Food Engineering Series Series Editor: Gustavo V Barbosa-Cánovas George Saravacos Athanasios E Kostaropoulos Handbook of Food Processing Equipment Second Edition Food Engineering Series Series Editor Gustavo V Barbosa-Ca´novas, Washington State University, USA Advisory Board Jose´ Miguel Aguilera, Catholic University, Chile Kezban Cando gan, Ankara University, Turkey Richard W Hartel, University of Wisconsin, USA Albert Ibarz, University of Lleida, Spain Jozef Kokini, Purdue University, USA Michael McCarthy, University of California, USA Keshavan Niranjan, University of Reading, United Kingdom Micha Peleg, University of Massachusetts, USA Shafiur Rahman, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman M Anandha Rao, Cornell University, USA Yrj€ o Roos, University College Cork, Ireland Jorge Welti-Chanes, Monterrey Institute of Technology, Mexico Springer’s Food Engineering Series is essential to the Food Engineering profession, providing exceptional texts in areas that are necessary for the understanding and development of this constantly evolving discipline The titles are primarily reference-oriented, targeted to a wide audience including food, mechanical, chemical, and electrical engineers, as well as food scientists and technologists working in the food industry, academia, regulatory industry, or in the design of food manufacturing plants or specialized equipment More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5996 George Saravacos • Athanasios E Kostaropoulos Handbook of Food Processing Equipment Second Edition George Saravacos 21100 Nauplion, Greece Athanasios E Kostaropoulos Athens, Greece ISSN 1571-0297 Food Engineering Series ISBN 978-3-319-25018-2 ISBN 978-3-319-25020-5 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-25020-5 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2015952650 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Printed on acid-free paper Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Contents Design of Food Processes and Food Processing Plants 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Overview of Chemical Process and Plant Design 1.2.1 Process Flow Sheets 1.2.2 Types of Process Designs 1.2.3 Material and Energy Balances 1.2.4 Design of Equipment 1.2.5 Plant Layout and Buildings 1.2.6 Economic Analysis in Process/Plant Design 1.2.7 Manufacturing Cost and Profitability 1.2.8 Computer-Aided Process/Plant Design 1.3 Design of Food Processes 1.3.1 Unit Operations in Food Processing 1.3.2 Food Process Flow Sheets 1.3.3 Material and Energy Balances 1.3.4 Computer-Aided Food Process Design 1.4 Food Plant Design 1.4.1 Elements of Food Plant Design 1.4.2 Good Manufacturing Practices 1.4.3 Food Plant Economics References 1 3 11 14 15 19 22 23 28 28 29 36 38 47 Design and Selection of Food Processing Equipment 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Sizing and Costing of Equipment 2.3 Materials of Construction 2.3.1 Metals 2.3.2 Plastics–Rubber 2.3.3 Glass–Ceramics 2.3.4 Wood 51 51 52 54 55 59 60 60 v vi Contents 2.4 Fabrication of Equipment 2.4.1 Strength of Construction 2.4.2 Fabrication and Installation of Equipment 2.5 Hygienic Design of Food Processing Equipment 2.5.1 Hygienic Standards and Regulations 2.5.2 Cleaning of Food Equipment 2.6 Selection of Food Processing Equipment 2.6.1 Selection of Equipment 2.6.2 Testing of Equipment 2.6.3 Equipment Specifications 2.7 Directories of Equipment 2.7.1 Directories of Food Equipment 2.7.2 Exhibitions of Food Equipment References 61 61 64 66 66 69 72 72 78 79 82 82 83 83 Mechanical Transport and Storage Equipment 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Mechanical Transport Equipment 3.2.1 Fluid Food Transport Equipment 3.2.2 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Transport Equipment 3.2.3 Mechanical Conveyors 3.3 Food Storage Equipment 3.3.1 Introduction 3.3.2 Storage of Solids 3.3.3 Storage of Liquids References 87 87 88 88 108 112 126 126 126 138 146 Mechanical Processing Equipment 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Size Reduction 4.2.1 Introduction 4.2.2 Cutting 4.2.3 Crushing and Grinding Equipment 4.3 Size Enlargement 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.2 Agglomeration Equipment 4.3.3 Selection of Agglomeration Equipment 4.4 Homogenization 4.4.1 Introduction 4.4.2 Homogenization Equipment 4.5 Mixing and Forming Equipment 4.5.1 Introduction 4.5.2 Fluid Mixing Equipment 4.5.3 Paste and Dough Mixing Equipment 149 149 149 149 153 165 186 186 189 207 207 207 208 214 214 214 219 Contents 4.5.4 4.5.5 4.5.6 References vii Extrusion and Forming Equipment Butter and Cheese Processing Equipment Solid Mixing and Encrusting Equipment 220 226 227 230 Mechanical Separation Equipment 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Classification Operations 5.2.1 Grading 5.2.2 Sorting 5.3 Solid/Solid Separations 5.3.1 Screening 5.3.2 Fluid Classification 5.4 Solid/Liquid Separators 5.4.1 Screens 5.4.2 Sedimentation Equipment 5.4.3 Industrial Filters 5.4.4 Centrifuges 5.4.5 Mechanical Expression 5.5 Solid/Air Separators 5.5.1 Cyclone Separators 5.5.2 Bag Filters 5.5.3 Air Filters 5.5.4 Electrical Filters 5.5.5 Wet Scrubbers 5.6 Removal of Food-Related Parts 5.6.1 General Aspects 5.6.2 Removal of Undesired Own Parts 5.6.3 Removal of Desired Parts 5.6.4 Food Cleaning Operations References 233 233 235 236 237 241 241 247 251 251 251 252 258 263 270 270 272 274 275 276 276 276 277 287 287 290 Heat Transfer Equipment 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients 6.3 Empirical Correlations of (h) 6.3.1 General Correlations 6.3.2 Simplified Equations for Air and Water 6.3.3 Heat Transfer Factor 6.4 Heat Exchangers 6.4.