F O O D SCIENCE A N D TECHNOLOGY A SERIES OF MONOGRAPHS Series Editor Bernard S Schweigert University of California, Davis Advisory Board S Arai University of Tokyo, Japan C O Chichester Nutrition Foundation, Washington, D.C J H B Christian CSIRO, Australia Larry Merson University of California, Davis Emil Mrak University of California, Davis Harry Nursten University of Reading, England Louis B Rockland Chapman College, Orange, California Kent K Stewart Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg A list of books in this series is available from the publisher on request Handbook of Food and Beverage Stability Chemical, Biochemical, Microbiological, and Nutritional Aspects Edited by GEORGE CHARALAMBOUS St Louis, Missouri 1986 ACADEMIC PRESS, INC Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers Orlando London San Diego New York Austin Montreal Sydney Tokyo Toronto C O P Y R I G H T © BY A C A D E M I C PRESS, I N C A L L R I G H T S RESERVED N O P A R T O F T H I S P U B L I C A T I O N M A Y BE R E P R O D U C E D O R T R A N S M I T T E D I N A N Y F O R M O R BY A N Y M E A N S , E L E C T R O N I C OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY, RECORDING, O R A N Y I N F O R M A T I O N S T O R A G E A N D R E T R I E V A L SYSTEM, W I T H O U T PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM T H E PUBLISHER ACADEMIC PRESS, I N C Orlando, Florida 32887 United Kingdom Edition published by ACADEMIC PRESS INC (LONDON) LTD - Oval Road, London N W D X Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data H a n d b o o k of food a n d beverage stability ( F o o d science a n d t e c h n o l o g y ) Includes index Food—Analysis—Handbooks, m a n u a l s , e t c F o o d spoilage-Handbooks, manuals, etc Food-Shelf-life d a t i n g - H a n d b o o k s , m a n u a l s , e t c I C h a r a l a m b o u s , George, D a t e I I Series TX535.H34 1986 664\028 85-43102 ISBN - - - (alk p a p e r ) PRINTED IN T H E U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA 86 87 88 89 Contributors Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors' contributions begin MILTON E BAILEY (75), Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211 UMBERTO BRACCO (391), Nestlé Research Laboratories, CH-1800 Vevey, Switzer land RONALD J CLARKE (685), Donnington, Chichester, Sussex P020 7PW, England LEOPOLDO G ENRIQUEZ (113), Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 GEORGE J FUCK, JR (113), Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 THOMSEN J HANSEN (423), Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104 IAN HORMAN (391), Nestlé Research Laboratories, CH-1800 Vevey, Switzerland JANIS B HUBBARD (113), Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 KAREL KULP (1), American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas 66502 DAVID C LEWIS (353), Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616 WILLIAM W MENZ (621), Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27104 ROBERT R M O D (489), Southern Regional Research Center, United States Depart ment of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana 70179 STEVEN NAGY (719), Scientific Research Department, State of Florida Department of Citrus, Lake Alfred, Florida 33850 JOHN H NELSON (33), Quality Assurance/Regulatory Compliance, Kraft, Inc., Glenview, Illinois 60025 TOSHITERU OHBA (773), National Research Institute of Brewing, Tokyo 114, Japan ROBERT L ORY (489), Southern Regional Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana 70179 THOMAS M RADKE (467), Food Science Research Center, Chapman College, Orange, California 92666 PASCAL RIBÉREAU-GAYON (745), Institut d'OEnologie, Université de Bordeaux II, F-33405 Talence, France LOUIS B ROCKLAND (467), Food