Encyclopedia of medieval world

All Things Medieval All Things Medieval An Encyclopedia of the Medieval World Volume A–I Ruth A Johnston Copyright 2011 by Ruth A Johnston All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Johnston, Ruth A All things medieval : an encyclopedia of the medieval world / Ruth A Johnston v cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-313-36462-4 (hard copy : acid-free paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-36463-1 (ebook) Civilization, Medieval—Encyclopedias I Title CB351.J675 2011 909.07—dc22 2011004678 ISBN: 978-0-313-36462-4 EISBN: 978-0-313-36463-1 15 14 13 12 11 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook Visit www.abc-clio.com for details Greenwood An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC 130 Cremona Drive, P.O Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America Contents Introduction vii List of Entries xi Guide to Related Topics xv All Things Medieval Bibliography 753 Index 769 About the Author 791 Introduction This book is about the material culture, the things, of Europe in the Middle Ages These things include nearly everything that could be seen, heard, touched, tasted, met, or experienced The material culture’s center is in the home and the workplace All things in the home and at work are contained in the scope of this book The church and the monastery had their things, as did the warriors There are things in entertainment and the arts Some people are counted as things, particularly if they were notable types throughout Europe who were defined by having a unique set of things Two key events, the Crusades and the Black Death plague, are included because they shaped the material culture in dramatic ways and also had their own identifying things The raw materials of the things are also included so that their nature and technology can be understood Europe is defined as broadly as can be useful It includes Scandinavia, Spain, Europe’s heartland of England, France, Germany, and Italy, and the Byzantine Empire that overlapped Europe and Asia Information is not always available for all of these regions at all times, but where available, it has been included to give as broad a picture as possible Europe’s Middle Ages span about 1,000 years, a time that transitions between antiquity and the modern world Historians and authors have no exact dates for when the Middle Ages began and ended It is the period between certain key events that clustered in the opening and closing centuries and seemed to mark a transition of culture and technology This book uses roughly the years 550 and 1450 to define the Middle Ages Introduction The heartland of the Roman Empire, Italy, came under domination by the invading Goths at the end of the fifth century, and Roman rule shifted entirely to Constantine’s eastern capital, Constantinople Around the same time, the first Merovingian kings ruled the Franks; King Clovis I died in 511 Benedict of Nursia founded monasteries and wrote his Rule of Saint Benedict not long after 500 Around 550, the last Roman outposts in Britain fell to invading Anglo-Saxons The Plague of Justinian carried off about one-third of Constantinople’s (and Egypt’s) population around 550 In Mecca, Mohammed saw visions and founded a new religion around 600 These events define the effective beginning of Europe’s Middle Ages, although the early years are often called, informally, the Dark Ages Rome no longer towered over Europe with superior technology and culture and a strong government and army The Goths in Italy, the Anglo-Saxons in England, the Franks in France and Germany, and the Visigoths in Spain were all relatively primitive and uncivilized compared to Rome and Constantinople Europe’s Middle Ages are the time when these Germanic tribes grew up, developing government, culture, and technology to match and surpass Rome’s At the same time, the birth and growth of Islam also defined medieval Europe Muslims were an aggressive force always pushing at Europe’s borders Defensive and aggressive action against Muslim armies was the heart of medieval warfare The Muslim Caliphate, which spanned the southern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, was also a conduit for technology and products from far away Gems, silk, spices, and ideas came from India and Persia through the Muslim Empire that united the Far East with Egypt and Spain European culture imported products from Muslim traders while pushing back Muslim armies The most famous events in the Middle Ages were the Crusades, waves of defensive/aggressive war to take back territory from Islam It was the age of the knight and his castle Crusaders learned new construction methods and began building the classic castles of medieval Europe Minstrels learned musical instruments from the East and sang “The Song of Roland” at tournament feasts Spices from the East dressed meat, fish, and fruit in castle kitchens The Byzantine story of Saint