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 6.4.2 Fouling of Heat Exchangers 6.4.3 Residence Time Distribution 6.4.4 Tubular Heat Exchangers 6.4.5 Plate Heat Exchangers 293 293 293 296 296 298 299 300 300 302 303 304 306 viii Contents 6.4.6 6.4.7 6.4.8 6.4.9 6.4.10 6.4.11 6.4.12 6.4.13 References Agitated Kettles Scraped Surface Heat Exchangers Direct Heat Exchangers Baking and Roasting Ovens Fryers Radiation Heaters Heat Generation Processes Hygienic Considerations 310 312 314 315 318 319 321 324 329 Food Evaporation Equipment 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Heat Transfer in Evaporation 7.2.1 Physical Properties 7.2.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients 7.2.3 Fouling in Evaporators 7.2.4 Heat Transfer in Film Evaporators 7.2.5 Falling Film Evaporation of Fruit Juices 7.3 Food Quality Considerations 7.4 Food Evaporators 7.4.1 Material and Energy Balances 7.4.2 Long Residence-Time Evaporators 7.4.3 Short Residence-Time Evaporators 7.5 Energy-Saving Evaporation Systems 7.5.1 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 7.5.2 Vapor Recompression Evaporators 7.5.3 Heat Pump Evaporators 7.5.4 Combined Reverse Osmosis/Evaporation 7.5.5 Water Desalination 7.5.6 Waste-Heat Evaporators 7.6 Evaporator Components 7.6.1 Evaporator Bodies 7.6.2 Vapor/Liquid Separators 7.6.3 Condensers 7.6.4 Vacuum Systems 7.6.5 Evaporator Control 7.6.6 Testing of Evaporators 7.6.7 Hygienic Considerations References 331 331 332 332 333 333 334 338 340 340 340 341 344 348 348 351 353 355 355 355 356 356 357 358 359 360 360 361 364 Food Dehydration Equipment 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Principles of Drying 8.2.1 Psychrometric Calculations 8.2.2 Drying Rates 8.2.3 Food Dehydration Technology 367 367 368 368 370 374 Contents ix 8.3 Design and Selection of Food Dryers 8.3.1 Heat and Mass Transfer 8.3.2 Modeling and Simulation of Dryers 8.3.3 Design of Industrial Dryers 8.3.4 Selection of Industrial Dryers 8.3.5 Commercial Food Drying Equipment 8.3.6 Special Food Dryers 8.3.7 Hygienic and Safety Considerations 8.4 Energy and Cost Considerations of Drying 8.4.1 Heat Sources for Drying 8.4.2 Heat Recovery 8.4.3 Energy-Efficient Dryers 8.4.4 Cost Considerations References 375 376 379 381 382 383 405 409 410 410 411 412 413 415 Refrigeration and Freezing Equipment 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Refrigeration Equipment 9.2.1 Refrigeration Cycles 9.2.2 Compressors 9.2.3 Evaporators 9.2.4 Condensers 9.2.5 Capacity Control 9.3 Refrigerants 9.3.1 Introduction 9.3.2 Natural Refrigerants 9.3.3 Fluorocarbon and Blend Refrigerants 9.4 Lubricants 9.4.1 Main Types of Lubricants 9.4.2 Function of Lubrication 9.4.3 Requirements for Good Lubrication 9.4.4 Choice of Refrigerant Lubricants 9.4.5 Additives 9.5 Cooling of Foods 9.5.1 Chilling 9.5.2 Cooling Equipment 9.6 Freezing of Food 9.6.1 Freezing 9.6.2 Freezing Equipment 9.6.3 Thawing Equipment 9.7 Cold Storage 9.7.1 General Aspects 9.7.2 Reduction of Weight Loss 9.8 Ice Manufacturing References 421 421 422 422 427 433 443 445 446 446 452 453 455 455 456 456 458 459 459 459 462 468 468 474 482 485 485 489 493 499 Index Cutting advantages, 154 band saws, 160 cutters, 161, 163 disadvantages, 154 disintegrators, 182 disk grinders, 180–182 elements, 156–157 equipment, selection, 164–165 factors, 153 food processing industries, 159 force F, 154, 156 hammer crushers, 180 hammer mills, 178–180 knives, 154 meat mincers, 161 portable tools, 158–159 products, 153 slicers/dicers, 160, 161 tool and product, 154 ultrasonic devices, 163 water jet, 164 Cyclone scrubbers, 591 Cyclone separators efficiency, 271, 272 flow pattern, 270, 271 particle/air mixture enters, 271 pressure drop, 272 solids density, milk powder, 272 D Decimal reduction time, 505 Defrosting, 437–438 DeSmet extractor, 579 Diaphragm pumps, 101 Dicers, 161 Direct heat exchangers liquid food, 314 mixing, heating steam, 314 time-temperature, uperisation process, 315, 316 UHT sterilization, 314 uperization milk equipment, 314, 315 Direct heating sterilizers, 537 Disintegrators, 182 Disk grinders, 180–182 Dispersability, 191 Distillation equipment activity coefficients, 555 analytical methods, 562 bubble cap, 564 column efficiency, 563 761 economic analysis, 562 equilibrium stages, 557 Murphree efficiency, 563 reflux ratio, 561 stripping/exhausting, 551 trays, 563 vapor/liquid equilibria, 551 activity coefficients and relative volatilities, 551–552 nonideal mixtures and azeotropes, 553 volatile food aromas, 555 Distillation systems, 558 Double-pipe heat exchangers, 304, 305, 312 Double-wall design, 441 Drum/roller dryers, 402 Dry curing, 580 Dryer design, industries capacity, 381 cost-effective, 375 energy efficiency, 381 mechanical properties, 381 modeling and simulation, 381 selection DRYERBASE, 383 DRYING, 383 fuzzy logic/expert system, 382 matrix structure, 382 pressure atmospheric/vacuum, 383 type and size, 382 Drying agglomeration, 192 Drying rates curves, 370, 371 diffusion mechanism, 373 flash/spray, 374 food materials, 370 moisture, 373 ratio curve, 372 semilog coordinates, 371 water transport, 372 DRYSEL, 382 Dual media filters, 258 E ED See Electrodialysis (ED) Ejector-venturi scrubbers, 591 Electrical thawing belt transporting, 485 dielectric heating, 484 properties, 484 electromagnetic energy, 