Environmentally friendly food processing edited by berit mattsson and ulf sonesson

Environmentally-friendly food processing Related titles from Woodhead's food science, technology and nutrition list: Novel food packaging techniques (ISBN 85573 675 6) This comprehensive and authoritative collection summarises key recent developments in packaging The book first discusses the range of active and intelligent techniques It then summarises the major trends in modified atmosphere packaging The final part of the book discusses general issues such as the regulatory context, packaging optimisation and consumer attitudes to novel packaging formats Food authenticity and traceability (ISBN 85573 526 1) With recent problems such as genetically-modified ingredients in food, the need to trace and authenticate the content of food products has never been more urgent The first part of this authoritative book reviews the range of established and new techniques for food authentication Part explores how these methods are applied to particular foods, whilst Part reviews developments in traceability systems Rapid and on-line instrumentation for food quality assurance (ISBN 85573 674 8) With its high volume of production, the food industry has an urgent need for instrumentation which gives rapid results and can be used on-line This important collection reviews the wealth of recent research in the field The first part of the book discusses product safety and the use of rapid techniques to identify chemical and microbial contaminants Part looks at techniques to analyse product quality Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead's food science, technology and nutrition titles can be obtained by: · visiting our web site at www.woodhead-publishing.com · contacting Customer Services (email: sales@woodhead-publishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext 30; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AH, England) Selected food science and technology titles are also available in electronic form Visit our web site (www.woodhead-publishing.com) to find out more If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles in this area, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, telephone and fax as above; e-mail: francisd@woodhead-publishing.com) Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in http://avaxho.me/blogs/ChrisRedfield Environmentally-friendly food processing Edited by Berit Mattsson and Ulf Sonesson Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited Abington Hall, Abington Cambridge CB1 6AH England www.woodhead-publishing.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC 2000 Corporate Blvd, NW Boca Raton FL 33431 USA First published 2003, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC ß 2003, Woodhead Publishing Limited The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited or CRC Press LLC for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Woodhead Publishing Limited ISBN 85573 677 (book); 85573 717 (e-book) CRC Press ISBN 0-8493-1764-9 CRC Press order number: WP1764 Cover design by The ColourStudio Project managed by Macfarlane Production Services, Markyate, Hertfordshire (e-mail: macfarl@aol.com) Typeset by MHL Typesetting Limited, Coventry, Warwickshire Printed by TJ International, Padstow, Cornwall, England Contents Contributor contact details xi 1 Introduction B Mattsson and U Sonnesson, The Swedish Institute of Food and Biotechnology (SIK) Part I Assessing the environmental impact of food processing operations Life cycle assessment (LCA): an introduction J Berlin, The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology (SIK) 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The LCA process 2.3 Key principles of LCA 2.4 LCA of food products 2.5 Using LCA: some examples 2.6 Future trends 2.7 References Life cycle assessment of vegetable products K J Kramer, Agricultural Economics Research Institute, The Netherlands 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Using LCAs: the case of pesticides 3.3 LCA in horticultural production 5 11 13 14 14 16 16 17 18 vi Contents 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 LCA for processed vegetable products LCA for organic production Future trends: LCA and sustainability Sources of further information and advice References 20 24 26 27 27 Life cycle assessment of fruit production L MilaÁ i Canals, Universitat AutoÁnoma de Barcelona, Spain, and G Clemente Polo, Universitat PoliteÁcnica de ValeÁncia, Spain 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Functional units and system boundaries 4.3 Data collection: field operations 4.4 Data collection: nutrient balance 4.5 Data collection: pesticides 4.6 Assessing a LCA 4.7 Future trends 4.8 References 29 Life cycle assessment of animal products C Cederberg, GoÈteborg University, Sweden 5.1 Introduction 5.2 LCA methodology and animal products 5.3 LCA in practice: the cases of milk and pig meat 5.4 Using LCA to improve production 5.5 Future trends 5.6 Sources of further information and advice 5.7 References Environmental impact assessment of seafood products F Ziegler, The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology (SIK) 6.1 Introduction: the need for a sustainable fishing industry 6.2 The role of aquaculture 6.3 The environmental impact of fishing 6.4 The environmental impact of aquaculture 6.5 Environmental assessment of seafood products, sustainable fishing and aquaculture 6.6 Conclusions and future trends 6.7 Sources of further information and advice 6.8 Acknowledgements 6.9 Appendix 6.10 References 29 30 33 44 46 47 48 50 54 54 55 61 64 66 67 68 70 70 72 74 80 83 87 