George and the dragon and travelers’ stories populated Europe’s imagination with knights, dragons, unicorns, lions, and sea monsters The medieval period in Europe was also the time when Latin dominated government, education, and literature It was still the native language of Rome in 500, but Greek was already the native tongue in Constantinople Latin was soon nobody’s native language but everybody’s common channel of communication The Middle Ages were the time of Latin book production, Latin schooling, and Latin liturgy in the church Lectures at the new universities of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford were taught in Latin viii Introduction It was the age of monasteries and the high-water mark of the Roman Catholic Church’s influence The Rule of Saint Benedict spread all over Europe Both monasteries and convents dotted all regions thickly; they owned much of the land Monks hand copied books and painted fanciful scenes and animals in the margins Pilgrims venerated relics and donated to saints’ shrines, and enormous cathedrals rose at these sites Monastic choirs sang Latin plainchant under stone vaults and stained glass windows The governing system of medieval Europe was the Franks’ feudalism Designed as a way to create mini-kingdoms to support armed knights, feudalism assigned all land to men loyal to the king Everyone who lived on the land was assigned to support these nobles with their labor, keeping only enough of their produce to live on Towns began to grow, and peasants moved to the towns, but they needed to buy their freedom first, and towns had to be chartered by the king or count as free of feudal obligations International commerce and technology grew within these free towns, but the countryside remained chained to feudalism The end of the Middle Ages was when, within a century, all these trends came to an end By 1350, the Black Death plague had wiped out at least one-third of Europe’s population, and feudalism stopped making sense not long after By 1381, England’s peasants staged a revolt Gunpowder was coming into use around the same time, during the Hundred Years’ War, and, by 1400, cannons were the key siege weapon Armor and castles were quickly obsolete, and the arts of the knight became simply a rich man’s sport Restlessness and disillusionment from plague, famine, and war brought out dissent within the church, and the early Reformation came in the form of Lollards and Hussites Latin was no longer anyone’s native tongue, and reformers wanted the Bible to be in the vulgar languages, as secular books now were Pilgrimages, monasteries, and relics lost influence, and many were destroyed in the 16th century The modern world was being born The key date for the end of the Middle Ages is 1453—the fall of Constantinople to an army of Muslim Turks The early Middle Ages had seen the fall of Rome and the birth of Islam; the period closed with a Muslim army triumphant in the remaining Roman capital Gunpowder had breached the invincible walls Scholars, artisans, and priests fled Constantinople as Roman scholars, artisans, and priests had fled Rome They brought the learning of Greece back to Europe, and Europe’s culture transitioned into the period we call the Renaissance ix Index Fireplaces, 98, 375, 376, 424 –25 Firewood, 264 First Crusade, 188–89, 416, 561 Fish and fishing, 240– 46; catching and farming fish, 241– 43; climate, 137; fasts, 232, 233; food, 252; preserving fish, 243– 46; ships and boats, 643 See also Food; Salt; Ships and boats Fish farms, 242, 243 Flagellants, 572 Flanders: cloth, 146; drama, 211–12; fairs, 229, 231; minstrels and troubadours, 498; pottery, 581–82; tapestry, 681; weights and measures, 738 Flax, 148 Fleas, 574 –75 Floor tiles, 79–80 Florence: cathedrals, 112–13; cities, 126; funerals, 271–72; holidays, 349–50 Flowers, 290–92 See also Gardens Flutes, 526 Flyball governors, 460 Flying buttresses, 110, 112 Flywheels, 459, 578 Folk drama, secular, 204 –6 Food, 246–60; animals as source of, 250–52; aristocracy, 255–57; babies, 45; beggars, 58–59; cities, 129; cooking methods, 253–54; fasts, 232; feasts, 235–37; grains and vegetables, 247–50; guilds, 305–6; holidays, 342– 43, 346, 348; Jews, 410; medicine, 479–80; monasteries, 508; Muslims, 533; plague, 573; poison, 576, 577–78; preservation, 253; regional differences, 257–59; salt, 619, 622; staple foods of peasant and town, 254 –55; taverns and inns, 685 See also Beverages; Fasts; Feasts; Kitchen utensils; Spices and sugar Foot treadles, 459, 460 Forehead, high, 186, 321 Forests, 260–65; Hood, Robin, 351, 352; hunting, 261–62; lumber and firewood, 262, 264 See also Hood, Robin; Hunting Fountains, 288, 713, 715, 716 See also Gardens; Water Fourth Crusade, 190 Foxes, 21 France: beverages, 66–67, 68–69; bridges, 83; castles, 93, 98; cities, 126, 127–28; dance, 202; fairs, 229–31; food, 259; Jews, 417–18; knights, 427–28; minstrels and troubadours, 496, 499; music, 518–19; pottery, 