484 MW, 484, 485 762 Electrical thawing (cont.) properties, 484 rubber/plastic conveyor belt, 484, 485 Electric resistance heating, 323, 324 Electrodialysis (ED), 620–621 Elevators, 124–125 Energy-efficient dryers, 412 Energy-saving evaporation systems, 348–356 Energy savings, 410 Essence recovery unit, 565–568 Ethanol, 600 distillation, 565 alcoholic beverages, 564 fusel oils, 563 nonalcoholic wine, 569 stripping, aromas, 567 three-column distillation system, 565 traditional brass, 564 solutions, 557 Evaporation equipment engineering design, 331 fruit and vegetable, 331 physical separation process, 331 pre-concentration process, 331 Evaporative condensers, 444 Evaporative crystallizers, 599 Evaporator components bodies, 356 control system, 360 hygienic (sanitary) guidelines, 361 LTV, 356 plate evaporators, 357 testing and evaluation, 360 vapor/liquid separators, 357–358 Evaporators bath and tube, 438, 439 baudelot, 441 blower, 434 classification, 433, 434, 436 double-pipe, 441 double-walled and structured plain surfaces, 434, 435, 441 flooded type, 434, 435 food processing unit, 433 forced convection air coolers, 434–438 heat exchangers, 433 heat transfer, 442 shell and coil, 440, 441 and tube, 439, 440 solids, 442 Explosion-puff drying, 407 Extruders, 220–223 Extrusion, 220, 221, 223, 225 Index F Fabrication chemical reactions, 61 installation, 64–66 mechanical stresses, 61 physical and internal stress, 61 sensitive and weak points, 63 silos (bins), 63 thermal stresses, 61 Falling film evaporators coefficient, 336 condensing steam, 334 evaporation surface, 336 forced-circulation evaporator, 344 fruit juices, 338–339 heat transfer coefficient, 336, 338 material and energy balances, 341 minimum flow rate, 335 short-tube evaporator, 343 water films, 336 Fast curing, 580 Feedforward triple-effect evaporator, 362 Fenske equation, 562 Fenske–Underwood–Gilliland calculation method, 562 Filling equipment, 670–672, 674–679 dosing capacity, 671–672 carrousel, 672 counting, 671 packages filling methods, 670 time-controlled filling, 671 volumetrics, 670 weight, 671 flowability, food, 668 hygienic conditions, 666 liquids, 668 output, 667 overflowing, food, 667 packaging materials, 669 product transfer systems, 673 valves comminuted solids, 675 filling liquid, 674–676 weighing scales computer techniques, 678, 679 continuous, 677 conveyors, 678 multihead, 678 multi-weight, 678 technical data, 679 Film evaporators, 334–337 Fixed adsorption bed, 593 Flame sterilizers, 534 Index Flash 18 system, 534 Flowability, 191 Fluid bed dryers, 393, 394 Fluid classification, solid particles, 247, 250, 251 air (see Air classifiers) wet hydrocyclones, 250, 251 sieving, 250 Fluid flow and heat transfer, 516 Fluid food transport equipment, 88, 91 food pumping and piping systems, 90 friction losses, 92–93 MEBE (see Mechanical energy balance equation (MEBE)) Newtonian and non-Newtonian materials, 88 Poiseuille equation, 89 rheological property, 88–90 Fluid mixing equipment agitated tanks, 214–216 factors, 214 food, 218 industrial, 216–218 power, 216 primary engineering, 214 selection, 218–219 Fluidized bed agglomeration systems, 200 Fluidized bed agglomerators (Wurster), 199, 201 Fluidized bed method advantages, 476 disadvantages, 476 equipment, 475 transport, 475 Fluorocarbons applications, 454 category, 453 chlorine-containing refrigerants, 453 hydrolysis, 454 Foam-mat drying, 375, 408 Food cleaning dry, 290 equipments, 287 raw food, 288 wet, 288, 290 Food containers, 540 blow-mold packages, 665, 666 cartons and cardboard packages, 659, 660 drum-type unscrambling equipment, 658 film-based packages, 658, 660 metal containers, 659 pouch method, 661, 664 763 prefabricated containers, 658 ready-to-fill packages, 657 thermoformed packages, 663–665 tube-type packages, 660–662 Food cooling, 459–462 equipment (see Cooling equipment) extended application, 460 fresh products, 459 function, 459 indicative values, 459, 460 Riedel diagrams, 460–462 storage technology, 459 types, 459, 460 Food dehydration diced potatoes, 376 drying processes and equipment, 367 fruits and vegetables, 374 hygienic and safety, 409–410 IMFs, 375 mathematical modeling and simulations, 379, 380 moisture diffusivity, 373 operations and equipment, 384 plant wastes, 367 pre-and post-drying operations, 375 water removal, 367 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 516 Food evaporators long residence-time evaporators, 341–344 material and energy balances, 340–341 Food freezing, 474, 482 advantages, 473 calculations, 471, 472 cold front, 469 components, 468 consumption/thawing, 468 conventional methods, 470, 471 crystals, 470 disadvantages, 474 equipment (see Freezing equipment) estimations, 472 factors, 470 fraction, 471 homogeneous, 471 mechanism, 468 Plank equation, 472, 473 preparation, 468 preservation method, 468 quality, frozen, 468 thawing equipment (see Thawing equipment) variations, 473 764 Food irradiation applications, 630, 631 cost, 633–634 dosage regions, 630 electromagnetic radiation, 628, 631 gamma rays, 631–632 installations, 632, 633 ionizing radiations, 628, 629, 631 packaging materials, 629 penetration, radiation, 630 procedure, 632 requirements, 629 systematic research, 628, 629 Food packaging processes attractive, 650 operations, 645, 646 Food pumps hygienic requirements, 103 packings and mechanical seals, 103 plastic materials, 103 stainless steel, 103 Food quality considerations aroma components, 340 heat transfer coefficients, 340 suspensions and pulps, 340 Food