Science Research Center, Chapman College, Orange, California 92666 ix χ Contributors RUSSELL L ROUSEFF (719), Scientific Research Department, State of Florida Depart ment of Citrus, Lake Alfred, Florida 33850 MAKOTO SATO (773), National Research Institute of Brewing, Tokyo 114, Japan TAKAYUKI SHIBAMOTO (353), Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616 JAMES S SWAN (801), Pentlands Scotch Whisky Research Ltd., Edinburgh EH 11 1QU, Scotland JAMES VETTER (1), American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas 66502 TEI YAMANISHI (665), Ochanomizu University, Tokyo 167, Japan TAMOTSU YOKOTSUKA (517), Kikkoman Corporation, 399 Noda-shi, Chiba-ken 278,Japan Preface A recently compiled list of world needs amenable to solution through chemistry was submitted to leaders in the world chemical community for comment and discus sion The application of chemistry to alleviate hunger was allotted high priority by almost everyone One way of achieving this, as the population of the world expands and the migration to urban centers where food is not grown continues, is through an improvement in the stability of foods and beverages The prevention of spoilage and thus waste in the face of dwindling resources in the food supply has long been an objective In many ways, however, chemistry and agriculture, also related endeavors, have developed along parallel or independent paths Fortunately, chemistry—the root of all life processes—is becoming better under stood and more accessible A strong synergism between the chemical, agricultural, and related sciences is highly desirable This handbook attempts to provide in easily accessible detail up-to-date information relevant to the stability of foods and beverages Highly qualified scientists have compiled an extraordinary amount of data on the chemical, biochemical, and microbiological stability, along with sensory aspects, of selected foods and beverages These data have been distilled and are presented mostly in tabular form, with a minimum of commentary whenever possible A total of 17 chapters (10 on food, on beverages) by renowned experts in their particular fields from the United States, Europe, and Japan present a wealth of food and beverage stability information in handbook format In particular, the chapters on fish and shellfish, cheese, and meat are remarkable in presenting data not readily available in an easily digestible form This handbook, encompassing as it does aging, shelf life, and stability—in short, the knowledge necessary to ensure preservation of our food supply—should help to bring about the above-mentioned synergism between chemical, agricultural, and related sciences It is expected to fill a need, especially through the convenience of its tabular presentations The editor wishes to thank his far-flung authors for their considerable efforts in compiling up-to-date and not always readily available information, compressing it in tables for handbook format He also expresses his appreciation of the publisher's advice and assistance xi CHAPTER EFFECT OF AGING ON FRESHNESS OF WHITE PAN BREAD KAREL KULP JAMES VETTER American Institute of Baking Manhattan, Kansas Tables Figures References Handbook of Food and Beverage Stability: Chemical, Biochemical, Microbiological, and Nutritional Aspects 26 30 Copyright © 1986 by Academic Press, Inc All rights of reproduction in any form reserved Part of staling (see Staling above) Flavor Deterior ation Kulp and Ponte (1981) a Growth of microorganisms in crust or crumb during storage A series of changes that cause a decrease in consumer acceptance other than that result ing from the action of spoilage microorgan isms Definition Microbial Spoilage Staling Term Describing Loss of