88 88 89 89 Contents Part II Good practice 10 Environmental issues in the production of beverages: the global coffee chain W Pelupessy, Tilburg University, The Netherlands 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Development issues 7.3 Market trends and their environmental and social impacts 7.4 The environmental impact of the coffee supply chain 7.5 Identifying problem areas 7.6 Sustainable coffee production 7.7 References Improving energy efficiency H Dalsgaard and A W Abbotts, COWI, Denmark 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Analysing energy use in food processing 8.3 Improving energy use 8.4 Case study: improving energy use in poultry processing 8.5 Case study: pig slaughterhouse 8.6 Future trends 8.7 Sources of further information and advice The environmental management of packaging: an overview F de Leo, University of Lecce, Italy 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Packaging and the environment 9.3 The regulatory context 9.4 Packaging minimization 9.5 Packaging recycling 9.6 Future trends 9.7 Sources of further information and advice 9.8 References 9.9 Acknowledgement Recycling of packaging materials D Dainelli, Sealed Air Corporation, Italy 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Regulation in the EU 10.3 Recycling paper packaging: collection and separation 10.4 Recycling paper packaging: processing 10.5 Food packaging from recovered paper 10.6 Recycling plastic packaging 10.7 Collection and separation of plastic packaging 10.8 Recycling techniques and uses of plastic packaging vii 93 95 95 96 99 103 107 110 113 116 116 117 120 121 122 128 129 130 130 131 133 138 141 148 151 152 153 154 154 155 158 161 163 164 167 171 viii 11 12 13 14 Contents 10.9 Conclusions and future trends 10.10 References 176 178 Biobased food packaging V K Haugaard, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Denmark, and G Mortensen, Arla Foods, Denmark 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Biobased packaging materials 11.3 Requirements for biobased packaging materials 11.4 Using biobased packaging with particular foods 11.5 Current commercial applications 11.6 Future trends 11.7 Sources of further information and advice 11.8 References 11.9 Acknowledgements 180 Recycling food processing wastes M Song and S Hwang, POSTECH, South Korea 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Bio-recycling technologies 12.3 Case study: recycling cheese whey 12.4 Future trends in bio-recycling technology 12.5 References Waste treatment C L Hansen, Utah State University, USA, and S Hwang, POSTECH, South Korea 13.1 Introduction: key issues in food waste treatment 13.2 Common food waste treatment systems 13.3 Physical methods of waste treatment 13.4 Biological methods of waste treatment 13.5 Chemical methods of waste treatment 13.6 Land treatment of waste 13.7 Future trends 13.8 References Assessing the safety and quality of recycled packaging materials C Simoneau and B Raffael, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy and R Franz, Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging, Germany 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Recyclable plastic packaging: PET 14.3 Recyclable paper and board packaging 14.4 Food contact materials: the regulatory context 180 181 185 190 195 196 199 200 204 205 205 205 208 212 216 218 218 220 224 228 232 233 235 238 241 241 243 247 249 Contents 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 15 16 17 ix Key safety issues for recycled packaging Testing the safety of recycled packaging Future trends Sources of further information and advice References 251 254 257 257 258 Environmental training for the food industry B Weidema, Technical University of Denmark 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The importance of environmental training 15.3 Environmental training needs in differing departments 15.4 The concept of the learning organisation in environmental training 15.5 Barriers to effective environmental training 15.6 Environmental learning across the supply chain 15.7 External, workplace and internet-based environmental training 15.8 Maintaining environmental awareness 15.9 Future trends 15.10 Sources of further information and advice 15.11 References 266 Comparing integrated crop management and organic production H van Zeijts, G van den Born and M van Schijndel, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), The Netherlands 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Integrated Crop Management 16.3 The environmental impact of integrated crop management 16.4 Organic crop production 16.5 The environmental impact of organic farming 16.6 Comparing the environmental impact of integrated crop management and organic farming 16.7 Future trends 16.8 Sources of further information and advice 16.9 References Life cycle assessment (LCA) of wine production B Notarnicola and G Tassielli, University of Bari, Italy and G M Nicoletti, University of Foggia, Italy 17.1 Introduction: key issues 17.2 Wine production 17.3 Applying LCA to wine production 17.4 Case study 266 267 268 270 273 275 275 279 279 281 281 283 283 284 288 291 295 299 300 301 302 306 306 307 311 312 324 Environmentally-friendly food processing 17.5.3 Recovery of co products The recovery and reuse of the wine solid co-products ± rasps, lees, marc ± plays an important role in the wine eco-profile In life cycle thinking it is possible to skip from the analysis the burden of their disposal and, in industrial ecology terms, they become a raw material for new processes The LCA enables to see the less environmental burden of the wine in the case the co-products are