storage equipment liquids, storage (see Storage of liquids) solids, storage (see Storage of solids) Forced-circulation evaporators, 342–344 Forklifts, 118 Forming equipment, 223–226 Formula method, 513–514 Fouling in evaporators capital cost, 333 empirical correlations, 334 film evaporators, 334–337 heat exchangers CFD, 302 cleaning techniques, 302 engineering, 302 FR, 302, 303 and induction, 302 insulating solid layer, 302 PHE, 302 rate, 302 scheduling, 302 surfaces, 302 velocity and temperature, 302 Fourier equations, 294 Fractional distillation, 564 Free structure equipment advantages, 191 Index disadvantages, 191 drying agglomeration, 192 factors, 191 instantized products, 191 mixing and rolling agglomeration, 192 water, 190 Freeze-drying, 375 Freezing equipment, 479 air, 474–478 cold surface, 478, 479 liquid (see Liquid freezing) Freundlich equation, 592 Frozen pellets, 480 Fruit aroma, 565 Fryers, 318–319 G Gas absorption cyclone, 591 and desorption capacity, 594 dilute solutions, 589 equilibrium stages, 587 food processing, 586 gas phase, 587 HTU and HETP, 590 ion exchange equipment, 594 multistage columns and packed towers, 590 operating cycle, 595 packed towers, 588 tray columns, 587 ejector-venturi scrubbers, 591 Glass–ceramics, 60 Glass container closing machines, 522 Glass and flexible containers, 527–528 Glass and flexible packages, 534 Graetz (Gz) number, 298 Group packaging, 688–690 palletizing, 691–693 strapping equipment, 691 wrapping plastic film, 688 shrink, 689, 690 stretch, 690 H Hammer crushers, 180 Hammer mills, 178–180 Handbook of Industrial Drying, 374, 376 Heat exchangers, 306 Index agitated kettles, 310–312 baking and roasting ovens, 315–318 CAD, 300 coefficients, 300–301 direct, 314, 315 fouling, 302, 303 fryers, 318–319 heat load, 300 hygienic requirements, 324 microwave and dielectric heating, 321–323 ohmic/electric resistance heating, 323 PEF, 323 PHE (see Plate heat exchangers (PHE)) principles, 300 radiation, 319–321 refrigeration and freezing equipment, 300 residence time distribution, 303 SSHEs, 312, 313 tubular, 304–306 Heat/film transfer coefficient (h) air and water, 298, 299 condensing vapors, 297 cooling equipment operates, 293 correlations, 296, 297 dimensionless numbers, 296, 297 exchangers and transfer equipment, 295 foods and engineering materials, 294, 295 food heat exchange systems, 296 FR, 295 Graetz (Gz) number, 298 heat transfer factor, 299, 300 laminar flow, power-law fluids, 298 log mean diameter, 295 non-Newtonian fluids, 297 physical properties, food, 294 power-law model, 297 Reynolds number, 296 thermal conductivity and diffusivity, 294 tube diameter to tube length, 297 viscosity ratio, 297 Heat and mass transport air–moisture systems, 378 coefficients, 379 Colburn analogies, 378 drying rate, 376 factors, 379 interphase, 377 mass transfer coefficient, 377 Prandtl and Schmidt numbers, 379 Stanton numbers, 378 thermophysical and properties, 378 Heat penetration curve, 510 Heat pump dryer, 412 Heat pump evaporators, 353 Heat recovery, 411 765 Heat sources, drying, 410–411 Heat transfer coefficients, 507 cooling curves, 510 heat penetration curve, 509 heating time parameter, 509 in-container sterilization, 511 principles, 507 process calculations, 511 thermal processing equipment, 508 unsteady-state heat transfer, 508, 509 Heat transfer equipment, 293–296, 300–328 coefficient (h) (see Heat/film transfer coefficient (h)) exchangers (see Heat exchangers) food processing, 293, 294 Heat transfer in evaporators coefficients, 333 material and energy balances, 332 physical properties, 332 thermophysical properties, 332 Heated rotary dryer, 392 Heating time factor, 509 Heat-resistant enzymes, 543 Helical (coiled) heat exchangers, 306, 307 Herschel–Bulkley model, 88 High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA), 275 High-pressure processing (HPP) applications, 634 batch sterilization, 634 foodborne pathogens, inactivation, 634 homogenization, 635 High-speed closing machines, 522 High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurizer, 541 Hilderbrand extractor, 578 Hoists cranes, 124–125 Holding tube (HT), 545 Homogenization application, 208 colloid mills, 212 emulsification, 207 high-pressure, 213 liquid foods, 207 physical properties and stability, 207 pressures, 208–212 rotor-stator homogenizers, 212–213 ultrasonic homogenizers, 213 Horizontal rotating sterilizer, 532 Hosokawa Bepex machines, 206 Hot smoking, 585 Hot water blanchers, 544 Hydraulic conveyors agricultural raw materials, 110 critical velocity (uc), 111 766 Hydraulic conveyors (cont.) empirical equation, 111 stainless steel/cast iron, 111 Hydrocooling advantages, 464 classification, 462 continuous method, 462 disadvantages, 464 equipment, types, 464 evaporative, 464 pumping system, 464 relative motion, 462 sensitive products, 462, 463 skin and fatty tissue, 464 water activity, 464 Hydroflow system, 534 Hydrostatic sterilizers, 529–531 Hygienic/sanitary design, 69–72 cleaning (see CIP systems) engineering implications, 66 standards and regulations, 66–69 I Ice manufacturing advantages, 493 air coolers, 496 applications, 493 assumptions, 497, 498 cold storage, 496 compressor, 499 cooling/cold storage, 493 external walls, 497 flakes, 494 geometrical forms, 494 hoist/crane system, 494 ice-block production, 493, 494 installations, 493 tube, 495 types, 493 vacuum chamber, 495 Impeller attritors, 184 Impingement dryers, 412 In-container pasteurizers, 540 In-container sterilizers flame, 534 Flash 18, 534 track