581; roads, 610; stone and masons, 675; tapestry, 681 Franciscan friars, 506–7 Francis of Assisi, Saint, 343, 345, 506 Franks: church, 115; coins, 174 –75; glass, 295; horses, 355–56; records, 596; weapons, 723; weddings, 726 Frederick II, Emperor, 539, 750 French lessons, 627 Fresco, 553–54 See also Painting Fritware, 580 Fruits, 249, 257, 288–89 Frumenty, 257 Fulling, 154 –55 Funerals, 265–72; atypical burials, 270–72; lead and copper, 444; medicine, 482; plague, 572; records, 600; typical burials, 266–70 See also Church; Plague Fur, 231 Furlong, 738 Furniture, 44, 272–76, 508 See also Houses; Kitchen utensils Galen, 478, 487–88, 489 Galleys, 648, 652–53 Galoshes, 655 Gambling, 279, 585–86 777 Index Games, 279–84; athletic games and contests, 281–83; children’s toys, 283; gambling and board games, 279–81; taverns and inns, 686 See also Babies; Tournaments Garbage See Latrines and garbage Gardcorps, 162 Gardens, 284 –94; cities, 128; gardening methods, 292–94; houses, 372; plants, 289–92; types, 284 –89 See also Food Garderobes, 439 Gargoyles, 112, 633–35 Garters, 169 Gates, castle, 96 Gears, 459 Gems See Jewelry Genoa, Italy: houses, 376–77; plague, 569; servants and slaves, 640 Geoffrey of Monmouth, 34 –35 Geoffroi, de Charny, 431, 433 Geography (Ptolemy), 471, 476 George, Saint, 513 Gerbert of Aurillac, 538 Germany: alphabet, 13; armor, 25; beverages, 65; coins, 176; dance, 200; glass, 296; Jews, 408; knights, 427–28, 435–36; plague, 572; pottery, 584; ships and boats, 653 Gest of Robyn Hode, 351, 353 Gingerbread, 674 Giotto, 546, 548 Girdles, 161–62, 169–71 Gisarme, 719 Glaciers, 137, 139 Glass, 294 –301; vessels, 295–96; windows, 296, 298–300 See also Cathedrals Gloves, 168 See also Clothing accessories Goats, 19 Godparents, 43 Gold and silver, 301–5; armor, 25; coins, 172, 173–74; embroidery, 218–19; goldsmiths, 302, 303–5; 778 guilds, 308, 310; jewelry, 401; painting, 545, 546, 552; weights and measures, 737 See also Coins; Jewelry; Painting Golf, 281 Good Friday, 347 Gothic grotesque sculpture, 633–36 Gothic script, 12–13 Gothic style: cathedrals, 108–12; sculpture, 631–33 Government records, 596–99 Gowns, 164 –65 Grain, 247 Grammar schools, 623, 626–27 Graves and cemeteries, 122, 265, 269, 286, 571 Great Conduit, 716–17 Great Schism, 117 Greek fire, 670 Green pigment, 551–52 Greyhounds, 380, 381 Grindstones, 460 Guibert, 602 Guilds, 305–11; activities, 306–9; apprentices, 309–11; armor, 25; beekeeping, 56–57; church, 123; clocks, 143; clothing, 167; funerals, 266; gold and silver, 303; kitchen utensils, 423; lights, 448; pottery, 582; seals, 636; tapestry, 681; wagons and carts, 710–11 Guitars, 524 –25 Gunmetal, 443 Gunpowder, 311–15, 429, 666, 670 See also Sieges; Weapons Gutenberg, Johann, 586–88 Gutenberg Bible, 586, 588 Hair, 319–23; hygiene, 389, 390; men’s styles, 321–23; women’s styles, 319–21 See also Cosmetics; Hats Hairnets, 156 Hair shirts, 155 Halberds, 720 Index Halls, guild, 308 Hanseatic League, 245– 46, 647, 650, 653 Hares, 252, 379 Harlech Castle, 99 Harmony, 517, 518 Harnesses, 707 Harps, 520, 522–23 Harpsichords, 522 Harrows, Hats, 324 –32; hair, 323; Jews, 408; men’s styles, 327–32; minstrels and troubadours, 497; pilgrims, 562; universities, 704; women’s styles, 324 –27 See also Clothing; Hair Hauberks, 28, 30 Hawks, 383, 384, 385 Head-rails, 324 –25 Heaven, 121 Hebrew alphabet, 13 Hedges, 285 Helena, 560, 606 Hell, 121 Helmets, 27–28 Helms, 696 Hemlock, 576 Hennins, 327 Heraldry, 332– 40; heraldic designs, 335– 40; heralds, 334 –35; jewelry, 404; monsters, 512; seals, 636 See also Knights; Seals Heralds, 334 –35 Herbers, 286–87 Herbs: beverages, 63; cosmetics, 185; gardens, 290, 291, 293; magic, 463, 465, 468; medicine, 482, 483; spices and sugar, 671–72, 673 See also Gardens Hereford Cathedral, 472 Herring, 240– 41, 244 – 45, 246 Hierarchy, church, 116–19 High tables, 237, 239 Hives, bee, 53–54 Hoardings, 96 Hock, 348 Holidays, 340–50; autumn and winter, 341– 46; calendar, 87, 88, 89, 90; church, 123; feasts, 234; schools, 627; spring and summer, 346–50 See also Calendar; Feasts; specific holidays Holy Communion, 119–20 Holy Innocents’ Day, 343, 345 Holy Land Crusades, 188–92 Holy Land maps, 473, 475 Honey: beekeeping, 53, 55, 56–57; food, 255; medicine, 483 Honeycombs, 53, 55 Hood, Robin, 350–54; drama, 206; forests, 261–62; holidays, 348; minstrels and troubadours, 497 See also Drama; Forests Hoods, 326, 327–28, 330, 331 Hops, 65 Horizontal counter-balance looms, 151–53 Horizontal-wheel mills, 490 Horlogium, 141– 42 Horns, 381–82 Horse collars, 358 Horses, 354 –63; animals, 17; armor, 32; equipment, 361–63; knights, 427, 430; in peacetime, 358–61; plows, 6; roads, 610; ships and boats, 650; tournaments, 692, 695, 696, 697; wagons and carts, 709, 710; in war, 354, 355–58 See also Agriculture; Knights Horseshoes, 358, 361 Hose, 161, 164, 655–56 Hospitals, 363–70; Constantinople, 132; gardens, 286; general hospitals, 364 –68; knights, 435; lepers, care of, 