Valorization of food processing by products edited by m chandrasekaran

Valorization of Food Processing By-Products Fermented Foods and Beverages serIes Series Editors M.J.R Nout and Prabir Kumar Sarkar Valorization of Food Processing By-Products (2013) Editor: M Chandrasekaran Fermented Foods and Beverages Series Valorization of Food Processing By-Products Edited by M Chandrasekaran Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Version Date: 20121115 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-4887-6 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of 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not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com To the Almighty who filled me with wisdom, knowledge, strength, and perseverance to accomplish this great mission to serve humanity Contents S e r i e s P r e fa c e xi P r e fa c e xiii Acknowledgments xvii Editor xix Contributors xxiii Pa r t I  I n t r o d u c t i o n C h a p t e r 1 F o o d P r o c e ss i n g I n d u s t r i e s : A n O v e r v i e w M CH A N DR A SEK A R A N , S O OR EJ M BA SH EER , SR EEJA CH E L L A P PA N , P. K A R T H I K E YA N , A N D K  K E LYA S C h a p t e r 2 C u r r e n t S tat e - o f -t h e -A r t P r o c e ss i n g B y - P r o d u c t s of Fo o d 35 K A SI M U RUGA N , V IC T OR SI MON CH A N DR A SEK A R A N , P K A R T H I K E YA N , A N D S A L E H A L-S OH A I BA N I C h a p t e r 3 R e g u l at o r y I ss u e s a n d C o n c e r n s o f Va l o r i z at i o n o f F o o d P r o c e ss i n g B y- P r o d u c t s 63 M CH A N DR A SEK A R A N vii viii C o n t en t s C h a p t e r 4 N e e d f o r Va l o r i z at i o n o f  F o o d P r o c e ss i n g B y - P r o d u c t s a n d W a s t e s 91 M CH A N DR A SEK A R A N Pa r t II  P r i n c i p l e s of Wa s t e R e cyc l i n g C h a p t e r P r i n c i p l e s o f F o o d Te c h n o l o gy a n d Ty p e s o f F o o d W a s t e P r o c e ss i n g Te c h n o l o g i e s 109 M K G OW T H A M A N , P O OR N I M A G OW T H A M A N , A N D M  CH A N DR A SEK A R A N C h a p t e r P r o c e ss E n g i n e e r i n g and Economics 147 M K GOWTHAMAN AND POORNIMA GOWTHAMAN C h a p t e r 7 B i o c h e m i c a l a n d N u t r i t i o n a l A sp e c t s o f  F o o d P r o c e ss i n g B y - P r o d u c t s 167 J I S S A G K R I SH N A A N D M CH A N DR A SEK A R A N C h a p t e r 8 M i c r o b i o l o gy B y- P r o d u c t s of F o o d P r o c e ss i n g 187 A RU N ACH A L A M CH I N N AT H A M BI , A BDU R A H M A N H AJ I N U R H I R A D, A N D A L I H BA H K A L I C h a p t e r 9 F e r m e n tat i o n B y- P r o d u c t s of F o o d P r o c e ss i n g 203 K JAYACH A N DR A N , I N DU C N A I R , T S S WA P N A , A N D A S A BU C h a p t e r 10 E n z y m e Te c h n o l o g i e s f o r B i o c o n v e r s i o n o f F o o d P r o c e ss i n g B y - P r o d u c t s 233 S A R I TA G BH AT A N D R AJ EEV K  S U K U M A R A N C h a p t e r 11 A n a ly t i c a l M e t h o d s f o r M o n i t o r i n g t h e B i o l o g i c a l P r o c e ss e s E m p l oy e d i n Va l o r i z at i o n o f F o o d P r o c e ss i n g B y- P r o d u c t s 267 M CH A N DR A SEK A R A N , J I S S A G K R I SH N A , A N D K SH I N E Part III Valoriz ation of B y-P roducts   from P l ant-B ased F ood P rocessing I ndustries C h a p t e r 12 C e r e a l s J I S S A G K R I SH N A A N D M  CH A N DR A SEK A R A N 303 C o n t en t s C h a p t e r 13 O i l S e e d s ix 331 M CH A N DR A SEK A R A N A N D K SH I N E C h a p t e r 14 R o o t s and Tu b e r s 377 G PA DM AJA A N D A N J YO T H I C h a p t e r 15 S u g a r c a n e 415 A M M U RUGA N A N D A J A R A N J I T SI NGH C h a p t e r 16 C o f f e e , Te a , and C o c oa 455 K A SI M U RUGA N A N D S A L E H A L-S OH A I BA N I C h a p t e r 17 S p i c e s 489 B CH E M PA K A M , N K L EE L A , SH A M I N A A Z EEZ , E JAYA SH R EE , A N D T. JOH N Z ACH A R I A H C h a p t e r 18 F r u i t s and V e g e ta b l e s 517 T H K AO A N D B H CH EN C h a p t e r 19 B a k e r i e s and Confectioneries 559 C ONCH A C OL L A R A N D CR I S T I N A M RO SE L L C h a p t e r 0 B e v e r a g e s 589 R SH YA M K U M A R A N D M CH A N DR A SEK A R A N Pa r t IV Va l o r i z at i o n o f B y -P r o d u c t s fro m A n i m a l P ro d u ct s – Bas e d F o o d P r o c e ss i n g I n d u s t r i e s C h a p t e r 21 D a i r y B y - P r o d u c t s : W a s t e s o r R e s o u r c e s ?