flow, 533–534 water and steam, 531–533 In-container sterilization Bigelow, 511 commercial sterility, 514 formula method, 513 Index lethality, 512 Indirect heating plate heat exchangers, 537 tubular heat exchangers, 537 Individual quick blanching (IQB) system, 544 Industrial crystallizers, 599 Industrial filters, 253 cake (see Cake filtration) dual media, 258 micro/ultrafiltration, 252 sand, 257 sterile, 258 Infrared (IR) drying (IR), 407 radiators, 320, 321 Injection pumps, 102 Inverted heat penetration curve, 510 J Jacketed vessel evaporators, 342 Jacketed vessels, 467 Jet mills, 184–185 Joint Committee on Irradiation of Foods, 629 K Kick theory, 169 Kneaders/Z-blade mixers, 220 Kremser equation, 574, 601 L Liquid food products, 539 Liquid freezers, 479–480 Liquid freezing cryogenic, 480–482 freezers, 479–480 frozen pellets, 480 Liquid-phase volumetric mass transfer, 593 Lobe pumps, 100 Long-tube vertical evaporators (LTV), 344, 345 Lubricants, 458 additives, 459 function, 456 refrigerant acid value, 458 equirements, 458 MO, 458 Index PAG, 458 POE, 458 temperature, 458 requirements, 456, 457 types, 455 M Marination, 579 Martin diameter, 165 Mass transfer equipment, 551 distillation (see Distillation equipment) food process industries, 549 mass transfer operations, 549 phase equilibria, 550 separation of components, 549 Mass transfer factor, 593 Materials construction, 55 corrosion, 55 hygienic (sanitary) materials, 55 nonferrous metals (see Metals) properties, 54 resistance, 55 McCabe–Thiele diagram, 559, 561, 571, 572, 602 McCabe–Thiele method, 559 Meat mincers, 161 Mechanical conveyors belt conveyors, 114–116 chain, 119–121 elevators, 124–125 hoists cranes, 124–125 hygienic considerations, 125 mobile transport systems, 124–125 motor-driven and gravity, 112, 113, 119, 123 robots, 125 roll and skate wheel, 118–119 screw, 122–123 segmented belt, 116–118 trays, 112 vibratory conveyors, 123–124 Mechanical energy balance equation (MEBE) friction losses, 91 mechanical damage, 92 piping system, 91 Mechanical expression, solid/liquid separation, 264–270 box and pot presses, 263, 264 continuous presses belt, 265 fruit juice reamers, 266 roller, 265 screw, 264, 265 767 curb and cage presses, 264 equipment, fruit juice processing apple and grape, 267, 268 citrus, 268–270 extraction, juices and oils, 262 pressure, 262 Mechanical separations, 233, 237–251, 270, 277–285, 287 animal products blood, 280 cutting, 278, 279 de-hairing, 278 equipment, 277 mussel shells, 279 screeing, 279, 280 skinning, 278 cleaning (see Food cleaning) density, 235 differences, 233 equipment, 233 external and internal product parts removal, 287 in foods, 234 skinning: powders, 235 skinning: processing, 233 grading, 236, 237 liquid/liquid separations, 235 materials, 233 particle size distribution, 235 plant products, 285 breaking processes, 280 brushing/polishing, 282 coring and scooping, 283 cutting/slicing, 285 dehulling, 281, 282 destemming, 282 equipment, 280 peeling (see Peeling, plant products) pitting, 283, 284 product-own parts removal, 276, 277 properties, 235 removal, food related parts, 277 solid/air (see Solid/air separators) solid/liquid (see Solid/liquid separation) solid/solid (see Solid/solid separation) sorting color, 240, 241 criteria, 237 dry, 239 eggs, weight sorters, 240 grains, dry sorters, 239 material size, 237 processing, 237 roller, 239 768 Mechanical separations (cont.) screens, 237 shape, 237 size, 238 spiral separators, 239 Mechanical transport equipment fluid (see Fluid food transport equipment) hydraulic (see Hydraulic conveyors) pneumatic (see Pneumatic conveyors) Membrane separation equipment ED, 620 MF, 616 NF, 611 pervaporation, 618, 619 RO, 611 UF, 613 Membrane separation system ceramic modules, 609 commercial membrane modules, 609 feed and bleed operation, 609, 610 food processing industry, application, 606 fouling, 610 mass transfer considerations, 606–608 mechanical pressure, 606 polymeric membranes, 608 tubular modules, 609 ultrafiltration, 606 Metals aluminum, 58 copper, 58–59 nickel and chromium, 59 stainless Steels, 57–58 steel, 56–57 MF See Microfiltration (MF) Microfiltration (MF) bubble point method, 617 ceramic membranes, 618 food applications, 618 pore size, 617 spiral-wound modules, 617 Microprocessor controllers, 518 Microwave and dielectric heating, 321–323 Mixed suspension mixed product removal (MSMPR), 598 Mixing agglomeration equipment, 192 drying, 201–202 fluidized bed-spray, 199–201 high-speed agitation, 196–199 Mobile transport systems, 124–125 Molecular distillation, 569 Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO), 614 Moving-bed (continuous) leaching equipment, 578 Index Multiple-effect (ME) evaporation system, 348, 350 MultPAX system, 532 Muscle injection, 580–581 MWCO See Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) N Nanofiltration (NF), 611 Nanotechnology, 636 Natural refrigerants ammonia R717 (NH3), 452 applications, 452 carbon dioxide R744 (CO2), 453 propane R290 (C3H8), 453 Needle curing injection, 581 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH), 97, 98 NF See Nanofiltration (NF) Nonthermal food preservation, 627, 628, 635, 636 HPP (see High-pressure processing (HPP)) irradiation (see Food irradiation) nanotechnology, 636, 637 pasteurization and sterilization, 627 PEF (see Pulsed electric field (PEF)) robotics (see Robotics, food industry) Novel food process advantage, 605 conventional food operations, 605 NPSH See Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) O