368–70; lights, 451; medicine, 477; Venice, 133 See also Hygiene; Medicine; Monasteries Houpelands, 164, 331 Hourglasses, 140– 41, 179–80 Houses, 370–77; cities, 128; Jews, 409–10; latrines and garbage, 439; lights, 448– 49, 450–51; 779 Index London, 134; Paris, 135–36 See also Bricks and tiles; Castles; Furniture; Gardens Hulks, 647– 48 Hungary Water, 187 Hunting, 377–86; falconry, 383–85; forests, 261–62; Hood, Robin, 351–52; horses, 356; shoes, 656; venery, 380–83; weapons, 718 See also Animals; Weapons Hygiene, 386–90; cosmetics, 184; feasts, 239; kitchen utensils, 423; monasteries, 508 Ice skating, 283 Ides, 89, 90 Illuminated manuscripts, 74, 75, 76, 635 Incantations, 464 Indoor plants, 292 Indulgences, 121, 233, 251, 586 Infection, 481–82, 484 –85 Infrastructure, 131, 133 Ink See Pens and ink Inkwells, 559 Innocent III, Pope, 192–93 Inns See Taverns and inns Insects, 293 Insular majuscule script, Interdiction, 120 Interludes, 206 Iron, 393–96; armor, 31–32; forests, 264; locks and keys, 453; wagons and carts, 707 See also Armor; Coal; Tools Iron gall ink, 559 Irrigation, 6–8 Islam See Muslims Italy: banks, 48, 49; beekeeping, 54 –55; cathedrals, 112–13; cities, 125, 126, 127; cloth, 146– 47, 150; coins, 174; dance, 202; food, 258–59; hair, 321, 323; hats, 327; houses, 376–77; hygiene, 386; irrigation, 7; knights, 428; latrines and 780 garbage, 442; music, 519; plague, 569–70; pottery, 580–81; records, 599–600; roads, 610, 612; sculpture, 632–33; servants and slaves, 639, 640; universities, 701, 703; water, 712–13, 714, 715, 716; weddings, 732–33; zoos, 750 See also specific cities Itinerary from Bordeaux to Jerusalem, 473 Jennets, 360 Jesters, 496, 497 Jesus, relics of, 607 Jewelry, 399– 407; crowns, brooches, necklaces, and rings, 403–6; early medieval, 401–3; ecclesiastical, 406–7; gemstones and beads, 399– 401; magic, 465 See also Clothing; Gold and silver; Relics Jewish Quarter, 408 Jews, 408–19; banks, 46, 48; beverages, 66; calendar, 90; communities, 410–12; hats, 328; houses, 409–10; persecution, 415–19; plague, 571; schools, 413–14, 629; women, 412–13; work, 414 –15 See also Crusades; Medicine Jingle bells, 170–71 Joan of Arc, 744 Jongleurs See Minstrels and troubadours Jousting, 692, 695, 697 Julian calendar, 87, 90 Keeper of the Fair, 227, 229 Kempe, Margery, 561, 602 Kennels, royal, 381 Keyboard instruments, 521–22 Keys See Locks and keys Khayyam, Omar, 538 Khwarizmi, Al-, 537–38 Kilns, 78, 579 King of heralds, 334 –35 Index Kings: castles, 91–92, 100–101; cathedrals, 102, 103; fairs, 227; feasts, 234; funerals, 269; knights, 426–27; medicine, 480, 481–82; minstrels and troubadours, 497–98; poison, 576, 577–78; records, 598; roads, 610–11; seals, 636, 638; zoos, 749–50 Kitchens, 374 Kitchen utensils, 50, 253, 254, 423–26 See also Barrels and Buckets; Food Knarrs, 646 Knights, 426–36; Arthur, King, 36; becoming a knight, 430–33; castles, 91; courtly manners, 433–34; fairs, 227, 229; games, 282; heraldry, 332; horses, 356–58, 362; monastic knights, 434 –36; pilgrims, 564; sieges, 660; tournaments, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696–97; weapons, 718 See also Armor; Crusades; Tournaments; Weapons Knights errant, 429, 430, 434, 692 Knights of the Hospital, 364, 434, 435 Knights of the Temple, 46, 194, 357–58, 434 Knitting, 155 Krak des Chevaliers, 98–99 Ladders, 661, 664, 677 Lamellar armor, 30 Lammas Day, 350 Lamps See Lights Lances, 696–97, 718–19 Lanterns, 375 Lapidaries, 465 Lateen sails, 649, 652 Latin alphabet, 9–13 Latin language, 625, 626–27, 629 Latrines and garbage, 439– 43; funerals, 272; garbage, 441– 43; latrines, 439– 41; monasteries, 508; schools, 626; Venice, 133 See also Water Latten, 443 Laundry, 158–59, 390 Law, in universities, 701, 703, 704 Lawsuits, 598–99 Lead and copper, 443– 45; bells, 61; locks and keys, 453; painting, 550, 551; pottery, 578; seals, 638; water, 712–13 See also Iron Leather: fairs, 231; shoes, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658–59 “Leechbook of Bald” (Bald), 486–87 Leg armor, 31 Legumes, 249 Lent: fasts, 232–33; food, 251, 252, 257; holidays, 346 Leonardo of Pisa, 539– 40 Lepers: beggars, 57; holidays, 346; hospitals, 364, 368–70; medicine, 482 Letters of credit, 47 Lettuce, 249 Lever-based machines, 668 Libraries, 445– 48 See also Books; Parchment and Paper; Printing Lighthouses, 181, 183 Lights, 133, 448–52 See also Houses Linen, 148 See also Cloth Lions, in heraldry, 338 Liripipes, 328, 330, 331 Literacy, 622, 741 Little Ice Age, 136–37, 139 Little Optimum Period See Medieval Warm Period Liturgical calendar, 88 Livery, 308 Locks and keys, 394, 453–55 London: bridges, 82–83, 83–84; cities, 127–28, 133–35; latrines and garbage, 441; shoes, 655, 656, 657; water, 716–17; weights and measures, 735, 737; zoos, 749–50 London Bridge, 83–84 Longbows, 723–24 781 Index Longships, 644 – 46 Looms, 151–53, 682–33 Lost-wax technique, 59, 60–61, 444 Louis VII, King, 727 Louis IX, King, 606, 607 Louvers, 