Freshness loss of Loss of fresh bread fla vor and aroma Develop ment of stale bread fla vor Molds (various Aspergilli, Penicillia) wild yeasts, spore formers Crumb s taling: firming development of crumbliness, loss of flavor, and emergence of stale fla vor Crust staling: crispness Characteristics Oxidative changes in fla vorants, migration of flavorants from crust to crumb Complexation of flavor ants with amylose Contaminated ingredients air, and equipment dur ing processing Rétrogradation, complexation of flavorants with amylose and oxidative changes Moisture migration from crumb to crust Cause Definitions of Changes Affecting Freshness of Bread During Storage TABLE I PHYSICAL METHODS Both properties increase with the age of bread Determines compressibility of a bread crumb pel let; eliminates effect of loaf volume Emergence of an endothermic peak indicative of starch crystallization Change of X-ray diffraction pattern from A to B/V Cell-Wall Firmness Measurements Differential Thermal Analysis X-Ray Diffraction A uniform square of crumb is compressed to con stant deformation using Baker's Compressimeter or Instron The required compression force in creases with bread age I Principle Capacitance/Conduc tance Compressibility Method Reference/Use (table continues) Zobel (1973), research NOTE: not usable in bread with bacterial α-amylase Axford and Collwell (1967) , Russell (1983) Guy and Wren (1968), research method Kay and Willhoft (1972), research method AACC Method 74-10 (AACC, 1983) Most common re search & control method Methods of Determination of Freshness of Breads TABLE II Panel Test Evalua tion of Staling Iodine Absorption SENSORY METHODS Bread samples rating by panel for degree of staleness III This value decreases with bread aging; it may be determined colorimetrically, iodometrically, or potentiometrically CHEMICAL METHODS AACC 77-30 (AACC,1983), widely used in control and research work Pelshenke and Hampel (1962), research Comford et al (1964) widely used in re search n Equation [θ = (EL - Et)/(EL - Ες>) = exp Avrami (-kt )] is used to estimate the rate constant k; 1/k = time constant of crystallization of the system is generally reported (the higher the value, the slower the rate); Θ is noncrys talline portion E L is limiting modulus and Et, Eo moduli at times t and 0, respectively Rate of Starch Crystallization II Leung et al (1983) Reference/Use Measures decreases of water mobility which de creases with age of bread Principle Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Method TABLE II (Continued) 825 17 Potable Spirits 250 TOTAL PHENOLICS k 1ST FILL FRENCH 1ST FILL AMERICAN Lt^g'-i—T-""'! I I I I I 1 NON-FLAVONOIDS 1ST FILL FRENCH LU < Ο Ο) 2ND FILL FRENCH - Ε I0 12 14 J L 16 18 20 J L 22 24 26 W E E K S IN B A R R E L S Fig Changes in phenolics over time for French and American oak casks (from Rous and Alderson, 1983) 826 James S Swan Wood-lignin + Ethanol Wood-lignin, (x-n) Wood-lignin x + Ethanol Coniferyl + Ethanol-lignin Sinapic alcohol alcohol Ethanol-lignin Ethanol + Coniferyl alcohol + Sinapic alcohol Sinapaldehyde Sinapic alcohol + Coniferyl Fig alcohol ^ Coniferaldehyde Sinapaldehyde + 0^ Syringaldehyde Coniferaldehyde + Vanillin Proposed mechanism for aromatic aldehyde formation (from Reazin et al., 1976) 17 Potable Spirits Fig 10 827 Oak wood hydroalcoholysis by Armagnac Peaks: 1, vanillin; 2, syringaldehyde; 3, coniferaldehyde; 4, sinpaldehyde (from Puech, 1984) 828 James S Swan Fig 11 Structures of aromatic aldehydes found in matured spirits (A) Vanillin; (B) syringaldehyde; (C) salicylaldehyde; (D) coniferaldehyde; (E) sina paldehyde Fig 12 Structural formulas of (A) scopoletin and (B) escutelin 829 17 Potable Spirits Oak wood V + Sy +++ Co +++ VA + SyA AV Other phenols charr ing A Lignin Β Extraction V Sy Co Si VA ethanolysis Ethanol lignin Native lignin + +++ ++ +++ + oxidation esterification V Sy ++++ Co + Si ++ VA + EV ESy Others V +++ Sy +++ Co + Si + VA ++ Others Fig 13 Proposed pathways for lignin-derived compound forma tion V, Vanillin; Sy, syringaldehyde; Co, coniferylaldehyde; Si, sinapaldehyde; VA, vanillic acid; AV, acetovanillone; Asy, acetosyringone; PV, propiovanillone; EV, ethyl vanillate; ESy, ethyl syringate (from Nishimura et al., 1983) Fig 14 Configuration of (A) cis and (B) trans isomers of oak lactone 830 Fig 15 James S Swan DSC thermograms of the melting of rapidly frozen matured and unmatured whisky (B) DSC thermograms of the melting of rapidly frozen matured whisky, distillate of matured whisky, and restored whisky (from Nishimura et al., 1983) 17 Potable Spirits 831 REFERENCES Akahoshi, R (1963) Nippon Nogei Kagaku Kaishi 37 (8), 433-438 Amerine, Μ A., Berg, H w., and Cruess, W V (1972) "The Technology of Wine Making." AVI Publ Co., Westport, Connecticut Baldwin, S., and Andreasen, A A (1974) J Assoc Off Anal Chem 57 (4), 940-950 Black, R Α., and Andreasen, A A (1974) J Assoc Off Anal Chem 57, 111-117 Bolker, Η I (1974) "Natural and Synthetic Polymers." Dekker, New York Brown, H P., Banshin, A J., and Forsaith, C C (1949) "Textbook of Wood Technology," Vol I McGraw-Hill, New York Byrne, K J., Reazin, G Η., Andreasen, A A (1981) J Assoc Off Anal Chem 64, 181-185 Chen, C.-L (1970) Phytochemistry 9, 1149 Crampton, C Α., and Tolman, L M (1908) J Amer Chem Soc 30, 98-136 Criddle, W J., Goswell, R W., and Williams, M A (1983) Am J Enol Vitic 34 (2), 61-71 Eriksson, Ο., and Lindgren, B S (1977) Sven Papperstidn 80, 59-63 Gerry, E (1941) J Agric Res 1, 445-469 Guymon, J F., and Crowell, E A (1970) Wines & Vines January, pp 23-25 Hankerson, F P (1947) "The Cooperage Handbook." Chem Publ Co., New York Hasuo, T., Saito, K., Terauchi, T., Tadenuma, Μ., and Sato, S (1983) Nippon Jozo Kyokai Zasshi 78 (12), 966-969 Hathway, D E., and Jurd, L (1962) In "Wood Extractives" (W E Hillis, e d ) , pp 191-258 Academic Press, New York Hibbert, H (1942) Annu Rev Biochem 11, 183-202 Hibbert, H., Cramer, Α Β., and Hunter, J (1939) J Am Chem Soc 61, 509-516 Joseph, Ε., and Marche, M (1972) Connaiss Vigne Vin (3), 1-58 Kluezko, Α (1978) Aust Wine, Brew Spirit Rev August, pp 35-38 Koga, Κ., and Yoshizumi, H (1977) J Food Sci 42, 12131217 Koga, Κ., and Yoshizumi, H (1979) J Food Sci 44, 13861389 Lafon, J., Couilland, P., and Gaybelile, F (1973) "Le Cognac." Bail ère , Paris 832 James S Swan Lehtonen, P (1984) In "Flavour Research of Alcoholic Beverages" (L Nykenen and P Lehtonen, eds.), pp 121130 Foundation for Biotechnical and Industrial Fermen tation Research, Helsinki Liebmann, A J., and Scherl, B (1949) Ind Eng Chem 41 (3), 534-543 Nishimura, Κ., and Masuda, M (1971) Phytochemistry 10, 1401-1402 Nishimura, Κ., Ohnishi, Μ., Masuda, Μ., Koga, Κ., and Matsuzama, (1983) In "Flavour of Distilled Beverages" (J R Piggot, e d ) , pp 241-255 Horwood Ellis/SCI, London Onishi, Μ., Guymon, J F , and Crowell, E A (1977) Am J Enol Vitic 28 (3), 152-158 Otsuka, Κ., Morinaga, Κ., and Imai, S (1963) Nippon Jozo Kyokai Zasshi 59, 448; Chem Abstr 63, 14005e (1965) Otsuka, Κ., Zenibayashi, Y., ItoH, Μ., and Totsuka, A (1974) Agric Biol Chem 38 (3), 485-490 Otsuka, Κ., Sato, Κ., and Yamashita, T (1980) J Ferment Technol 58, 395-398 Parham, R Α., and Gray, R L (1984) In "The Chemistry of Solid Wood (R Rowell, e d ) , pp 3-57 Am Chem S o c , Washington, D.C Pettersen, R C (1984) In "The Chemistry of Solid Wood" (R Rowell, e d ) , pp 57-127 Am Chem S o c , Washing ton, D.C Puech, J.-L (1978) Ph.D Thesis, University of Paul Sabatier de Toulouse Puech, J.