Ohmic heating, 323, 324, 538 Orthogonal triangle diagram, 571 OSHA regulation, 157 Osmotic dehydration food preservation, 408 large-scale commercial application, 409 mass transfer, 408 pumping and heating, 409 P PA See Polyamide (PA) Packages and packaging materials, 651–653, 655–657 cardboard, 654 carton, 654, 655 glass caps and lids, 653 disadvantages, 652 external coating, 653 Index metal advantages, 651 aluminum food trays, 652 cans, 651 containers, 651 thin aluminum films, 652 tubes, 652 nanomaterials, 651 paper coarse sulfate, 653 fine sulfite, 653 kraft, 653 plastics cellulose, 657 disadvantages, 655 PA, 657 PE, 655 PET, 656 PP, 656 properties, 655 PTFE, 657 PVdC, 656 types, 655 Packaging equipment, 651, 657, 666 characteristics, 647, 648 choice, 648 containers (see Food containers) ecological considerations, 650 economic factors, 650 filling technique, 645, 647 (See also Filling equipment) grouped packages, 647 materials (see Packages and packaging materials) media cleaning, 693, 694 monoblock equipment, 647 ready-to-fill packages, 645 safety aspects, 649 sealed packages, 647 sterilization, 646 technological considerations, 649, 650 Packed tower systems, 576, 587–590 PAG See Polyalkylene glycol (PAG) Pan dryer, 398 Pan mills, 176–177 Paste and dough mixing equipment, 219–220 Pasteurization, 539 Pasteurization process control, 542 PE See Polyethylene (PE) Pelletizing agglomeration machines, 205 Peristaltic pumps, 100, 101 PET See Polyesters (PET) Phase equilibria, 5, 550, 553, 597, 622 769 Piston pumps, 101 Plastics–rubber equipment/machines, 60 properties, 56, 59 thermoplastic and thermosetting materials, 59 Plate evaporators, 345–346 Plate heat exchangers (PHE), 466, 467 adjacent plates, 306, 307 assembly, 306, 307 design (sizing), 308 dimensions and capacities, 308 food industry, 306 fouling, modeling and simulation, 302 gaskets, 306, 308 geometry, 306 heat transfer coefficient (h), 308 heat transfer factor (jH), 308, 310 heating/cooling application, liquid food, 308, 309 liquid flows, 308, 309 pasteurization, orange (OJ), 324–326 and pressure drop factor, 308, 309 Pleeing, plant products apple, 284 dry, 285 flame, 285 flash steam, 286 knives, 285 lye peelers, 285 pressure steam, 286, 287 Pneumatic conveyors air-pressure and vacuum system, 108, 109 bulk density, 109 design data, 109 empirical equations, 109 explosion hazards, 110 granular foods, 108 inorganic materials, 108 physical and mechanical properties, 108 piping, 110 units, 110 Pneumatic/flash dryers, 394, 396 Pneumatic ring dryer, 396 POE See Polyol ester (POE) Polyalkylene glycol (PAG), 458 Polyamide (PA), 657 Polyesters (PET), 656 Polyethylene (PE), 655 Polyol ester (POE), 458 Polypropylene (PP), 656 Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), 657 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC), 655 770 Ponchon–Savarit diagram, 561, 571, 573 Positive displacement pumps (PDPs) cavity/eccentric screw, 99 diaphragm, 101 dosing applications, 100 lobe, 100 peristaltic, 100 piston, 101 rotary, 99 twin-screw, 99 vane, 100 Power-law model, 297 PP See Polypropylene (PP) Prandtl number, 300 Process design, 2–6, 19–23, 27, 28, 34, 38, 39, 41, 43–46 advanced food plants, 35–36 agencies, 29 capital cost, 42 chemical and plant design economical, flow sheets, 2, gases and liquids, industries, material and energy balances, 4–5 plant layout buildings, types, 3, computer-aided food process design, 28 consumption, 16 definition, economic analysis heat balances, 45, 46 material balances, 43–45 equipment, 33 estimation, 42 factories, 16 flexibility, 33 flow sheets, 22–23, 25, 26, 43 food plant economics expenses, 41 investment, 38, 39 manufacturing process, 39 profitability, 38 food storage, 33 GMPs, 36, 37 heat application, 32 hygienic, 30, 33 industries, 30, 31, 42 investment, 17, 31 location, 32 manufacturing, 16, 29 Index marketing, 16, 17 material and energy balances calculations, 27 complexity, 23 principles and techniques, 23 refractometers, 27 micro and macrostructures, 19 mobile food plants, 35 packaging materials, 42 plant expansion, 34, 35 plant improvement buildings, 34 conveyance, 34 energy, 34 environment, 34 management, 34 production, 34 storage, 34 plant safety, 33 principles, 1, 15 product/process, 32, 33 production rate, 31 profitability, 43 quality, 16, 29 raw materials, 18 safety programs and HACCP, 37, 38 sanitation, 32 standardization, 32 storage, 29 technologies, 15 trade, 16 unit operations, 15 assembly, 20 categories, 20, 21 equipment, 19, 22 gases and liquids, 19 processes and testing, 22 quality, 20 separation processes, 19 Propane R290 (C3H8), 453 Psychrometrics adiabatic convective dryer, 368 air/water vapor mixtures, 368 chart, 369 computer calculations, 369 hygroscopic properties, 368 moisture content, 368 PTFE See Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) Puff drying, 375 Pulsed electric field (PEF), 323, 635 Pump auxiliaries electric motors, 104–105 Index mechanical seals, 105 piping, 105–106 valves, 106–107 PVdC See Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC) R Radiation heaters, 319–321 Raoult’s law, 554 Reciprocating compressors advantages, 431 characteristics, 427, 429, 430 disadvantages, 431 indicator diagram, 429, 430 selection, 430 types, 427, 428 Recirculating water blancher, 544 Refrigerants absorption, 446 blends, 454, 455 chemical requirements, 452 chlorine-containing, 447 compression, 446 fluorocarbons, 453, 454 invention, 446 liquid, 446 Montreal protocol, 447–450 natural, 452, 453 