recovered compared to the case they are disposed of 17.5.4 Waste water treatment The winery activities represent a source of significant waste water production, due essentially to the equipment cleaning operations and to the loss occurring during the different operations of raw materials and products movement The waste water polluting burden has an organic and biodegradable nature, for whose depuration it is possible to use an alternative process to the conventional one called `activated sludge' The phyto-depuration makes use of the natural capacity of some acquatic plants to absorb, through the radical apparatus, some substances contained in the waste water or generated by the degradation action of the microorganisms The plants that are generated by this process could find an easy use as biomass to compost or for energy production On the contrary, the activated sludge technology requires relevant energy quantities and produces sludges which have to be appropriately treated before their final disposal 17.6 Future trends As already pointed out in the previous paragraphs, technology and innovation are very important in the wine sector, first of all for the quality of the final product and also for safety and environmental issues The most important trends in these directions are relative to plant and to process The growing use of steel in the equipment and the design of energy saving plants belong at the first category; at the second, the growing use of bio-technology in the vinification and the new refining procedures The greater use of steel in plant rather than concrete is absolutely important in order to reduce the use of SO2, which is nowadays fixed by the EU at 160 mg/ L for red wine and 210 mg/L for white and roseÁ wine An headache on the morning, after having drunk a glass of wine more, is due to the quantity of SO2 rather than to the quantity of alcohol metabolised by the body In winemaking SO2 has antiseptical and antioxidant functions, whose needs can be minimised by the use of steel equipment The design of energy saving equipment is starting to be an important issue in winery, since electricity represents the main input of the process and, of course, its consumption reduction leads to better environmental and cost performances Very linked to the reduction of the energy consumption in the process is the use of bio-technologies, in terms of selected yeasts or enzymes used in grapes Life cycle assessment (LCA) of wine production 325 treatments or in wine refining in order to minimise the need of other treatments Traditional filtration with fossil flours implies the problem of their disposal; consequently, new filtration technologies have been testing, among which the use of the tangential filtration seems to be very promising On the contrary, an issue in which the innovation does not seem to go towards the most quality way is the substitution of cork tap with silicone tap, which in the last years has grown quite rapidly The only reasons which could justify this shifting is the overcoming of the wine `corked smell' (which sometimes happens due to the presence of some fungi ± Mucor, Penicillium, Neurospora ± in the cork) and the economical convenience for the winery in using silicone Going through a quality analysis, it appears clear that cork plays its role in the wine ageing much better than silicon, because of its elastic characteristics which enable it to perfectly stick to the bottle letting the passage of the right microquantity of air which permits the ageing of wine and, at the same time, avoids the occurring of oxygenation process On the contrary, since silicone does not permit any passage of air, it is not appropriate for the ageing of wine; therefore, it could be used just in wines which have to be drunk in a period less than two years One solution to the cork degradation could be the washing of the cork tap with supercritical carbon dioxide in order to sweep away all the substances and micro-organisms which are extraneous to the cork 17.7 Sources of further information and advice The applications of LCA to wine are not very common both in academia or research centres and in wineries or consulting There are different sources dealing with the environmental impact of the wineries, the guidelines for the application of EMS to the wineries, the inventory of input used in the viticulture Only for the cork tap there is an available LCA made for the Italian consortium Rilegno (Ecobilancio Italia, 2001) The only LCA approach, but more relative to the greenhouse gases, is the one by the Australian Wine Company Yalumba which is member of the Greenhouse Challenge, Australia (Yalumba Wine Company, 2002) 17.8 References (2000), `Methods to estimate on-field nitrogen emission from crop production as an input to LCA studies in the agricultural sector', Int J LCA (6), 349±357 VITA P (1997), Course in Enological Mechanics, Milan, Ulrico Hoepli Editor, (in Italian) (1999), Council Regulation No 1493/1999 of 17 may 1999 on the common organisation of the market in wine, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 179/1, 14.7.1999 BRENTRUP F, KuÈSTERS J, LAMMEL J, KUHLMANN H DE EC 326 Environmentally-friendly food processing (1994), Ammonia emissions to air in Western Europe, Technical Report no 62 European Chemical Industry, Ecology & Toxicology Centre, Brussels ECOBILANCIO ITALIA (2001), Life Cycle Assessment of a cork tap for enological use, Rome EPA (1995), Emission Factor Documentation for AP-42, Section 9.12.2 Wines and Brandy ECETOC GUINeÁE J B, GOReÁE M, HEIJUNGS R, HUPPES G, KLEIJN R, KONING A DE, OERS L VAN, WEGENER SLEESWIJK A, SUH S, UDO DE HAES