinking of a number " guessing game to determine the contestants Those two students go to the front of the room and face their classmates o Reveal a secret word - write it on the chalkboard or a chart or hold up a card - to everyone but the two contestants o The rest of the students raise their hands to volunteer clues that might help the contestants guess the word o Contestants take turns calling on clue volunteers until one of the contestants correctly guesses the secret password o The contestant who guesses the password remains at the front of the class; the student who gave the final clue replaces the other contestant Noughts and crosses Time: 15-20 minutes Preparation: Make a list of questions referring to the words revised Work arrangement: Team work Vocabulary items: host, official song, accomplished, tunes, fish tank, avid, discard, indulge, modest, accompany Procedures: o Draw a noughts and crosses grid on the board Write number – in the corner of each square o Divide the class into two teams One team is X and the other O o In turn each team decides which square they want to nominate o Teacher asks a question If the team get it right their symbol is written in that square -XIII- o The first team to get a line of three symbols in any direction across the grid is the winner Sentence Race Time: 20 minutes Preparation: a list of review vocabulary words Write each word on four small pieces of paper That means writing the word four times, once on each paper Organize the pieces like bundles, bundles, sets of identical words Work arrangement: Team work Vocabulary items: classify, category, gigantic, ignorantly, bygone, fairy tale, profitably, continually, indeed, politician, broaden Procedures: o Divide the class into teams o Get them to make creative team names o Distribute each list of words to the four teams Every student on each team should have a paper All the teams have the same words o When you call a word, students should stand up, one from each team The students must then run to the blackboard and race to write a sentence using their word o The winner is the team with most correct and clearly written sentences -XIV- S’s No Control Group Appendix 3: Scores Experimental Group -XV- 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Pretest 3 4 4 6 6 8 5 7 Prog Prog Prog Final Test Test Test Test 5 4 4 7 5 7 4 6 5 4 10 9 9 10 4 6 6 7 6 4 5 6 5 8 6 5 7 5 7 8 8 3 6 5 8 7 2 6 8 5 5 Pretest 4 8 4 4 4 4 Prog Prog Prog Final Test Test Test Test 7 6 5 9 9 6 10 10 9 6 5 4 4 9 8 5 6 7 5 8 9 6 5 5 6 6 2 7 10 10 7 7 2 6 6 6 5 7 4 8 7 10 7 6 5 -XVI- 44 Mean Mode Median 4.75 4.5 5.79 5.5 6.06 6 6.05 4.86 5 4.72 4 5.92 6.01 6.34 6 6.00 ... to “…more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger traces” These traces would be the equivalent of etchings that are left on the memory In other words stronger traces conduct information to the... getting a clear image of words, both visual and auditory learning the meaning of words making strong memory connections between form and meaning of words using words Meanwhile, Waring (2002)... students‟ mood, learning habit, physical setting, large class size, etc Despite these limitations, I strongly believe that my research is successful to some extent Though this is just a small-scaled