—Th e S h i f t i n g P e r c e p t i o n a f t e r Va l o r i z at i o n 617 S U R AJ I T M A N DA L , MON ICA P U N I YA , K P S  S A NGU, S U M I T SI NGH DAGA R , R A M E SH WA R SI NGH , A N D A N I L K U M A R P U N I YA C h a p t e r 2 M e at s , P o u lt r y, and Eggs 649 K R AT H I N A R AJ A N D N M S ACH I N DR A C h a p t e r 23 S e a f o o d P V S U R E SH A N D G N AGEN DR A PR A BH U 685 75 Valorization of Food Processing By-Products the by-product, and knowledge of commercial potential in terms of consumer demand It is very important that the technology for valorization of the food processing by-products is available so that the by-products are appropriately subjected to the value addition process and adequately utilized Further, even if some knowledge is available about the possible valorization of certain by-products of an industry, the success of the same is limited owing to the fact that the production process is yet to be standardized on the industrial production scale and most of the information available is restricted to the laboratory scale and/or pilot scale only In fact, very few industries have adopted valorization of by-products and have tasted success in their attempts Several examples have been presented in the respective chapters that dealt with specific food industries Food research has drawn the attention of the international scientific community in recent years and the main focus is on enhanced production of food products, modified foods with enhanced nutritive value, flavor enhancement, extension of shelf life and food protection against food pathogens, quality control, packing technology, and package materials To match the consumer demand in the context of growing interest in convenient foods, the food industry research and development is conducting intensive research for the development of modified foods with additives The level of research activities pertaining to waste reuse or recycling and valorization is relatively less when compared with other interests The World Health Organization (WHO) food safety unit has proposed the fermentation potential of food processing involving microorganisms and or their enzymes in order to obtain nutritive, safety, and secured food, and hence it is time to adapt the same in the food processing industries The identification, selection, development, and application of suitable fermentative processing technologies in food industries would be of use not only for preparing and storing food but also for converting the huge amount of unutilized raw material going as an environmental damage causing waste The application of fermentative processes in food processing may not only solve environmental problems but also reduce the toxins and antinutritive factors of the by-products, apart from increasing their nutritive value and consumer acceptance Hence, it is high time for food industries to shift their operations into green However, extensive research on FUTURE P ROS P ECTS AND T HE NEED FOR RESEARC H 759 the consistency of bioprocessed products, risk of food contamination, food-borne illness, fermentation process development, and their control is needed besides utilizing the by-products through valorization employing biological processes 25.2  Scope for Research on Food Processing By-Products Valorization holds the key for successful utilization of processing byproducts However, the information available on the various raw materials used in different food processing industries is rather inadequate for the food processing industries to proceed further in diversification of the range of food products or to harness the range of by-products and wastes for further utilization Further, appropriate technologies that enable separation and purification of desired components, such as vitamins or amino acids, or peptides or sugars of interest are needed for successful valorization and utilization, although various technologies such as solvent extraction, supercritical extraction with carbon dioxide, distillation, chromatographic separations, and so on are available Moreover, the technological strength in terms of the established valorization method will ensure successful development of value-added products and consequent utilization of the available bioresources In this context, the biological method of valorization holds promise by virtue of its environmental-friendly nature in addition to several other advantages over physical and chemical methods practiced over the years The scope for using rice bran, wheat bran, fruits and vegetable peels and pomace, oilseed cakes, visceral organs of animals and fishes, shellfish wastes, and so on as potential raw materials for deriving biopharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, functional foods, biomaterials, enzymes, micronutrients, and so on employing fermentation and enzyme processes have been indicated in the respective chapters Further, knowledge of the fact that oil can be extracted from rice bran, a major by-product from the rice processing industry, has caused significant advancement in the utilization of by-products for the generation of beneficial products However, such a revolution is possible only if viable and feasible valorization technologies are available for specific products of interest Potential biomolecules of commercial value, such as catalytic enzymes, pigments, flavors, functional ingredients, micronutrients, 76 Valorization of Food Processing By-Products nutraceuticals, active pharmaceutical ingredients, phytochemicals, biofuel, and biomaterials could be derived from food processing byproducts that are simply disposed of without assigning any importance Hence, it is high time intensive and specific objective-oriented research activities are initiated for deriving spectra of biomolecules from different plant- and