H A, BRUIJN H DE, DUIN R VAN, HUIJBREGTS M A J (2002), Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment Operational Guide to ISO Standards, Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers HAUSCHILD M (2000), `Estimating pesticide emission for LCA of agricultural products' In Weidema B P, Meeusen M J C (ed.) Agricultural data for Life Cycle Assessment, II vol., 64±79, Agricultural Economics Research Institute, The Hague HEIJUNGS R, GUINeÂE J B, HUPPES G, LANKREIJER R M, UDO DE HAES H A, WEGENER SLEESWõÂJK A, (1992), Environmental life cycle assessment of products Guide and Backgrounds, CML, TNO, B&G, Leiden HOUGHTON J T ET AL (1997), Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reporting Instructions, Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Volume 1±3 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (IPCC), London INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION ISO/DIS 14040 (1996), Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Principles and framework, ISO/TC207/SC5 MACRAE R, ROBINSON R K, SADLER M J (1993), Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, London, Academic Press MATTSSON B (1999), Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Agricultural Food Product, Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology, SIK, Gothenburg MUCCINELLI M (2002), Promptuary of pesticides, (IX edition), Bologna Edagricole, (in Italian) NAVARRE C (1995), Enology, Milan, Ulrico Hoepli Editor, (in Italian) NICOLETTI G M, NOTARNICOLA B, TASSIELLI G (2001), `Comparison of conventional and organic wine', Proceedings of the International Conference LCA in Foods, Goteborg 26±27 April 2001 QUAGLINO A, BELTRAMO R (2002), Guidelines for the application of environmental management systems in the wineries, Turin, (in Italian) RIBAUDO F (1997), Promptuary of agriculture, Bologna, Edagricole, (in Italian) RIBERERAU-GAYON P, DUBOURDIEU D, DONeÁCHE B, LONVAUD A (2000), Handbook of Enology, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons YALUMBA WINE COMPANY (2002), Progress Report Commercial-in-Confidence Report, Angaston, Australia ANSEMS A M, EGGELS P G, VAN DUIN R, GOEDE H P 17.9 Acknowledgments The authors thank the oenologist Mr Nicola Suglia and Mr Giuseppe Cicco, ITEST, for their precious collaboration Index acetic acid 206±7 acidogenesis 230±1 activated sludge process 221, 324 active packaging 242 administrative departments 269±70 aerated lagoons 220 aerobic processes 218, 228±9 Agaricus bisporus 209, 210 agriculture 283±305 comparing environmental impacts of ICM and organic farming 299±300 future trends 300±1 ICM 284, 284±91 organic see organic farming use of manure in arable farming 55±6 see also fruit production; vegetable products agrochemicals 108 air flotation 226 algal blooms 74 alien invasive species 81±2 allocation 10, 12 of manure 55±6 problems and LCA of wine 311 system expansion and 57 ammonia emissions 58±9, 62 anaerobic lagoons 221 anaerobic processes 206, 218±19, 221, 229±32, 236±7 analytical techniques 256±7 animal husbandry, organic 292 animal products 54±69 allocation of manure 55±6 consumption trends 67 future trends 66±7 impact assessment of ammonia emissions 58±9 impact assessment of land use 59±60 LCA methodology and 55±60 milk production see milk production pig meat 63±4, 65 production trends 66 using LCA to improve production 64±6 antibiotics 82 anti-fouling paints 80 antioxidants 173 aquaculture 70±1 environmental impact 80±3 future trends 88 role 72±4 sustainable 87 arabica coffee 96±7 arable farming 55±6 see also fruit production; vegetable products aroma barrier properties 189 attached growth systems 229 Austria 136 bar racks 224±5 barrier properties 185, 186±9 328 Index barriques 309, 310, 316±18, 319 beef production 56±8, 65 Belgium 136 benthic organisms 78 beverages see coffee BgVV guidelines 142 biobased packaging 180±204 current commercial applications 194, 195±6 future trends 196±9 materials 181±5 requirements for biobased packaging materials 185±90 using with particular foods 190±3 bioconversion see bio-recycling Biocorp 195 biodegradability 147±8, 149, 186, 196, 197, 198 biodiversity ICM 288, 290±1, 299 LCA 12±13, 49 organic farming 295, 298±9, 299 biodynamic farming 284 bioenergy 206 biogas 221 biological waste treatment methods 218±19, 228±32 biomass boiler 127 Biopol 185 bioprocess optimization 215 bioreactors 206, 236±7 see also anaerobic processes bio-recycling 205±17 cheese whey 208±12, 213, 214 future trends 212±15 technologies 205±7 bis-hydroxyethyl terephthalate (BHET) 174 bleaching 162 blends, coffee 100 bottle production, glass 320 boundary, system 9±10, 12, 311±12 brackish water aquaculture 72±3 Brazil 97, 98, 108 Buehler AG 175±6 bulk-material flow analysis burden-of-proof problem 84 butyric acid 206±7 by-catch 74±5 capture fisheries see fishery carbon dioxide barrier properties of packaging materials 186, 187±8 emissions during winemaking 308, 311, 323 pig meat production 63, 64 carbonic maceration 309, 316 carnivorous fish 82 carrots 22, 23 cellulose acetate 195 cellulose wastes 207 CEN standards 137±8, 145, 146, 148, 156±7 certification 110, 111 chain information systems 26±7 characterisation 8±9, 83 cheese whey see whey chemical additives 227 chemical precipitation 220 chemical recycling (plastics) 141, 172, 174±5, 244±5 chemical thinning 36 chemical waste treatment methods 221, 232±3 chemicals 35, 82±3, 108 see also pesticides chitosan 183, 191±2 chlorination 232 classification 8±9 cleaning 122 closed loop system 146 coated cellophane 195 Coca-Cola 143, 165 cod 76±7 coffee 95±115 cultivation 104±5, 108 development issues 96±8 environmental impact