properties, 447 requirements, 447 Refrigeration cycles advantages, 427 disadvantages, 427 elements, 426 equipment, 426 evaporators, 422, 424, 426 pressure–enthalpy diagrams, 426 single-stage process, 425 variations, 422 Refrigeration equipment, 427, 433, 443 capacity control, 445, 446 classification, 422–424 compressors (see Compressors) condensers (see Condensers) cycles, 422, 424–427 evaporators (see Evaporators) Regression analysis, 593 Residence time distribution, 303 Reverse osmosis (RO) systems composite membrane, 612 concentration polarization, 612 evaporation, 355 food applications, 612, 613 skinned asymmetric membrane, 612 771 Reynolds number, 296, 299 Rising (climbing) film evaporators liquid feed, 337 surface tension, 337 temperatures and pressure, 337 vapor to liquid velocities, 337 Rittinger theory, 169 RO See Reverse osmosis (RO) system Robotics, food industry advantage, 637 applications, 637 cartesian, 637, 638 cylindrical, 637 elements, 639 IP Code Standards, 640 technical restrictions, 639–641 types, 638, 639 Roll and skate wheel conveyors advantages, 119 coaxial wheels, 118 cylindrical steel rolls, 118 disadvantages, 119 forklifts, 118 fruit and vegetable cleaning equipment, 118 Roll mills, 174–176 Rolling agglomeration, 191 rotating drums, 195 rotating pans, 193–195 Rosin–Rammler distribution, 171 Rotary compressors advantages, 431 disadvantages, 431 refrigerant vapor, 431 Rotary convective dryer air flow capacity, 415 by-products, 414 combustion water, 415 hot air/flue gases, 415 psychrometric chart, 414 Rotary cooker/coolers, 528, 529 Rotary dryers, 392 Rotary grinders, 183 Rotary positive displacement (PD) pumps, 536 Rotor-stator homogenizers, 212–213 S Sand filters, 257 Scraped surface exchangers, 467 Scraped surface heat exchangers (SSHEs), 538 double stacks, 313 heat transfer, 313 heating/cooling medium, 312 high-pressure drops, 313 772 Scraped surface heat exchangers (SSHEs) (cont.) hydrodynamics, fluid food flow, 313 mechanical construction, 313 pipe diameters, 313 positive displacement pump, 313 thermal design, 313 Screw compressors advantages, 433 development, 432 disadvantages, 433 volumetric efficiency, 432 Screw conveyors advantages, 122 continuous ribbon, 122 cylindrical vessel, 122 disadvantages, 123 emptying silos, 122 Segmented belt conveyors belt structures/thickness, 117 chains/cables, 116 modular system, 117 sprockets, 117 steel plate belts, 116 Selection of food processing equipment, 72–78 construction characteristics automation, 74 cleaning facility, 73 dimensions/weight, 72–73 firmness/durability, 74 maintenance, 73 quality of materials, 73 spare parts standardization, 73 operational characteristics accuracy, 78 convenience, 75 effectiveness, 77–78 efficiency, 77 environmental impact, 78 ergonomics, 77 instrumentation, 77 reliability, 74 safety, 75–76 Separations and supercritical fluid (SCF), 605 Separations of food materials See Mechanical separations Shaka equipment, 532 Shell heat exchangers, 305, 327, 328 Short-tube evaporators (calandria), 342 Shugi agglomerator, 200 Sil dryers, 387, 389 Simple distillation tray, 565 Single-belt (band) conveyor dryer, 391 Index Single-drum dryer, 402 Single screw extruder, 221 Sinkability, 191 Size enlargement agglomeration, 186–188 besides water, 188 food technology, 186 no water, 188 solid, 186 van der Waals and electrostatic forces, 187 Size reduction, 153–165 application of forces, 150 construction characteristics, 150 cutting (see Cutting) disadvantages, 152 final size of products, 150 grindability, 150 main forces, 150 processes, 149 reasons, 152 Sizing and costing, equipment air-cooling unit, 52 alloying metals, 54 material and energy balances, 52 metallic materials, 52 off-the-shelf equipment, 52 Slicers, 160 Slow agitation equipment, 195–196 Smoking, 583 Soaking, 580 Solar drying, 385, 386 Solid/air separators, 270, 272–276 cyclones (see Cyclone separators) design, 270 filters bag, 272–274 clean room technology, 274 dry, 274 electrical, 275, 276 HEPA, 275 industrial, 274 technical characteristics, 275 viscous, 274 recovery, food particles, 270 wet scrubbers/particle collectors, 276 Solid foods, 442 Solid/liquid separation, 252–269 centrifuges filtering, 261 milk separators, 261 sedimentation, 258–260 separators, 260 food processing, 251 Index industrial filters (see Industrial filters) mechanical expression (see Mechanical expression, solid/liquid separation) properties, 233 screening, 251 sedimentation, 251, 252 Solid mixing and encrusting equipment, 227–229 Solid/solid separations, 241–247 classification, fluid (see Fluid classification, solid particles) screeing, equipment, 244 screening/sieving categories, 243 cloths, 245, 246 electrostatic separators, 246 flat, 245 flour, 246 grizzlies/belt, 244 magnetic separators, 246 particles, 241 rotating sifters, 245 sizes, 242 stainless steel, 243 stratification, 243 surface, 243 trommels, 244 sizes, 242 surface, 241 Solubility–temperature diagram, 597 Solvent extraction and leaching equilibrium, 570, 573 liquid/liquid extraction, 570, 576 mass transfer considerations, 574 multistage equipment, 577 oil from oilseeds, 575 RTC, 576 solid/liquid equilibria, 571, 572 sugar beets, 575 Special food dryers convective/contact heat transfer, 405 moisture permeability, 405 MW and RF, 405 pasta drying operations, 406 vacuum-and freeze-drying operations, 406 Spinning cone distillation column, 569 Spinning cone stripping column (SCSC), 568 Spiral-tube heat exchangers, 306 Spouted bed dryers, 394 Spray dryers, 