-L (1984) Am J Enol Vitic 35 (2), 77-81 Puech, J.-L., Leaute, R., Clot, G., and Nomdedeu, L (1984) Sci Aliment 4, 65-80 Reazin, G H (1983) In "Flavour of Distilled Beverages" (J R Piggot, e d ) , pp 225-240 Horwood Ellis/SCI, London Reazin, G Η., Baldwin, S., Scales, H S., Washington, H W., and Andreasen, A A (1976) J Assoc Off Anal Chem 59 (4), 770-776 Rickards, P (1983) In "Current Developments in Malting, Brewing and Distilling" (F G Priest and I Campbell, eds.), pp 199-203 Institute of Brewing, London Rous, C , and Alderson, B (1983) Am J Enol Vitic 34 (4), 211-215 Salo, P., Lehtonen, Μ., and Suomalainen, H (1976) Proc.— Nord Symp Sens Prop Foods, 4th, 1976, pp 87-108 Schidrowitz, P., and Kaye, P (1905) J Soc Chem Ind., London June, pp 585-589 17 Potable Spirits 833 Sharp, R (1983) In "Current Developments in Malting, Brewing and Distilling" (F G Priest and I Campbell, eds.), pp 143-157 Institute of Brewing, London Shortreed, G W., Rickards, P., Swan, J S., and Burties, S M (1979) Brew Guardian 109, 1-10 Singleton, V L (1974) In "Chemistry of Winemaking" (A Dinsmoor Webb, e d ) , pp 254-278 Am Chem S o c , Washington, D.C Sjôstrôm, Ε (1981) "Wood Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications." Academic Press, New York Suomalainen, H., and Nykanen, L (1970) Haringsmiddelindustrien 23, 15 Swan, J S., Howie, D., Burtles, S Μ., Williams, Α Α., and Lewis, M J (1981) In "Quality of Foods and Beverages: Chemistry and Technology" (G Charalambous and G E Inglett, eds.) Vol 1, pp 201-225 Academic Press, New York Valaer, P., and Frazier, W H (1936) Ind Eng Chem 28 (1), 92-105 Williams, L I (1983) In "Current Developments in Malting, Brewing and Distilling" (F G Priest and I Campbell, eds.), pp 193-197 Institute of Brewing, London Index* A Amadori compounds shoyu, 538-539 α-Amylase cleavage, by starch gel structure, 29 various sources, effect on bread firmness, 7, 29 Amylose/amylopectin ratio, rice, 489 Antibiotic contamination, milk, 630-631 Antimicrobial agents, baking effect o n bread shelf-life mold-free, 23 rope-free, 24 spectrum of effective action, 20 U S regulatory status, 16-18 Antioxidants fruit shelf life increase, 363-364 U S regulatory status, baking, 19 Arabinogalactan fraction, rice, 493-494 Aspergillus oryzae, 775, 783 Β Bactericidal action, shoyu, 559 Beans, dry, 467-487 c o m m o n commercial varieties, 472 conversion into soaked and cooked, 484-486 cooking process, 467, 469 minerals, - percentage retained after cooking, 481-483 naturally occurring toxic factors in, 471 protein efficiency ratios and digestibility of, 469 proximate composition, raw and cooked, 473 sugars, total carbohydrates and calories, raw and cooked, 474 thiamin, riboflavin and niacin in, 475 retained after cooking, 480 Beef, shelf life, 83 Brabender amylograph/viscograph, rice, 492 Bread, white pan, 1-31 carbonyl compounds, changes during aging, 12 freshness definition, changes affecting, formulation effect o n , 11 methods of determination, - refreshening, 14 softness, production methods effect on, 15 staling Schoch's mechanism, 26, 27 theories, storage effect on firmness, 28 Browning reactions, see also Maillard reactions cheese, 38 citrus fruit juices, 726, 733 confections, 438 meat, 91 shoyu, 530-600 Butter, microorganisms total count, 660 C Calorie, empty, confections, 447 Candy-confectionery, 423-465 changes during storage, 439-446 definitions, 424 nutritional and safety concerns, 446-450 packaging materials, 460 Carbonyl composition, bread, changes during aging, 12 Charm test, milk, 630 Cheese, 33-74 natural categorized by hardness, fat content, and ripening method, 4 - description, c o m m o n varieties, - ingredients permitted in, 53-58 manufacture schematic, 72 •For index