of coffee supply chain 103±7 market trends and their environmental and social impacts 99±103 problem areas 107±10 processing 105±6, 108±9 roasting 106, 108, 109 sustainable production 110±13 trading and consumption 106±7 transportation and storage 107 coffee berries market 101 Coffee Quality Improvement Programmes 102, 112 cold storage 41 collection paper packaging 158±60 plastic packaging 167±8 Colombia 97, 98 commercial scraps 167±8 commodity chains, global 96, 103 Index see also coffee company departments 268±70 composites 145 compostability 147±8, 186, 196 compression sedimentation 226 computer models 276 connected life cycles 10 consumers 86 acceptance and biobased packaging 198 education 49 environmental learning 275 consumption coffee 99±100, 107 demand for seafood products 72, 86 trends for meat and milk 67 contamination, minimizing 144 conventional vs organic production 13, 58±9 cooling systems 121±2, 127 co-products 308, 309, 310, 311, 313, 324 cork tap 325 cornstarch-containing PE films 191, 193 cost-benefit analysis cost of recycling 166±7 Costa Rica 109 Council of Europe Resolution AP (2002) 1, 163±4 Country Harvest Natural Foods 139 crosslinking 252 cryo-maceration 310, 316±18 customers see consumers cyclical principle 291 dairy processing waste 219, 222 dairy production see milk production Danone 195 data collection 11 energy use 118±19 fruit production 33±47 data quality 11, 313 data transmission system 128 `De Marke' experimental farm 66 decontamination 124 deforestation 108 de-inking 161±2 demand see consumption demersal trawling 77±9 denitrification 229 Denmark 117±18, 120±7, 136 departments 268±70 `Design for environment' developing economies 96±8 diffusion 251±3 329 dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) 243 direct refill/reuse 244±5 discards 75 disciplines (learning organisation) 270±3 discrete particle sedimentation 225 disease mangement 37 disinfection 232±3 dispersion 251±2 duspersion models 311±12 disposal, instructions for 144 dissolved air flotation (DAF) 220, 226 down-gauging 138±40 drainage channels 87 drip irrigation 38 drugs 82±3 dry processing of coffee 105±6, 108 DSD (Duales System Deutschland) 157 dual media filters 228 Dutch Environmental Quality Label 20±3 EarthShell 195±6 Eco Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) 133, 267 eco-balance study 176±7 Ecoclear 175 Eco-indicator 99 18±19 Eco-indicator 1995 18 eco-labelling 86, 110 ecological footprint analysis (EFA) 84 ecological infrastructure management 286±7 ecosystems 76±7 edible films and coatings 181 education of consumers 49 effort, environmental 85 emissions 62, 63±4, 79, 86 employees participation in environmental management 267±8 role in environmental training 280 empowerment 270 endogenous respiration 229 energy analysis 84 energy-conscious design 120±7 energy management 120 energy recovery 154, 171±2 energy use 116±29 analysing energy use in food processing 117±19 animal production systems 61±2, 63 coffee chain 113 fruit production 43 future trends 128±9 ICM 288, 289, 299 330 Index improving energy use 120 measuring 118±19 organic farming 295, 297, 299 pig slaughterhouse 122±7 poultry processing 121±2 seafood products 79, 86 vegetable production 21±2, 23, 24±5 winemaking 318, 320±1 engine technology 86 enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems 128 environmental awareness 279 environmental effort 85 environmental management module 278 environmental management systems (EMS) 133, 267±8 environmental product declaration (EPD) environmental site analysis 321±3 environmental systems analysis environmental training 86, 266±82 barriers to effective 273±4 concept of the learning organisation 270±3 external training 275±6 future trends 279±81 importance 267±8 internet-based 278 learning across the supply chain 275 maintaining environmental awareness 279 needs in differing departments 268±70 workplace training 276±7 environmental yardstick 17 equipment suppliers 120, 127 escapees 81 `essential requirements' 135, 156±7 ethanol 206, 320, 323 Ethiopia 108 ethylene glycol 243 EUREP-GAP 286 European Initiative for Sustainable Development in Agriculture (EISA) 286 European Recovered Paper Council 159 European Union (EU) 286, 292 EMAS 133, 267 food contact materials regulation 141, 163, 247, 249±51 Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive 130, 131, 133±7, 155±8 revision 148±9, 158 eutrophication 82 evaluation of training 280±1 exports, coffee 97, 98 extensification 65±6 extensive fish farming 80, 82 external training 275±6 farmers 48±9 fat smelting works 124±5 fats, oils and grease (FOG) 220 feed (aquaculture) 82, 87 feedstock recycling 172, 173±4, 175 fermentation 206, 308±9, 311 fertilisers 39±40, 65±6, 108, 311±12, 320, 323 fertirrigation 39, 40 Fick's laws on diffusion 251, 252 field operations 33±43 filtration recycling of plastic packaging 172 waste treatment 227±8 financial administration 269±70 Finland 136 fish processing waste 219, 222±3 fish meal 65, 71, 82 fish stocks 71, 75±6 management plans 84, 88 fisheries management 84 fishery 70±1 environmental impact 74±80 future trends 88 sustainable 84±6 flocculant sedimentation 225 flooding 37, 38 flotation recycling of packaging materials 162, 171 waste treatment 226±7 fodder production 65 foliar density 46 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 284, 286 food contact materials recycling of packaging materials 163±4, 172, 175±6 regulation 141, 163, 247, 249±51 food processing wastes, recycling see biorecycling food safety 199, 294±5 food safety standards 110 food waste management 214±15 food waste treatment see waste treatment food webs 76±7 France 136 