animal-based food processing by-products and for the development of appropriate technologies for effecting value addition Moreover, the diverse range of agricultural and horticultural produce such as fruits and vegetables, roots, tubers, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, and spices produced by farmers and processed by food industries are yet to be subjected to comprehensive research for the utilization of their by-products for beneficial activities since current research is limited to the main products of interest Several investigators have made earnest attempts to conduct research on valorization of certain major food processing by-products for deriving useful products of commercial significance These examples hold promise for future research activities aimed at filling research gaps in the field of valorization of food processing by-products Brewers spent grain: Barley contains high amounts of protein and β-glucan besides starch Although the significance of β-glucan for human nutrition is well known, little is known about the functional properties of β-glucan for making food products The development of new techniques to use this agro-industrial by-product is of great interest due to the large volumes of spent grain produced (Gupta et al 2010) Brewer’s spent grain (BSG) is an abundant by-product that can be obtained from brewing companies worldwide However, in spite of all the possible applications described, its use is still limited, being basically used as animal feed or simply as a landfill BSG can be considered as an attractive adjunct for human food and has been used, for example, to make protein-enriched breads, which could be very useful in the poorer regions of the world where food is scarce On the other hand, considering that carbohydrates are the major components, more attention should be paid to its conversion into soluble and fermentable sugars Currently, a number of value-added products such as organic acids, amino acids, vitamins, ethanol, and butanediol, among others, are produced by fermentation using glucose or xylose as substrates But there is little information about the residual barley proteins present in BSG and their interactions with other BSG polymers (Gupta FUTURE P ROS P ECTS AND T HE NEED FOR RESEARC H 761 et al 2010) The cellulosic and noncellulosic fractions of lignocellulosic materials in BSG are a rich source of monosaccharides Another possibility that should be considered is the production of polymers and resins from BSG (Mussatto et al 2006) A large number of these compounds are produced from chemicals such as ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene, or xylene The aromatic compounds (benzene, toluene, and xylene) could be produced from BSG lignin, whereas the low-molecular-weight aliphatic compounds (ethylene and propylene) could be derived from ethanol produced by fermentation of sugars generated from BSG cellulose and arabinoxylan Although there are a number of possible uses for BSG, the biggest impediment to its use is the cost of transport (especially of the wet form) and/or drying More efforts must be directed at finding alternative economically sustainable drying methods A consequential benefit of the use of industrial by-products such as BSG as raw materials is the generation of more jobs Additionally, from an environmental viewpoint, the elimination of industrial by-products represents a solution to pollution problems (Mussatto et al 2006) Brewer’s yeast: The Saccharomyces yeast cells contain numerous enzymes, namely vacuolar proteases including serine, aspartyl, and metalloproteases, and pectinases among others; thus, the industrial production of these enzymes from brewer’s yeast is a field to explore It may be noted that the suitability of crude yeast pectinase for fruit juice extraction has already been reported to aid in pineapple juice extraction (Dzogbefia et al 2001), indicating scope for exploring the other yeast enzymes However, only Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATCC 52712 has been studied so far and other species are yet to be harnessed For instance, rapid extraction of pawpaw juice with the application of locally produced pectic enzymes from S cerevisiae ATCC 52712 and the combined effects of enzyme dosage and reaction time on papaya juice extraction were also reported (Djokoto et al 2006; Dzogbefia and Djokoto 2006) The suitability of this enzyme for starch production at a local factory in Ghana was evaluated (Dzogbefia et al 2008) The potential for applying this enzyme in pineapple and papaya juice extraction and so on appears quite promising However, for application of the technology on an industrial scale, parameters for the scale-up production of the enzyme will have to be carefully studied (Safariková et al 2005) 76 Valorization of Food Processing By-Products In many European countries such as the Mediterranean ones, food processing by-products and wastes are still poorly utilized for reprocessing, and they are only known for the production of biogas in some instances But currently, biotechnology methods are available for the conversion