to Chapter , Shelf-Life of Fish and Shellfish, see pages - 835 Index 836 Cheese (continued) process and related products composition and description, 59-62 ingredients permitted in, 63-67 manufacture schematic, 73 refrigeration out of, display guidelines, 71 Chilling injury, susceptible fruits, 376 Chocolate, 391-421 composition, 396 different types, 406 fat bloom, , , 402, 417 packaging, 405 storage problems, 393, 404 tempering, 393 tocopherols, 391 tristearin, 392 Citrus fruit juices, 719-742 degradation products and flavor change, - , 732 flavor degradation, 723-725 microbial growth, 721-723 chilled juice, 2 - , 731 frozen concentrated juice, 723 nutrient losses, 7 - , 734 vitamin B , stability, , 735, 736, 737 vitamin C , 7 - , 734, 739, 740 packaging, 728-729 shelf life monitoring, - , 733 Cocoa beans, absorption isotherms, 1 butter fats and oils, compatibility in confec tionery products, 403 nut oil or milk fat, effect o n , 419 polymorphs, 398, 416, 417 states solid fat index, 400 stability, 399 tempered/untempered, storage condi tions effect, 418 triglycerides and fatty acids, 397 fraction, crystallization in soft chocolate, 418 mass, shells and germs, composition, 395 Coffee, 685-717 packages, commercial, 696, 712, 713 shelf life factors, 686-691 types, 686 green, 691-693 direct shelf life data, 691-692, - , 704 monsooned, 693 sulfiting, 693 instant, 697-698 aromatized, 697 shelf life data, 697, 714, 715 roasted, 693-697 compositional changes, , 711 packing, 694, 696 shelf life data roasted whole, 694, , 706 roasted and ground, , , 709, 710 Color citrus fruit juices, marketing quality fac tor, , 733 fading, confectionery products, 446 meat, shelf life, , 85 sake, raw, 777 shoyu, - , 578 formation mechanisms, 697 increase during consumption, 569, 570 preparation, 571 usage, 568-601 oxidized, 567, 602 pasteurized, 566 tea, green, 6 - , 7 - 7 Composition, proximate, see also individual products beans, raw and cooked, 473 cheeses, various, 67 citrus fruit juices, 730 milk, 654 Confectionery, 423-465 products general composition, various, , 436 optimum storage conditions, 407 processing effect, quality and stability, 436-438 sugar properties, - solutions concentration and density, 452 diffusion coefficient, 456 sucrose-saturated, water activity, 455 sucrose solubility in invert, 453 Copper trouble wine haze, 755 sake, 779 Cork worms, wine, 756 D Deferriferrichrysin, sake, 778, 787 Delvotest P, milk, 630 3-Deoxy-D-glucosone, shoyu preparation, 375 Desmin, meat protein, 80 Deterioration, see also individual products color and flavor, stored dried fruits, 383 837 Index mode, fruit products, 371 orange juice, 732 Dimethyl sulfide, sake, , 788, 796 Dry, firm, and dark ( D F D ) meat, 77, 78 muscle, 77 permitted, cheese natural, 55-58 process, - 6 Irradiation, fruits, 368-369 Κ Ε Epigallocatechin reduction, flat taste, tea, 668 F F D A regulations, dough strengtheners, Federal standards dairy products, frozen, 655 grain legumes, 480-482 Ferulic acid and esters, rice, fluorescence, 493-494 Fiber content, rice, 491-501 Film-forming yeasts, shoyu, 556, 557 Flavor notes, distinctive fire, shoyu, 550-552 warmed-over, meat, 86-87 Fondant, storage changes, 461 Fruits, shelf life, 353-389 criteria determining, 354-358 factors affecting, 358-361 methods increasing, 361-369 postharvest losses, 370 Furfural, monitoring agent, citrus fruit juices, , 3 , 738, 739 Koikuchi shoyu amino acids, 582 fermentation flow sheet, 592 flavor components, 580 organic acids, 581 stability, 588-589 Koji mold, sake, 775, 787 Komaishu, off odor, sake, 781 L Lactobacillus heterochiochii, sake, 783 Lactones, matured spirits, 811 Light, discoloration effect fresh meat, 82-83 fruits, 359 Lignin guaiacol and syringyl, 