fresh fruit 29±30 freshwater aquaculture 72±3 Index fruit processing waste 219, 223±4 fruit production 29±53 assessing a LCA 47±8 field operations 33±43 functional units and system boundaries 30±2 future trends 48±50 harvest 41 irrigation 37±9 machinery production, energy consumption and emissions 41±3 nourishment 39±40 nutrient balance 33, 44±5 pest and disease management 37 pesticides 33, 37, 46±7 post-harvest operations 41 site-dependency 33±4, 46 tree management 36±7 understorey management 34±6 weather damage prevention 40 fuel consumption see energy use fuel technology 86 functional units 9, 11±12, 30±1, 312±13 fungal treatments 41 Ganoderma lucidum 209±12, 213, 214 garlic bread packaging 140 gas barrier properties 186±9 GC-MS 256 Germany 136, 157 glass bottle production 320 glass recycling 145, 146±7, 150, 155, 241 glass transition 252 global commodity chains 96, 103 coffee see coffee glue water 124±5 glycolysis 174 goal and scope definition 7±8 granular medium filtration 227±8 grapes 29±30, 307±8 see also wine grassed understorey 35, 45 gravity irrigation 37, 38 greaves 124±5 Greece 136 green coffee markets 101 Green Dot 157±8 greenhouse gas emissions 62, 63±4, 79, 86 greenhouse production 18±20, 23 grinding 171 Groeinet 27 Guatemala 109 331 habitat diversity 290±1, 298±9 harvesting 41 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system 267 headspace extraction 256±7 heat-exchanger network 125±7 heat recovery 122, 125±7, 128 heavy metals 150 herbicides 35 high density polyethylene (HDPE) 164, 165, 166, 170 high-grading 75 high-value foods 197 hindered (zone) sedimentation 226 hiring personnel 279 horticultural production 18±20 organic in the Netherlands 24±5 hot-dispersion 162 human toxicity of pesticides 47, 48 humidity 188±9 hybrid system 146 hydrogen 206 hydrolysis 124±5, 230 identification systems for plastics 143±4 impact assessment 7±9 animal production systems 58±60 fruit production LCA 47±8, 49±50 wine production 313, 318±21 impact categories 8±9, 49±50 in-house scrap materials 246 Indonesia 97, 98 industrial fisheries 82 industrial livestock production systems 66 industrial scraps 167, 244 ink removal 161±2 inner collation wraps 140 integrated crop management (ICM) 284±91 environmental impact 288±91 comparison with organic farming 299±300 future trends 300±1 integrated crop protection 286 integrated fish farming systems 87 integrated nutrient management 286 integrated pest management (IPM) 284 intelligent packaging 242 intensification 65±6 intensive shrimp farming systems 80, 81 Interbakery 272±3 International Coffee Agreement 1994 109 international coffee markets 100±1 332 Index International Coffee Organization (ICO) 102, 111, 112 International Federation for Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM) 292, 293 International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) 67 International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) 285 internet-based training 278 interpretation 7±9, 321 inventory analysis 7±8 wine production 314±18 Ireland 136 irrigation 37±9 ISO 14001 133 Italy 136 `ithink' 276 Ivory Coast 108 Jacobs/Kraft General Foods 100 joint training events 270 Kassel Modellprojekt 196, 198 Kit Kat chocolate biscuits 140 knowledge transfer 277 labelling eco-labelling 86, 110 and packaging recycling 143±4 labour costs 294 lagoons aerated 220 anaerobic 221 land application of waste 220, 233±4 land-based aquaculture 81 land use 12±13, 47, 59±60, 74 landfilling 235 landscape 290±1, 298±9, 299 layers, packaging 139, 140 learning lab 276 learning organisation 270±3 barriers to implementing 273±4 lees 309, 310, 311, 313, 324 legal administration 269±70 Lentinus edodes 209, 210 levies on plastic packaging 167 life cycle assessment (LCA) 1, 5±15 animal products see animal products development of new impact categories 49±50 of food products 11±13 fruit production see fruit production future trends 14 key principles 9±11 life cycle model organic vs conventional products 13 and packaging 132±3, 177 procedure 7±9 scale of production 13±14 seafood products 83±4 vegetable products see vegetable products wine production see wine light barrier properties 189 light-weighting 138±40 lignin 247 livestock production systems see animal products logistics department 269 low-density polyethylene (LDPE) pipes 38±9 low-quality coffee 102, 111 Luxembourg 136 maceration 308 carbonic 309, 316 cryo-maceration 310, 316±18 machinery production (of fruit) 32, 41±3 management, senior 270, 279 management plans for fish stocks 84, 88 mangrove buffer strips 87 manufacturing execution system (MES) 128 manure 66 allocation of 55±6 marc 311, 313, 324 marine protected areas 85 marine water aquaculture (mariculture) 72±3, 74, 81 marketing departments 269 markets coffee 99±103 recycled plastic packaging 165±6 material flow accounting (MFA) Material Safety Data Sheet 47 McDonald's 195 meat consumption trends 67 meat processing waste 219, 222±3 meat production beef 56±8, 65 pig meat 63±4, 65 poultry 65, 121±2 mechanical cleaning 161±2 mechanical properties 189 mechanical recycling (plastics) 172±3, 174 medium-fat milk 60, 61±2 Index melt filtration 172 membrane processes 221 mental models 271 metals recycling 145, 149, 150, 241±2 methane 206 emissions 62, 63, 64 methanogenesis 230±1 methanolysis 175 Mexico 97, 98 micro-niche approach 111±12 microorganisms and biobased packaging materials 186 food waste treatment 207, 229, 231±2 migration 190, 241 from paper and board 253±4 from plastics 251±3 regulation of food contact materials 249, 250±1 testing safety of recycled packaging 254±7 Milds coffee 97 milk consumption trends 67 milk production 60, 61±2 