of food processing by-products and waste materials into renewable resources and renewable energy such as biofuel, for example, biohydrogen, bioethanol, as indicated elsewhere in the book Due to the high content of starch in pulse food residues, dilute acid pretreatment does not seem to be efficient enough to break down the starch into smaller units of glucose For this reason, alternative pretreatment, such as enzymatic hydrolysis with amylases, must be considered for subsequent studies Much work is still to be done, including fermentation trials for evaluating the efficiency of the process (del Campo et al 2006) A continuous ethanol production from sago starch using amyloglucosidase (AMG) immobilized on chitin and Zymomonas mobilis cells immobilized in the form of sodium alginate beads was studied by Lee et al (1987) Ethanol was produced continuously in a simultaneous saccharification and ethanol fermentation (SSF) mode in a packed bed reactor and recorded a maximum ethanol productivity of 37 g/L/h with ethanol yield, Yp/s, of 0.43 g/g (84% of the theoretical ethanol yield) based on the void volume, Vv, in this system Consider the vast quantity of by-products generated in the vegetable and fruit industry, particularly in fruit juice manufacturing units The extract after drawing the juicy portion from fruits along with fruit peels and stems or stalk are simply sent to either landfill or anaerobic digestion units for composting or to animal feed preparation In fact, these by-products are a rich treasure of potential chemical constituents that have commercial value However, prior knowledge about the availability of compounds such as pigments like carotenoids, organic acids such as citric acid and lactic acid, unsaturated fatty acids, alkaloids, sugars, vitamins, enzymes, minerals, and specific bioactive substances is a prerequisite to consider the by-products as potential raw materials For instance, fruit juice processing by-products have been used for the production of bioethanol and enzyme as mentioned below The utility of the juice of rotten or discarded pineapples and the waste material from the production of pineapple juice as low-cost substrates for ethanol production by Zymomonas mobilis ATCC 10988 FUTURE P ROS P ECTS AND T HE NEED FOR RESEARC H 76 was investigated by Tanaka et al (1999) Z mobilis produced 59.0 g/L ethanol in undiluted pineapple juice without nutritional supplementation and without the regulation of the pH while 42.5 g/L ethanol was obtained using a 125 g/L sucrose medium supplemented with 10 g/L yeast extract and mineral salts Ethanol fermentation using unhydrolyzed and enzymatically hydrolyzed pineapple waste material was also investigated under various culture conditions The results suggest that pineapple juice and the waste material can be useful lowcost substrates for ethanol production by Z mobilis without supplementation with expensive organic nitrogen complexes such as yeast extract and without the regulation of the pH during cultivation, leading to a reduction in the production costs Orange bagasse contains large amounts of soluble carbohydrates, particularly fructose, glucose, sucrose, and pectins as well as insoluble cellulose, and has been used as a fermentation feedstock for the production of fermentation products, including enzymes (Rosales et al 2002) In fact, consistent and comprehensive research on the by-products exploring the possibilities of deriving a wide range of products of commerce will enhance the feasibility of maximizing valorization of fruit processing by-products Further, it must be noted that agro-industrial wastes have great potential for the production of enzymes and as the application of plant residue utilization requires large amounts of lowcost enzymes, it is necessary to produce enzymes that convert these wastes at low cost, and solid-state fermentation is a means by which this can be achieved (Rosales et al 2002) Wheat bran was demonstrated to be an ideal substrate for spore production of Trichoderma harzianum, T viride, T koningii, and T poly­ sporum and it has been reported that all the studied species recorded increased production of spore when wheat bran was used without any need for nutritional supplementation The use of wheat bran facilitated easier manipulation than corn bran and rice because of its low starch content and rapid water absorption (Cavalcante et al 2008) Rice and wheat brans have considerable potential in lactic acid fermentation (Yun et al 2004) Lactobacillus sp RKY2 was observed to ferment rice and wheat brans hydrolyzates into dl-lactic acid at high yields without additional nutrients Madhukumar and Muralikrishna (2011) investigated the fermentation of wheat bran xylooligosaccharides (WBO) and Bengal gram oligosaccharides (BGO) using 76 Valorization of Food Processing By-Products Pediococcus pentosaceus NCDO 813, Lactobacillus brevis NDRI strain RTS, Pediococcus pentosaceus ATCC 8081, Bifidobacterium adolescen­ tis NDRI 236, Bifidobacterium bifidum NCDO 2715, Bifidobacterium bifidum ATCC 29521, and Lactobacillus plantarum NDRI strain 184 They observed that