805, 824 precursors, hardwood, 824 tannin content, oak w o o d s , 804, 817, 818, 825 Limonin, fruits, 358 Liquorers, coffee, 689 M Maillard reactions citrus fruit juices, 724 confections, 438 meat, 91 Gallates, tea, changes in, 668, 674 Malolactic fermentation, 759 Market disorders and diseases, fruits, H 375-376 Masque, champagne haze, 760 Heat-coagulable material, shoyu, 542-550 Metatartaric acid, wine crystallization inhibi chemical properties, 542-543 tor, 758 denaturation, soybean protein, 549-550 4-Methyl guaiacol, 812 formation mechanism, 543-545 j3-Methyl-7-octalactone, 811, 829 purification, 603 Milk, 621-664 (££)-2-4-Heptadienal, 667 composition, 654 Hineka, off odor, sake, 779 conversion into various products, 623-628, Hiochi bacteria, sake, 776, - , 784, 793 653 3-Hydroxy,4-5-dimethyl-2(5//)-furanone, packaging, 645 sake, 779-780, 787, 795 pasteurization, 631-632, see also quality I protection physical properties, 628 Ingredients, see also individual products production, U S , 622, 652 food, antimicrobial activity, bread, 25 quality protection, 628-635 G Index 838 Milk (continued) shelf life, 635-639 bacterial spoilage, 638-639 defects, 640-643 other dairy products, 648-650 prediction, refrigerated, 647 keeping quality pasteurized, 637-638 raw, 636-637 stored, 639 research efforts, 644-648 Minerals, major cheese varieties, 68 Moisture Ρ Packaging, see also under individual products chocolate, 405 coffee, 694, 696 fruits, 361-362 meat, fresh, 83-85 shoyu, 553-555 Palatability, meat, frozen storage type, effect, 101-103 Pasteurization milk, 637-638 sake, 783-784 shoyu, industrial, 541 et seq bread, crumb t o crust migration, 13 Patulin, 355 coffee, determination, 699 Pentosans, flour, effect on bread staling, Mold genera, fruit spoilage, 377 Phenolic compounds Moromi, sake, 775 oak casks, 825 M o t o , sake, 775 rice, 493 Muscle shoyu, pasteurized, 552 dry, firm, and dark (DFD), 77 tea, 667-681 M longissimus dorsi, roast meat flavor, 77 Phostoxin, fumigation, unpolished rice, 788 postmortem changes, effect o n meat qual Phytic acid, rice, 492 ity, 76-81 Potable spirits, maturation, 801-833 chemistry Ν aroma compounds, 812 cask pretreatment, 812 Nebulin, 80 flavor compounds, oak w o o d Nutritional extraction, 808-809, 817, 818, 821, concerns, confectionery, 4 - 825-829 delivery, reconstituted citrus juices, 730 interaction with distillate, 809-811 profiles, major cheese varieties, - mellowing studies, 813, 830 sherry cask role, 812-813 Ο warehousing conditions, 813-814 container, maturation, 822, 823 Oak lactone, see jS-methyl-7-octalactone oak wook Off-flavors chemistry, 805-806 bread, , 12 physiology, 804, 823 candy/confections, 445 total barrel-derived material (TBDM), 807 cheese, 37-38 Preservatives chocolate, 410 bread, 9, 10, 16-25 citrus fruit juices, 2 , 724-726 cheese, 55-58 coffee, 690 chocolate, anti-bloom, 401 meat, 77, 86-87, 90 fruits, 362-364, 378, 379 milk, 640, 644, 659 meat, 91 potable spirits, 812 shoyu, 555, 557 sake, 781 wine, 753, 758 Off-odors Propionates, baked goods citrus fruit juices, 725, see also thiofurfural effect o n mold-free shelf life, 22 sake, see Hineka, 779; Komaishi, 781 recommended levels, 20 see also preser tea, see epigallocatechin reduction, 668 vatives 839 Index Pseudomonas fragi, pork storage, 82 Psychrotrophiles, in spoilage of meat, 81 milk, 641 Q Quality, see also other individual products milk, protection, 628-635 care of purchased, 633-635 homogenization, 632-633 pasteurization, 629-631 coffee flavor, 700-709, 714-715 Quercus robur, 804 Quercus sessilis, 804 R Rancid milk, 629 Resolution o f rigor, - Riboflavin, citrus fruit juices, 729-737 Rice, 489-516 ferulic acid, , - , 508 hemicelluloses binding o f minerals by, 