374 –75 Lower tables, 237–38, 239 Lumber, 262, 264 Luster painting, 579 Lutes, 525 Luttrell Psalter, 75–76 Lymers, 380 Lyres, 522 Maces, 723 Machicolations, 96 Machines, 459–62 See also Clocks; Mills; Tools Magic, 462–70; astrology and alchemy, 466–67; jewelry, 399; natural, 462, 463–66, 468; occult, 462–63, 467–70 Magna Carta, 261, 351, 598 Magnets, 461, 468 Mail armor, 28–30 Maimonides, Moses, 416–17, 488 Maiolica pottery, 581 Majuscule writing, Mallory, Thomas, 35–36 Mankind, 211 Manners, 237– 40, 433–34 Manor houses, 372, 374, 375 Mantles, 161, 166 Manure, 5, 19, 292, 441 Manuscript books, 72–77 Manuscripts, illuminated, 74, 75, 76, 635 Maps, 470–76; classical tradition, 470–71; late medieval sea and land maps, 475–76; mappae mundi, 471–73; pilgrims, 564; road maps, 473–75 See also Compass and navigation; Roads Marbles, 283 Marian, Maid, 348, 353 Marks, guild, 306 782 Marriage, 726–28, 739– 40 See also Weddings Marshaling the arms, 333 Marshals, 361 Martyrs, 608, 617 Mary (mother of Jesus), 607–8, 618, 619, 632–33 Masons See Stone and masons Mass: church, 119–20; holidays, 343, 347, 348; music, 517 Master masons: castles, 100; cathedrals, 106, 107; stone and masons, 675, 676, 677 Mastiffs, 380 Mathematics, 627 See also Numbers Maundy Thursday, 346 May Day, 206, 348, 353 Mead, 62 Measurement See Weights and measures Meat, 257, 672–73 Mechanical clocks, 142– 46 Medicine, 476–89; animals, 16; diet, balanced, 479–80; diseases, 480–82; faith in, 477–78; food, 257; gardens, 286, 291; hospitals, 365; Jews, 414 –15; magic, 463, 464; monasteries, 508, 510; Muslims, 533; plague, 570–71; remedies, 482–85; saints, 619; schools, 486–89; spices and sugar, 673–74; surgery, 485–86, 488; theory, 478–79; training, 486–89; universities, 701, 703; women, 744 See also Hospitals; Plague Medieval Warm Period, 3, 139; climate, 136 Mediterranean region: cathedrals, 112–13; coins, 176–77; forests, 260; ships and boats, 642– 43, 648–52 Melees, 692, 695 Memorial chapels, 269–70 Memorial plaques, 596 Men: clothing, 160–61, 162, 163–64, 165, 166; hair, 321–23; hats, Index 327–32; jewelry, 399, 405; Jews, 414 See also Women Menageries See Zoos Menagier de Paris, Le, 604 Mercury, 304, 461–62 Merino sheep, 18 Merrills, 280 Milking buckets, 50 Millefleurs tapestry, 682 Mills, 489–94; food, 247; machines, 459, 460; parchment and paper, 556, 557; water, 490–92; windmills, 492–94 See also Machines Mining, 665–66 Minstrels and troubadours, 494 –503; Arthur, King, 34 –35; dance, 200; drama, 212; fairs, 229; hats, 331; minstrels and jongleurs, 494, 495–98; music, 520, 521, 522; troubadours, 495, 499–503 See also Feasts; Music Mints, 173, 174 –75 Minuscule script, Miracle plays, 207, 629 Miracles, 617 Mirrors, 390 Missionaries, 114 –16 Miters, 406 Mittens, 168 Mohammed, 258, 528–29 Moldboard plows, 3– Molds, gold and silver, 304 Monasteries, 503–11; animals, 18; bells, 59, 61; beverages, 64, 66, 67, 68–69; books, 72, 73; bricks and tiles, 77, 79; bridges, 82; church, 119; clocks, 140, 141– 42; cloth, 147; fasts, 232–33; fish and fishing, 242; funerals, 266; gardens, 284, 285, 286, 290; hospitals, 364; hygiene, 386; iron, 394; knights, 434 –36; latrines and garbage, 440; lead and copper, 445; libraries, 446– 47; life in the cloister, 507–11; medicine, 477; monastic orders, 504 –7; pilgrims, 563, 565; records, 601–2; relics, 607, 609; saints, 617, 618; seals, 636; water, 712–13; women, 742– 44 See also Church Monkeys, 20 Monks: church, 114; funerals, 266, 268; gold and silver, 302; hair, 322; hats, 328; holidays, 347, 348; Hood, Robin, 353; hospitals, 365; hygiene, 386; saints, 617 See also Church; Monasteries Monsters, 15–16, 338–39, 512–16 See also Animals Morality plays, 210–11 Morris (game), 280 Morris dancing, 203 Morte d’Arthur, Le (Mallory), 35–36 Mottoes, 333, 406 Mounts, 170 Mumming, 203, 205, 343, 346 Music, 516–28; instruments, 520–27; keyboard instruments, 521–22; minstrels and troubadours, 496–97, 499–500, 502–3; notation, 519; percussion instruments, 526–27; plainchant, 517; polyphony, 518, 527; secular, 518–19; string instruments, 522–23; wind instruments, 525–26 See also Dance; Minstrels and troubadours Muslims, 528–34; beverages, 66; calendar, 90–91; Europe, 529–32; food, 258; horses, 355; influence on Europe, 532–34; medicine, 488; numbers, 537–38; origins of, 528–29; pilgrims, 561; pottery, 579–80; relics, 606; weapons, 722–23 See also Jews Mystery plays, 207, 629 Names, 43– 44 Navigation See Compass and navigation Necklaces, 405 Necromancy, 469–70 783 Index Needles, embroidery, 217 Nefs, 648 Nets, fishing, 241 Netting, cloth, 156 New Year’s Eve, 345 Niello, 304 Niña (ship), 652 Ninth Crusade, 191–92 Nones, 89 Norse ships, 644 – 46 Notarial records, 599–601 Numbers, 537– 41, 627 See also Banks Nuns: jewelry, 407; monasteries, 511; schools, 629; women, 742– 44 See also Church; Monasteries Nut trees, 250 Oblates, 510 Oil lamps, 452 Oliphaunts, 525, 612 Olive oil, 259 Olives, 250 Open field farming, 