impact assessment of ammonia emissions 58±9 intensification vs extensification 65±6 system expansion in milk LCAs 56±8 minimization of packaging 138±40 mixed cropping system (fish) 87 mixed farming systems 66 mixed media filters 228 mixed plastics 170 mixed systems for fruit production 35±6 models 17±18 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 150, 197 motivation 274 mulching 35 multifunctional crop rotation 286 multifunctional production systems 56±8 multilayer extrusion 142, 173, 175, 176 multinational companies 100, 106 municipal solid waste (MSW) 165, 166, 167 mushroom mycelia 208±12, 213, 214 mussel farming 74, 80±1 mycelia, mushroom 208±12, 213, 214 Naturals coffee 97 nearness principle 291 Nestle 100, 140 Netherlands 18±25, 136 nitrates 108, 289, 296±7 nitrification 229 333 nitrogen 67 from food processing waste 234 ICM 288±9 organic farming 296±7 nitrogen compounds 64±5 nitrogen cost 67 nitrous oxide 62, 63, 64 normalisation 8±9 Novamont 199 novel packaging 242 see also biobased packaging nutrients additional in food production 39±40 balance and fruit production 33, 44±5 ICM 286, 288±9, 299 organic farming 295, 296±7, 299 surplus in animal production systems 66 nutritional value 294±5 nuts 29 oil palm 59±60 olives (and olive oil) 29 open-loop recycling 55±6 open loop system 146 optimization of biosystems 215 oranges 44±5 organic acids 206±7 organic coffee 104, 105, 111 organic farming 25, 284, 291±9 dairy farms 58±9 environmental impact 295±9 compared with ICM 299±300 future trends 301 vegetables 25 wine production and 323 Organic Guarantee System 292 organic loading rates (OLR) 236±7 organic production 272 comparing with conventional production 13, 58±9 milk 65±6 vegetables 24±5 organic recycling 154 otter trawl net 78 overall migration (OM) limit 249 oxidation 228±9 oxygen permeability 187±8 ozonation 232±3 packaging 130±53 biobased see biobased packaging biodegradability 147±8, 149, 186, 196, 197, 198 334 Index compostability 147±8, 186, 196 and the environment 131±3 functions 131, 132 future trends 148±50 minimization 138±40 recycling see recycling packaging materials regulation 133±8, 155±8 packaging design 139, 140, 143±7 for recycling 143±5 for reuse 146±7 packaging environmental indicators (PEIs) 150, 158 paper/board recycling 145, 155, 158±64, 177, 241, 247±8 collection 158±60 composting 148 food packaging from recovered paper 163±4 migration 253±4 processing 161±2 separation of contaminants 160±1 sources of contamination 248 targets 150 testing safety of recycled paper and board 255 participatory training 280 partitioning 10 pelagic fish 71, 79, 82 Pepsi 143 personal mastery 270±1 personnel administration 269±70 pest management 37 Pesticide Manual 47 pesticides 17±18 fruit production 33, 37, 46±7 human toxicity from 47, 48 ICM 288, 289, 299 organic farming 295, 297, 299 vegetable production 20, 22, 23 wine production 311±12, 313, 319, 323 Phellinus linteus 209, 210 phosphorus 234, 296±7 physical reprocessing (plastics) 244±5 physical system boundaries 32 physical waste treatment methods 224±8 phyto-depuration 324 pig meat production 63±4, 65 pig slaughterhouse 122±7 pilot production plants 276 PKR 176 plastics packaging recycling 141±3, 145, 155, 164±76 collection schemes 167±8 economic considerations 166±7 future trends 177±8 market for recycled plastic packaging 165±6 migration 251±3 PET see polyethylene terephthalate (PET) polymer identification system 143±4 recycling techniques and uses 171±6 sorting 168±71 targets 150 Pleurotus ostreatus 209, 210 polycaprolactone (PCL) 183 polyculture 87 polyethylene (PE) 191, 193 polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 143, 164, 172, 242, 243±6 chemical recycling 174±5 economics of recycling 166±7 market for recycled PET 165±6 recycling for food contact 142, 175±6 sorting 170, 171 testing safety of recycled PET 254±5 polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 182, 184, 185 polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) 185, 191, 192±3, 195 polylactate (PLA) 182, 183±5, 191, 192±3, 194, 195, 197 polymer density 252 polymeric hydrogels 207 polypropylene (PP) 164, 165 Portugal 136 post-harvest operations 41 potassium 234 poultry 65 energy use in poultry processing 121±2 processing waste 219, 222±3 precautionary principle 291 predators 76±7 prices coffee 97±8, 101±3 ICM and organic farming 300±1 primary (sales) packaging 131 processed vegetable products 20±3 Procter & Gamble 100 producers' markets 101 product differentiation 106±7 product life cycle 273 production department 269 production scale 13±14, 198 productivity 97, 98 propionic acid 206±7 protein feed 65 Index protocols 287 pruning 36 pulping 161 pulverisation 39, 40 purchasing department 269 PVC 246 quality coffee 102, 111, 112 organic farming and 294±5 quality management system 267 rapeseed 59±60 rapid sand filter 228 rasps 308, 311, 313, 324 real-time interaction 278 recovery energy 154, 171±2 packaging 134±5 targets 134, 156 see also recycling packaging materials recycling food processing wastes see biorecycling recycling packaging materials 141±8, 154±79, 241±65 collection 158±60, 167±8 design for 143±5 EU regulation 133±8, 155±8 future trends 148±50, 176±8 paper and board see paper/board recycling PET see polyethylene terephthalate plastics see plastics packaging recycling processes 161±2, 171±6 safety see safety sorting 160±1, 168±71 targets 134, 156 red winemaking 308±9, 314±15 robusta (canephora) coffee 96±7 refinement 171 regulation coffee production 109±10 food contact materials 141, 163, 247, 249±51 packaging 133±8, 155±8 re-pulping 161 responsibility 274 results evaluation 280±1 