399–402 Spray water tunnel, 540 Sprockets, 117 Static-bed system, 577 773 Steam blanching, 543 Steam economy (SE), 348, 349 Sterile filters, 258 Sterilization, 523 Still retorts, 525 Storage of liquids, 138–141 tanks, 141–146 vats (see Vats and vessels) Storage of solids, 130–138 bags, 129–130 bins (see Bins and silos) box pallets, 127–128 pallets, 126–127 Stork–Lagarde circulating steam sterilizer, 532 Stresses impeller attritors, 184 jet mills, 184–185 rotary grinders, 183 Stripping line, 560 Sugar beets, 575 Sun drying, 385 Supercritical fluid (SCF) extraction carbon dioxide solvent, rules, 622 critical properties, carbon dioxide and water, 621 food processing, 623 phase equilibrium, 622 processes and equipment, 622 transport properties, 621, 622 Superheated steam dryer, 412 Surface contact cooling, 465 T Tanks advantages and disadvatage, 142 fermentation, 142–143 liquid foods and fruit/vegetable, 141 regulations, 144–146 trucks, 142 Tenderizing, 582 Testing of equipment Newtonian fluids, 78 specifications, 79–82 Thawing equipment contact, 483 convective methods, 482, 483 electrical, 484, 485 industrial process, 482 vacuum, 483 Thermal damage reactions, 507 Thermal inactivation activation energies, 506 774 Thermal inactivation (cont.) decimal reduction time, 506 microorganisms and enzymes, 504 negative slope, 505 thermal damage, food components, 507 thermal death time curve, 505 Thermal pasteurizers, 539–543 continuous, 541 in-container, 540 Thermal process calculation diagram, 512 Thermal process calculations in-container sterilization, 511 microorganisms, 511 Thermal processing equipment, 504 blanching, 520 can sizes, 523 canning, 503, 518 continuous flow thermal processes, 514 cutting, 521 damage in nutrition, 503 design, 504 exhausting, 522 filling, 521 food plants, 517 grading, 520 heating of foods, 503 heat transfer, 507 hygienic requirements, 544 in-container sterilizers, 517 industrial equipment, 517 inspection of product, 520 labeling/casing/warehousing, 523 peeling, fruits and vegetables, 521 raw materials, 518 receiving, 518 thermal inactivation (see Thermal inactivation) Thermal processing time, 515 Thermophilic bacteria, 523 Three-column distillation system, 565 Tomato evaporators, 354 Tower condenser, 444 Tower dryers, 387–389 Track flow sterilizer systems, 533 Tray/cabinet dryers, 389 Tray columns, 588 Triple-effect evaporator concentration, 361 engineering and construction, 362 orange juice, 362 pectic enzymes, 363 preliminary calculations, 361 vapor velocities, 363 Index Tube heat exchanger, 327, 328 Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association (TEMA), 305 Tubular heat exchangers active length, 306 co-current and counter-current, 328 and countercurrent shell, 305 design and applications, 305 dimensions, 305 double-pipe type, 304, 305 heating pulp-containing fruit juices, 304 helical (coiled), 306, 307 and shell, 305 spiral-tube heat exchangers, 306 TEMA, 305 temperature differences, 304 Tumbling drum, 582 Tumbling dryers, 407 Tunnel cooling, 465, 466 Tunnel dryers, 390 Tunnel freezers advantages, 475 continuous operation, 472, 474 disadvantages, 475 loading systems, 474 Tunnel pasteurizers, 540 Turbulent pipe flow, 299 Twin-screw extruders, 221 U UF See Ultrafiltration (UF) membranes UHT sterilization processes, 535 Ultrafiltration (UF) membranes concentration polarization, 614, 615 diafiltration, 615 food applications, 615, 616 fouling, 614 modular forms, 614 MWCO, 614 separating capacity, 614 Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) downstream system, 536 equipment, 535 Ultrasonic cutting devices, 163 V Vacuum and freeze dryers conventional (convective) methods, 403 pharmaceutical industry, 403 refrigeration, 405 semicontinuous vacuum, 404 Index Vacuum application, 582 Vacuum cooling, 464, 465 Vacuum cooling equipment, 467 Vacuum maintaining system, 359 Vacuum thawing, 483 Vane pumps, 100 Vapor density, 600 Vapor recompression evaporators, 351, 352 Vats and vessels advantages and disadvantage, 138, 139 AISI 304 stainless steel, 140 auxiliary equipment, 138 carbon steel /aluminum, 140 characteristics, 139 criteria, 138 cylindrical, 140 kneading equipment, 141 semiliquid products, 140 Vibration equipment, 196 Vibratory conveyors advantages, 124 disadvantages, 124 gliding transport, 123 troughs/tubes, 123 Volatile aroma components, 567 Volumetric mass transfer rate, 592 775 W Warm drying, 585 Washing, 519 Waste-heat evaporators, 355–356 Water desalination, 355 Water jet cutting devices, 164 Water treatment cation/anion exchange columns, 595 industrial enzymes, 596 ion exchange beds, 595 juices, 596 nucleation and mass transfer, 598 proteins, 596 solution equipment, 597 Wet cleaning equipment, 288, 289 flotation, 290 raw fruits and vegetables, 288 rotary brush, 290 soaking, 288 spray, 288 Wet curing, 580 Wettability, 191 Wine and ethanol-fermented products, 556 Wood, 60 ... Saravacos, A.E Kostaropoulos, Handbook of Food Processing Equipment, Food Engineering Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-25020-5_1 Design of Food Processes and Food Processing Plants (PFDs), which... book The unique requirements of design of food processes, food plants, and food processing equipment are considered in more detail in this chapter The numerous food processing operations are classified... kind of food trade (e.g import-export, 16 Design of Food Processes and Food Processing Plants wholesale, cash and carry types of delivery markets and marketing) up to the final consumption of food