xylo-oligosaccharides from wheat bran had more prebiotic activity than Bengal gram husk xylooligosaccharides as indicated by their prebiotic activity experiments, which may be attributed to their relatively higher arabinose content These reports indicate that there is scope for deriving more useful value-added products from rice and wheat bran However, further investigations on the availability of biomolecules from husks and hulls of cereals, besides oil content and valorizations employing appropriate technologies, are needed to achieve total utilization of cereal processing by-products Molasses, a major by-product obtained during sugarcane processing for the preparation of sugar as a potential raw material, has revolutionized the biofuel industry since fermentation production of alcohol by yeast using molasses is well known today Similar is the case with yeast biomass produced during alcohol production by fermentation of molasses With respect to the dairy industry, the major by-product is whey and its prospects as a raw material for valorization have been well documented in Chapter 21 Buttermilk with its high nutritional value, ghee residues that are a rich source of fat and flavor, and whey show great potential for deriving further functional food ingredients and food supplements Considering their varied chemical composition, the quantum of by-products generated, and storage concerns, intensive research efforts are needed to utilize these by-products judiciously employing appropriate technologies and suitable bioprocesses for efficient valorization and for deriving potential value-added products With regard to seafood, the vast range of fishes, including fin fish and shellfish, harvested from freshwater and marine environments are primarily considered only as potential protein food and hence the by-products and wastes are underutilized In fact, there is immense scope for deriving a wide range of economically useful products such as bioactive substances, functional foods, nutraceuticals, enzymes, pigments, collagen, gelatin, lipids, fatty acids, chitin, calcium, and other trace elements, and micronutrients from sea food processing by-products The visceral organs of fish, simply disposed off as wastes during FUTURE P ROS P ECTS AND T HE NEED FOR RESEARC H 76 processing, are potential reservoirs of many hydrolytic enzymes such as chymotrypsin and trypsin Similar is the case with the extraction of fish oils Fish visceral organs, gills, fish bones, skin, fins, scales, and exoskeleton in the case of crustaceans such as shrimps, crabs, and mollusks have potential for reutilization as raw materials for further production of new and useful biomolecules, once information is generated on the availability of the same through dedicated research Crustacean processing produces about 40% of shell waste (Gildberg and Stenberg 2001) The global annual production of shell waste from crustacean processing is estimated to be 1.44 million metric tons dry weight (Knorr 1991, Rødde et al 2008) The exoskeleton of several shellfishes such as shrimps and crabs are an ideal source for deriving chitin, which has large potential for commerce The extracted chitin can be used not only for the production of chitin-derived products, such as chitosans, chito-oligosaccharides, and glucosamine, but also bioplastic There is increasing interest in the use of chitinous products in the food and pharmaceutical industries because of the broad range of industrial applications of chitinous products (Shahidi et al 1999) Since biodegradation of this waste is very slow, the accumulation of large quantities of it has become a major concern in the seafood processing industry Biological extraction can be done using proteolytic microorganisms or fungi or purified enzymes This results in the production of oligomers with an optimum degree of polymerization for different applications and does not denature the chitin (Shimahara and Takiguchi 1988) Enzymes associated with chitin extraction are chitinases, cellulases, deacetylases, and proteases (Zhang et al 1999, Gildberg and Stenberg 2001, Rinaudo 2006) Enzymatic extraction can be highly specific, and can yield chitin with higher molecular weights In addition to environmental advantages over the chemical method, the use of enzymes also eliminates hazards associated with the use of reactive reagents However, small amounts of proteins and inorganic salts can remain in the resulting chitin (Shimahara and Takiguchi 1988) Chitinous wastes when subjected to the fermentation process open up the possibility of carrying out deproteinization and demineralization in one step, since microorganisms involved in fermentation also produce proteolytic enzymes and may produce acids that catalyze hydrolytic action During fermentation, the extracted proteins and minerals are used as a nutrient source by the 76 Valorization of Food Processing By-Products microorganisms and both extraction of chitin and production of other products and biomass take place at the same time Further, the fermentative process is also less expensive, and is therefore a promising alternative to the