502 composition amino acid, 497-500 chemical, 490-491 sugar, 495-496 effect on hemicellulose-free rice flour, 506-507 peak velocity, rice flours, 511-513 viscosity, intact rice flours, 508 S Saccharomyces bayanus, 760 Sake, 773-799 bottling, 726-777 brewing outline, 7 - 7 7 composition, 786 exports, 786 quality deterioration color, 777-779, 787, 795 odor, 7 - , 788, 795-796 taste, 781-782, 789-792 turbidity, 782-784 preservation, activated carbon, 784 Shelf life, see also under individual products cheese, 37-38 coffee, 686-698 fruits, 373-378 meat, , - milk, 635-639, 640-643, 658 sake, 785 Shoyu, 517-619 amino acid composition after storage, 584 browning, 574, 576-577, 579, 593, 599-600 chemical analysis, storage test, 583-588 color browning mechanisms, 530-541 compounds, 526-527 darkening, 529-530 measurement, 527-529 containers, effect o n quality, 553-555 headspace composition, 586-587, 609 sediment formation, time/temperature effect, 604 spectrophotometric transmittance, 564 Sinapyl alcohol, 805, 824 Stannous chloride, citrus juices preservative, 378 Steroids, aged whisky, 809 Storage, changes during, in baked g o o d s , , 11-13, 18 chocolate, 4 , 408 coffee, 710-713 confectionery, 439-446, 461 fruits, 354-358 recommended conditions, 373 refrigerated, 380 meat, 76, 96-104 frozen, 88-93 refrigerated, - 8 milk, various products, life, 658-659 rice, 493-494 sake, 792 tea, 666-682 temperature effect, bread firming, 11 Sulfiting coffee, 693 wine, 753 Sunlight exposure sake, 778, 795 wine, 755, 756 Sweeteners, relative sweetness, 459 Τ Tannin content, see also polyphenols, individual products Index 840 Tannin contents (continued) oak woods, 808, 817, 818 tea, q v wine, 769, 770-771 Taste (iemperature Accelerated short-fime evaporator), 723 Tea, 665-683 types, 666 fermented (black) composition and storage changes amino acid, 667, 675 aroma, 672-673 polyphenol, 667, 674, 680, 681 volatiles, 666, 671 non-fermented (green) ascorbic acid, 668, 682 color, 669 composition and storage changes aroma, 676, 677-678 chlorophyll, 669-670 moisture, 670 polyphenol, 669 umami taste, 669 volatiles, 669, 676, 677-678 Thiofurfural, citrus fruit juices skunky aroma, 725 Time/temperature effect candy, sugar, 438 milk, 657, 659 orange juice, 731 shoyu ingredients, 608 protease stability, 605, 607 turbidity, 606 Titin, 80 Triglycerides, cocoa butter crystal structures, 411-413 polymorphic transitions, 415 V Vitamins cheese varieties, - citrus fruit juices, 730, 734-737 fruits, losses through preservation, 372 milk, 654 Vitis vinifera, 748, 763, 764 W Warmed-over, flavor, meat (WOF), 86-87 Waxy rice, 493 Willhoft's equation, graphic representation, 28 Wine aging aptitude, - climate, 747-748 ripening, 749-750, 765, 766, 768, 769 vine plants, 746-747 in-bottle, 750-757 changes aroma, 740-751 color, 751-752, 772, 769 factors, 754-755 mishaps chemical hazes and deposits, 757-759 leaking bottles, 760-761 microbiological defects, 759-760 storage conditions, 755-757 Y Yeasts, shoyu film-forming, 556-557 growth prevention, 590 U Ζ Ultrasound, fruit disinfestation, 369 Umami taste, tea, 669 Z-disc disappearance, meat aging, 80 ... way of achieving this, as the population of the world expands and the migration to urban centers where food is not grown continues, is through an improvement in the stability of foods and beverages... (10 on food, on beverages) by renowned experts in their particular fields from the United States, Europe, and Japan present a wealth of food and beverage stability information in handbook format... JAMES VETTER American Institute of Baking Manhattan, Kansas Tables Figures References Handbook of Food and Beverage Stability: Chemical, Biochemical, Microbiological, and Nutritional Aspects 26 30