3– Opus Majus (Bacon), 223 Orchards, 288–89 Order of the Hospital, 364, 434, 435 Order of the Temple, 46, 194, 357–58, 434 Ordinaries, 337–38 Organistrum, 524 Orphans, marriage of, 730–31 Otters, 379 Outdoor drama productions, 208–9 Outhouses, 439 Ovens, 254 Oxford, England, 701, 703, 704 Pageants, 205–6 Pages, 431 Painting, 545–54; clothing, 156, 157; glass, 299–300; gold and silver, 304 –5; mechanics of, 548–54; records, 596 See also Books; Sculpture Palfreys, 359 784 Palm Sunday, 346 Pan balances, 735 Panpipes, 526 Paper See Parchment and paper Paper mills, 604 Parchment and paper, 554 –57; banks, 49; books, 72–73, 75, 76; printing, 588–89; seals, 637–38; stone and masons, 677 See also Books; Pens and ink; Printing Paris: cities, 135–36; latrines and garbage, 442; minstrels and troubadours, 496; plague, 570; universities, 701, 703, 704 Paris, Matthew, 473–75 Parkers, 262, 264 Parks, 262, 285 Parti-colored fashion, 164, 166 Partition lines, 337 Pasta, 258–59 Pattens, 655 Peace of God, 428, 429 Pearls, 400 Peasant folk dance, 201, 202–3 Pellandes, 165 Penance, 120–21 Penitential books, 601 Penknives, 559 Pens and ink, 73, 557–60, 588 See also Books; Parchment and paper Pentecost, 349 Pepper, 672, 674 Percussion instruments, 526–27 Perfume, 184 –85, 187 Perpetual motion, 460–61 Perriers, 668 Perugia, Italy, 716 Pets, 19–21 Peutinger Table, 473 Pewter, 443– 44, 445 Philip the Fair, King, 46 Philip II, King, 135 Phoenix, 514 Physiologus, 14, 515 Pickling, 244 – 45, 258 Index Piepowder Courts, 227–28 “Piers Plowman,” 351 Pig iron, 395 Pigs, 17–18, 250 Pikes, 719–20 Pilgrims, 560–65; cathedrals, 108; jewelry, 407; lead and copper, 445; maps, 473; monasteries, 510; plague, 572; relics, 606, 609; taverns and inns, 686 See also Church; Relics; Saints Pinta (ship), 652 Pipe keys, 454 Pipes, water, 712–13 Pirates, 646, 647 Pitchers, 584 Place value (numbers), 538 Plague, 565–76; Black Death, 566–68; causes, 574 –76; church, 123; clothing, 158; dance, 203; effect on society, 572–74; funerals, 271, 272; hospitals, 367, 368; Jews, 417–18; latrines and garbage, 441; medicine, 481, 482, 484 –85; Plague of Justinian, 566; records, 600; sculpture, 632; spread through Europe, 569–70; symptoms, 568–69; treatment and prevention, 570–71 See also Medicine Plague of Justinian, 566 Plainchant, 517 Plants, 289–92, 339 Plaques, memorial, 596 Plate armor, 31–32 Playing cards, 279, 585–86 Plays See Drama Plows, 3–6 See also Agriculture Plucking, 186, 321 Plumb bobs, 688, 689 Pneumonic plague, 568 Pockets, 166–67, 168 Poison, 418, 483, 576–78 See also Food Polearms, 718–19 Polo, 361 Polo, Marco, 475, 476, 514 –15 Polyphony, 518, 527 Pomanders, 485 Ponds, 242, 288 Popes: church, 116–17, 121; food, 251; knights, 435; pilgrims, 565; records, 598; saints, 617; seals, 638 See also Church Porridge, 253 Portatives, 521 Port of London, 735, 737 Portolan sea charts, 183, 475 Post-mills, 493–94 Potter’s wheels, 578 Pottery, 578–85; European, 580–84; Islamic techniques, 579–80; sculpture, 630 See also Bricks and tiles; Kitchen utensils Poulaines, 657, 658 Poultry, 18, 252 Practica Chirurqerie (Roger of Salerno), 488 Practical books, 71 Preservation, food, 243– 46, 253 Pride of Life, The, 211 Priests: church, 118–19, 122; holidays, 347; hospitals, 365; jewelry, 407; plague, 574 See also Church Printing, 556, 585–89 See also Books; Parchment and paper Prisons, 92, 93, 590–91 See also Cities Probability, 412 Prostitutes, 134 –35, 590, 686 Psaltery, 523 Ptolemy, 471, 476 Purgatory, 121 Purple pigment, 552 Purses, 168–69 Pyres, funeral, 265 Quadrants, 180–81 Quilting, 220 Quintise, 163 Quoits, 281 785 Index Rabbis, 412, 413 See also Jews Rabbits, 19–20 Races, horse, 360 Ragusa, 640 Rams, 663, 664 Ransoms, 692 Rats, 574 –75 Reading: food, 255; schools, 622, 625, 629; women, 741 Rebec, 523 Recipes, 256 Records, 595–605; biographies and literature, 602– 4; business and church, 601–2; climate, 137; funerals, 265, 266; government, 596–99; heraldry, 335; personal wills and notarial accounts, 599–601; plague, 566, 568, 569; visual images, 596 See also Books; Painting; Parchment and paper Recycling, 442, 595 Red tint, 550 Reims Cathedral, 109, 632 Relics, 605–10; jewelry, 402, 407; magic, 468; medicine, 478; pilgrims, 563; records, 601–2; saints, 617–18 See also Cathedrals; Church; Pilgrims; Saints Religious drama, 123, 206–10 Reliquaries, 402, 406, 407, 605–6 Reservoirs, 713 Ribbed vaults, 110 Rings, 405–6 Rings, signet, 636–37 Rissoles, 257 Roads, 610–12; cities, 128; maps, 473–75; Paris, 135 See also Bridges; Wagons and carts Robbia, Luca, 632–33 Robes, 161, 162 Rock salt, 622 Roger of Salerno, 488 Roland, Song of, 497, 525, 612–14 Roman Catholic Church: banks, 45; church, 114, 115–16–119, 786 124; fish and fishing, 240; Jews, 415–16; pilgrims, 565; servants and slaves, 639; weddings, 726–27 See also Church Romances, 497 Romanesque style: cathedrals, 103–8; sculpture, 631 Roman numerals, 537, 540 Rome, 125 Roofing materials, 371, 372 