use of commercial enzymes Some microorganisms and fungi associated with fermentative chitin extraction are Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus paracasei, Pediococcus pentosaseus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger, and Penicillium chrysogenum The biological processes were found to be superior to the physical or chemical methods currently employed for processing the seafood byproducts as in the case of chitin Hence, research efforts are required pertaining to downstream processing, particularly for the easier recovery of potent biomolecules of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical importance In general, several bioactive components such as carotenoids, phytoestrogens, natural antioxidants such as phenolic compounds, and functional compounds could be derived from food processing by-products Moreover, physiological activities including antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antiallergic, anticarcinogenic, and antihypertensive activities are also known to be exhibited by potent antioxidants such as phenolic and flavonoid compounds Mono-, di-, and oligosaccharides, as well as nondigestible oligosaccharides, currently considered as “prebiotics” which get fermented in the colon mainly by bifidobacteria and lactic acid bacteria, thus producing a positive health effect, could be derived from plant-based food processing by-products and wastes However, intensive research on specific food processing by-products is required in terms of the scope for fermentation production or enzyme processing, and the isolation and identification of suitable whole-cell biocatalysts and enzymes The functional food market is yet another area of significance which deserves much attention by food processing researchers and biotechnologists since there is a huge demand for functional nutraceuticals of prophylactic and therapeutic value In this context, bioconversion of food processing by-products and wastes into functional compounds through fermentations and/or enzyme processing has immense scope for developing functional nutraceuticals in food industries Screening of microorganisms for higher conversion efficiency, development of mutant strains with augmented efficiency and targeted specificity, optimization of growth conditions, and so on are essential for making the bioprocesses cost effective FUTURE P ROS P ECTS AND T HE NEED FOR RESEARC H 76 25.3  Strategies to Be Adopted for Successful Valorization It is imperative that appropriate strategies be adopted for a successful implementation of valorization of food processing by-products Although several strategies have been devised and adopted by food industries, the following strategies merit due consideration because of their importance • Knowledge about the quality of food processing by-products with particular emphasis on their chemical, physicochemical, and biological characteristics that determine their potential as prospective raw materials for deriving value-added products through valorization • Statistical knowledge about the quantity of food processing by-products with reference to annual production and availability throughout the year for ensuring sustained supply for valorization • Life cycle analyses on materials and by-products of food processing industries • Current methods of waste and by-products disposal and their merits and demerits • Development of alternative technologies and methods for the utilization of by-products • Development of appropriate technologies for recovery, isolation, and purification of specific biomolecules of commercial value, and product development • Scope for the utilization of by-products in diversification of food and food-related products by using the available resources that are disposed of as waste • Scope for the growth of spin-off industries and employment opportunity through the adoption of valorization by food processing industries • Identification of potential applications • Good manufacturing practices (GMP) • Quality management systems under the International Standards Organization (ISO 9000) • Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) • Awareness programs on dissemination of knowledge about the importance of valorization 76 Valorization of Food Processing By-Products • Human resources development toward capacity building in valorization program relevant to food industries 25.4  Research Gaps to Be Investigated It will be appropriate to undertake research on the following areas which merit consideration in valorization processes for achieving total utilization of food processing by-products in the future • Database on the profile of useful biomolecules that can function as a bioactive substance or as a nutraceutical or as functional foods, enzymes, and micronutrients in raw materials based on plants used for the preparation of foods and the various by-products that are generated during processing of foods, for example, husks, hulls, straw, pomace, peels, and food materials; in the case of all types of cereals, pulses, nuts, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, and