reuse, design for 146±7 risk assessment roasting, coffee 106, 108, 109 role-play 276 335 Rose Meat 274 rotating biological discs 221 safety food safety 199, 294±5 standards 110 recycled packaging materials 241±65 analytical techniques for safety screening 256±7 future trends 257 key safety issues 251±4 regulation of food contact materials 249±51 testing safety 254±7 Sainsbury's 140, 195 sales and marketing departments 269 salmon farming 81, 84, 87 Sara Lee/DE 100 scale of production 13±14, 198 screening 224±5 screens 225 seafloor 77±9 seafood processing waste 219, 222±3 seafood products 70±92 capture fisheries and aquaculture production 70±1 environmental impact of aquaculture 80±3 environmental impact of fishery 74±80 future trends 88 role of aquaculture 72±4 sustainable aquaculture 87 sustainable fishing 83±6 secondary (grouped) packaging 131 secondary raw materials 154 sedimentation 220, 225±6 self-directed learning 271 separation see sorting Seriplast Srl sorting plant 168±71 settling 220, 225±6 shaded coffee farming 104, 105, 111 shared vision 271 shelf-life 150 short shelf-life products 196±7 shrimp farming 74, 80, 81, 87 silicone tap 325 singeing of pigs 123±4 site-dependency 33±4, 46 site-specific fate analysis models 49 slaughterhouse 122±7 slow sand filter 227±8 social sustainability 27 soil 32, 46 ICM 286, 288, 290, 299 336 Index organic farming 295, 298, 299 quality 49 solvatation 251±2 sorting paper for recycling 160±1 plastics 168±71 soybean 59±60, 65 Spain 137 spawning biomass 76 spray irrigation 37±8 sprinklers 37±8 stabilization ponds 220 stabilizers 173 standards CEN and packaging 137±8, 145, 146, 148, 156±7 coffee production 110 starch and starch-based materials 182, 183, 184, 194, 195±6, 197 storage 107 storage atmosphere 41 `Studio' 276 substance flow accounting sulphur dioxide 324 sun-drying, coffee 105±6, 108 sun-grown coffee farming 104, 105 Superclean recycling processes 142, 175±6 Supercycle 175 suppliers environmental learning 275 equipment suppliers 120, 127 supply chain 275 suspended growth systems 229 sustainability aquaculture 87 coffee production 110±13 fishing 84±6 LCA and 26±7 Sweden 64±5, 137 synthesis gas 173 system boundary 9±10, 12, 30±2, 311±12 system expansion 56±8 systems thinking 272±3 tailoring of packaging materials 197±8 target catch 74±5 team learning 271 Tenax 254, 255, 256 tertiary (transport) packaging 132 test markets 196 thermal stability 190, 198±9 thermal treatment 162 thinning 36±7 tillage 35 time, lack of 274 time-dependent system boundaries 31±2 tomato production 18, 19±20, 24±5 top management 270, 279 towed gear 77±9 toxicity pesticides 47, 48 products and working environment 50 tracks (irrigation) 37, 38 trade 109±10 traditional extensive coffee farming 104, 105 training environmental see environmental training evaluation 280±1 farmers 48±9 tree training 37 transfer of learning 280 transportation 41, 107 trays, washing 125 tree management 36±7 tree training 37 tributyltin (TBT) 80 trickling filters 221 tropical fruit 29±30 ultraviolet irradiation 233 understorey management 34±6 Uniform System for the Evaluation of Substances (USES) model 18 United Kingdom (UK) 137 upgrading 75 URRC (United Resource Recovery Corporation) 176 usage temperature range 190 vaccines 83 vaccuum flotation 226±7 VacuRema 175 Valio Ltd 195 value chain 273, 275 vegetable processing waste 219, 223±4 vegetable products 16±28 LCA in horticultural production 18±20 LCA for organic production 24±5 LCA for processed vegetable products 20±3 LCA and sustainability 26±7 pesticides 17±18 `Vensim' 276 Vietnam 97, 98 Index vine cultivation 307±8 see also grapes; wine volatile compounds 245, 320±1, 323 washing recycling of packaging materials 162, 170±1 trays 125 waste management 214±15 waste minimization 85±6 waste treatment 218±40 biological methods 218±19, 228±32 chemical methods 221, 232±3 common food waste treatment systems 220±4 criteria for environmental protection technologies 235±6 future trends 235±7 key issues 218±19 land treatment 233±5 physical methods 224±8 pollution characteristics of food processing wastes 218, 219 water from wine production 324 waste utilization 215 water recovery and reuse 128±9 use and LCA 49±50 wet coffee processing 106, 109, 112±13 water vapour barrier properties 186, 188 wax, edible 41 weather damage prevention 40 337 weighting 8±9 wet processing, coffee 106, 109, 112±13 wheat gluten film 191, 193 whey recycling 208±12, 213, 214 treatment methods 222, 237 white winemaking 309±10, 314±18 windshields 46 wine 29±30, 306±26 applying LCA 311±21 goal escape definition 312±13 impact assessment 318±21 interpretation 321 inventory analysis 314±18 future trends 324±5 organic 25 raw materials 307±8 red winemaking 308±9, 314±15 typologies 308 using LCA to improve production 321±4 white winemaking 309±10, 314±18 wood pulp 247 working environment 48, 50 workplace training 276±7 WTO Doha ministerial declaration 2001 109±10 yields ICM 287, 299 organic production 25, 294, 299±300 zone (hindered) sedimentation 226 ... processing Edited by Berit Mattsson and Ulf Sonesson Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited Abington Hall, Abington Cambridge CB1 6AH England www.woodhead-publishing.com Published in North America by. . .Environmentally- friendly food processing Related titles from Woodhead's food science, technology and nutrition list: Novel food packaging techniques (ISBN 85573 675 6) This comprehensive and. .. B Mattsson and U Sonesson, The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology (SIK) The food industry is facing increasing pressure to improve environmental performance, both from consumers and