Roof tiles, 79 Rosaries, 405, 406–7 Roses, 290, 339, 390 Rotary keys, 454 Rotta lyres, 522 Rough masons, 675, 676–77 Rounceys, 359 Round dance, 199 Round tables, 274 Rubrication, 73–74, 75 Rule of Saint Augustine, 504, 505 Rule of Saint Benedict, 477, 504, 509 Runes, 8–9, 464 Rushlights, 450 Sacraments, 119–20 Saddles, 362 Saffron, 673 Saint Anthony’s fire See Ergotism Saint Catherine’s Day, 342 Saint Denis Fair, 229 Saint John’s Day, 349–50 Saint Leonard’s Hospital, 367 Saint Martin’s Day, 342 Saint Michael’s Day, 341 Saints, 617–19; calendar, 87, 88; cathedrals, 102, 103; cities, 129; drama, 207; fairs, 228; holidays, 341; jewelry, 407; magic, 465, 466; medicine, 477–78; pilgrims, 560, 561, 563; records, 601–2, 604; relics, 605–9; tapestry, 681 See also Church; Pilgrims; Relics; specific saints Saint Stephen’s Day, 345 Index Saint Swithin’s Day, 350 Salt, 619–22; fish and fishing, 244 – 45; food, 253; poison, 578; pottery, 584 See also Food Saltpeter, 311 Sappers, 665–66 Satin, 149 Sauces, 256–57 Saws, 689 Scaffolds, 208, 209, 677, 691 Scale, musical, 517 Schools, 622–30; Jews, 413–14; medical training, 486–89; minstrels and troubadours, 496; monasteries, 510; plague, 574; women, 741, 743, 744 See also Alphabet; Universities Scissor-chairs, 273 Scops, 495 Scribes: books, 72, 73, 74 –75, 76; libraries, 446; pens and ink, 559 Scrolls, 445– 46 Sculpture, 630–36; cathedrals, 106, 109, 112; Gothic grotesque, 633–36; Gothic style, 631–33; records, 596; Romanesque style, 631 See also Cathedrals; Painting; Pottery; Stone and masons Sea charts, 183, 475 Seals, 334, 406, 636–39 See also Heraldry Sea monsters, 514 Second Crusade, 189 Secular folk drama, 204 –6 Secular music, 518–19 Secular schools, 624 Seeds, –5 Septicemic infection, 568–69 Sepulchers, 347, 348 Sermons, 602 Servants and slaves, 639– 42; feasts, 234, 235, 237, 239; monasteries, 511; plague, 573–74; poison, 577 Setters, 381 Seventh Crusade, 191 Sexual dysfunction, 485 Shaving, 321, 322, 323, 389 Shawms, 525–26 Sheds, 663, 666 Sheep, 18, 19, 250 Sheriffs, 353 Shields, 25–27, 335, 661 Ships and boats, 642–53; Baltic and North Atlantic ships, 644 – 48; boats, 642– 44; fish and fishing, 245, 246; funerals, 265; Mediterranean ships, 642– 43, 648–52; plague, 569; Venice, 132–33; war at sea, 652–53 See also Fish and fishing; Weapons Shoes, 653–60; making, 658–59; styles, 655–58 See also Clothing; Embroidery Shroud of Turin, 607 Shrovetide, 346 Shrove Tuesday, 232, 346 Shuttlecock, 281 Sieges, 660–71; armor, 27; ballistic machines, 667–71; castles, 100–102; climbing, ramming, and digging, 661–66; gunpowder, 313 See also Castles; Gunpowder; Weapons Siege towers, 664 –65 Silk, 148–50, 218, 321 See also Cloth Silver See Gold and silver Sin, 120–21 Sixth Crusade, 191 Skeleton keys, 455 Skin-whitening cosmetics, 185 Slaves See Servants and slaves Sleeves, detachable, 165 Sleight of hand, 462 Slide locks, 453 Slip painting, 579–80 Smithfield Fair, 359 Smoked food, 244, 253 Soap, 389 Soldiers, metal, 283 Song of Roland, 497, 525, 612–14 Sons, heraldry for, 339– 40 787 Index Sorcery, 468–69 Soundings, 181 Spain: cathedrals, 112; church, 115–16; coins, 177; food, 258; irrigation, 7–8; Jews, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414 –15, 416, 418; Muslims, 529–31, 533; pottery, 580; Roland, Song of, 612–13; weddings, 733 Spaniels, 381 Spears, 241 Spices and sugar, 671–74; beverages, 69; food, 255, 256, 257, 259; funerals, 270, 271; hygiene, 390; medicine, 480, 482, 483–85; servants and slaves, 641; sugar, 674; weights and measures, 737 See also Medicine Spinning, cloth, 150–51 Spinning wheels, 151, 459 Spring-driven clocks, 145– 46 Spurs, 362 Squires, 431, 696, 697 Staffs, musical, 519 Stained glass, 109, 298–300, 546 See also Glass Steam baths, 389 Steam machines, 461–62 Steel, 394 Steelyard balances, 735 Stirrups, 362 Stockfish, 243– 44 Stomachers, 166, 186 Stone and masons, 675–78; castles, 94 –95; cathedrals, 104, 105, 109, 113; guilds, 305, 306, 310; houses, 372; plague, 574; sculpture, 630; tools, 688–89, 690, 691 See also Tools Streets See Roads String musical instruments, 522–23 Sugar See Spices and sugar Suger, Abbot of Saint Denis, 108 Suicide, 269 Sulfur, 311 788 Sumptuary laws: clothing, 157, 158; Constantinople, 131; hair, 321; weddings, 733 Sun clocks, 140 Surcotes: armor, 30; clothing, 161, 162–64, 166, 167 Surgery, 485–86, 488 Süsskind, von Trimberg, 408 Sutton Hoo, 645 Sweeteners, 255 Sweets, 258, 674 Swords, 718 Sylvester, Pope, 467 Sylvester II, Pope, 538 Synagogues, 410–11 Tables, 237–38, 239, 274 Tablets, wax, 560 Tablet weaving, 155–56 Tabors, 526–27 Talismans, 465–66 Tally sticks, 49, 638 Tapestry, 681–84; castles, 97; embroidery, 220–21; gardens, 284, 285–86, 291–92; hair, 322; houses, 375; making, 682–84 See also Cloth; Embroidery Tarot cards, 279 Taverns and inns, 684 –87 See also Beverages; Pilgrims Templars, 46, 194, 357–58, 434 Tennis, 281 Tension engines, 667 Teutonic Knights, 435–36 Thatch, 371, 372 