spices, among other agricultural and horticultural products • Qualitative and quantitative spectra of biochemical constituents and comprehensive approximate composition of all edible fishes, shellfishes, and mollusks, obtained from freshwater, sea, and aquaculture species Information should be obtained for the fleshy portions consumed and discarded as wastes as well as the bones, fins, scales, and so on • Qualitative and quantitative spectra of biochemical constituents and comprehensive approximate composition of all slaughterhouse wastes with respect to meat and poultry • Identification and selection of suitable biocatalysts, microorganisms, or enzymes, for effecting successful bioconversions of byproducts into desired biomolecules as end product, or formed as metabolites or secondary metabolites as the case may be • Development of ideal bioprocesses suitable for successful valorization of food processing by-products based on whole-cell biocatalysts based on fermentations or enzyme-based processes as per the nature and chemical characteristics of raw materials • Development of mathematical models for suitable fermentation and enzyme processes that are efficient for successful valorization through the conduct of scale-up studies FUTURE P ROS P ECTS AND T HE NEED FOR RESEARC H 76 • Appropriate downstream technologies for the extraction, separation, purification, and isolation of desirable compounds for which no standard methodologies are as yet available owing to inadequate knowledge of the physicochemical characteristics and storage stability of biomolecules • Improvement of existing technologies for enhanced recovery of the desired chemical constituents for which there are established protocols already available, but still there is inadequacy in efficiency • Information on physicochemical and biological characteristics, and the shelf life of such biomolecules and compounds associated with by-products • Potential applications as biopharmaceutical, functional food, and nutraceutical • Monitoring and life cycle analyses of such by-products • Prospects for diversification of food products and consequent spin-off industries promoting employment opportunities 25.5  Conclusion Advances in science and technology were the basis for the rapid industrialization, urbanization, and socioeconomic development of humankind compared with prehistoric times In fact, the developments in science and technology, sophistication in life style, and selfreliance in essential requirements are the fruits of intensive research and developmental efforts over the years The same is the case with developments in food science technology and the consequent proliferation of food industries and diversification of products But the intensity of current research and developmental activities is rather limited in the case of utilization of food processing by-products and wastes, which are disposed as such without subjecting them to valorization for deriving further products of importance This is evidenced by the limited availability of research literature on varied by-products obtained from food processing industries Of course, intense research and development activities are being pursued in food industries currently But most of these research efforts are limited to extension of shelf life, quality improvement, consumer appeal, packing technology, and marketing , whereas there is a need for valorization efforts toward 70 Valorization of Food Processing By-Products the diversification of products and feasible spin-off industries utilizing the available voluminous by-products generated in their industries In this context, enormous research and developmental efforts are required toward complete utilization of the by-products and wastes generated in food processing industries In fact, such efforts would ultimately result in overall sustained utilization of naturally available food processing by-products for the production of several useful and economically valuable products There is no doubt that the efforts will ultimately lead to generation of more employment for unemployed youth, promoting bioentrepreneurship and small-scale industries dependent on food processing by-products as their raw materials in most of the developing and underdeveloped countries, which are striving hard toward a self-reliant economy and overall sustained development References Cavalcante, R S., Lima, H L S., Pinto, G A S., Gava, C A T., and Rodrigues, S 2008 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257–260 ... economics, biochemical and nutritional aspects of food processing by- products, microbiology of food processing by- products, fermentation techniques available for valorization of food processing by- products, .. .Valorization of Food Processing By- Products Fermented Foods and Beverages serIes Series Editors M. J.R Nout and Prabir Kumar Sarkar Valorization of Food Processing By- Products (2013) Editor: M. .. the types of food wastes and the technologies employed for disposal of them, but they cover food wastes of only some major food industries A comprehensive book on valorization of by- products and