See also Houses Theology, in universities, 701, 703, 704 Theriac, 483 Third Crusade, 189–90 Third Pandemic, 574, 575 Thomas Becket, Saint, 608, 618 Thrones, 273 Tiles See Bricks and tiles Timbre, 527 Tippets, 165 Index T-O maps, 472–73 Tombs, 265 Tools, 687–91; gardens, 293; gold and silver, 303; guilds, 306; iron, 393, 394; shoes, 658 See also Stone and masons Tooth care, 185–86, 390 Tops, spinning, 283 Torah scrolls, 409–10, 411 Torches, 449–50 Torsion springs, 667–68 Tournaments, 691–98; equipment, 696–98; fairs, 229; games, 282; knights, 429; medicine, 485–86 See also Armor; Horses; Knights; Weapons Tower keeps, 93, 94, 95 Tower of London, 98, 749–50 Toys, 283, 461, 462 See also Games Trademarks, 334 Traps, 241, 378 Trebuchets, 668–70 Trees See Forests Trenchers, 238 Trotula, 744 Troubadours See Minstrels and troubadours Truce of God, 428 True Cross, 606 Trumpets, 525 Tuberculosis, 481–82 Tunics, 160–61 Tunnels, 666 Turin, Shroud of, 607 Tweezers, 186 Twelfth Night, 345 Uncial script, Undergarments, 165 Unicorns: gardens, 291–92; monsters, 514 –16; poison, 577–78; tapestry, 291–92, 682 See also Monsters Uniforms, work, 167 Universities, 701– 4; libraries, 447– 48; medicine, 486, 487, 489; plague, 574 See also Books; Schools Urban (metal worker), 313 Urban VI, Pope, 117 Utensils See Kitchen utensils Vegetables, 248– 49, 288, 289–90 Veils, 319, 324 –25, 325–26, 327 Vellum, 554 –55 Velvet, 150 Venery, 377, 380–83 Venice: cities, 132–33; holidays, 348– 49; pilgrims, 564; salt, 620; ships and boats, 648 Verge escapement, 144 Vertical looms, 151 Vertical wheels, 491 Vessels, glass, 295–96 Veterinary medicine, 16–17 Vikings, 26, 27, 644 – 46, 649 Villard, de Honnecourt, 460–61 Vineyards, 66–67, 68 Visigoths, 529–30 “Visitation, The” (Robbia), 632–33 Visual images, as records, 596 Wagons and carts, 208–9, 610, 707–11 See also Horses; Roads Walls: bricks and tiles, 79–80; gardens, 285; houses, 375; painting, 553–54; stone and masons, 677 War: castles, 100–102; horses in, 354, 355–58; ships and boats, 646, 648, 652–53 Washing, 158–59, 390, 410 See also Hygiene Washstands, 386, 387 Water, 712–17; beverages, 62, 64; castles, 97; latrines and garbage, 439, 440, 442– 43; lead and copper, 445; monastic systems, 712–13; secular systems, 713–17 See also Beverages; Hygiene; Latrines and Garbage Water clocks, 141– 42 789 Index Water mills, 242– 43, 394 Wattle and daub construction, 370–71, 372 Wax, 53, 56, 450, 638 Wax tablets, 560 Weapons, 717–25; axes and clubs, 723; bows, 723–25; iron, 393, 394; knights, 430, 431; ships and boats, 652; spears, 718–20; swords, 720–23; tournaments, 692, 695, 696–97 See also Armor; Gunpowder; Hunting Weaving, 151–53 Weddings, 725–33; ceremonies, 731–33; consent, difficulties of, 728–31; heraldry, 335; Jews, 412–13; marriage and divorce, 726–28; minstrels and troubadours, 497 See also Feasts; Women Weights and measures, 734 –39; coins, 172–73; fairs, 228, 231; volume and length, 737–38; weights, 734 –37 See also Barrels and buckets; Coins Wells, 713–14, 715 Wet coopers, 51–52 Whales, 240 Wharves, 643– 44 Wheels: machines, 459; potter’s, 578; spinning, 151, 459; vertical, 491; wagons and carts, 707, 709 See also Wagons and carts Whiskey, 66 White pigment, 550 Whitsun, 349 Widows, 741 Wild animals, 21–22 790 William of Aquitaine, Duke, 500 William the Conqueror, King, 596 Wills, 267–68, 599, 600 Wimples, 325, 326 Winchester Cathedral, 521 Winchester College, 624 Wind instruments, 525–26 Windows, 296, 298–300, 371 See also Glass Wine See Beverages Wisdom, 211 Witchcraft, 468–69 Woad, 550–51 Wolves, 14 –15, 21, 379 Women, 739– 45; cloth, 146; clothing, 157, 161–62, 162–63, 164 –65, 166, 167; feasts, 238; hair, 319–21; hats, 324 –27; heraldry, 333; hospitals, 365, 366, 367; jewelry, 399, 405, 406; Jews, 412–13; knights, 434; magic, 467–68; minstrels and troubadours, 499, 502; monasteries, 506, 511; Muslims, 532; Paris, 136; prisons, 590; schools, 629; servants and slaves, 639, 640; tournaments, 692, 693, 694; weddings, 726 See also Babies; Men; Weddings Wool, 147– 48 Wrestling, 281 Writing tablets, 560 Yellow pigment, 551 Yeomen, 352–53 Yersinia pestis, 574 –75 Zero, 538, 540 Zoos, 749–51 See also Animals About the Author RUTH A JOHNSTON is an independent scholar with a research specialty in medieval literature and languages She is the author of A Companion to Beowulf (Greenwood, 2005) ...All Things Medieval All Things Medieval An Encyclopedia of the Medieval World Volume A–I Ruth A Johnston Copyright 2011 by Ruth A Johnston All rights reserved No part of this publication... modern world was being born The key date for the end of the Middle Ages is 1453—the fall of Constantinople to an army of Muslim Turks The early Middle Ages had seen the fall of Rome and the birth of. .. entertainment of a king’s parade of his private zoo—a menagerie of exotic animals? ?medieval townspeople enjoyed shows of more common animals Animal fighting was a very popular spectacle for medieval