ANCIENT EUROPE 8000 B.C – A.D 1000 ANCIENT EUROPE 8000 B.C – A.D 1000 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE BARBARIAN WORLD VOLUME I THE MESOLITHIC TO COPPER AGE (C 8000 – 2000 B.C.) Peter Bogucki & Pam J Crabtree Editors in Chief Ancient Europe 8000 B.C.–A.D 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World Peter Bogucki and Pam J Crabtree, Editors in Chief Copyright © 2004 by Charles Scribner’s Sons Charles Scribner’s Sons is an imprint of The Gale Group, Inc., a division of Thomson Learning, Inc Charles Scribner’s Sons™ and Thomson Learning™ are trademarks used herein under license ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage retrieval systems—without the written permission of the publisher For more information, contact Charles Scribner’s Sons An imprint of the Gale Group 300 Park Avenue South, 9th Floor New York, NY 10010 Or visit our Internet site at http://www.gale.com For permission to use material from this product, submit your request via Web at http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you may download our Permissions Request form and submit your request by fax or mail to: Permissions Department The Gale Group, Inc 27500 Drake Rd Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Permissions hotline: 248 699-8006 or 800 877-4253, ext 8006 Fax: 248 688-8074 or 800 762-4058 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Ancient Europe 8000 B.C.–A.D 1000 : encyclopedia of the Barbarian world / Peter Bogucki, Pam J Crabtree, editors p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-684-80668-1 (set : hardcover : alk paper) — ISBN 0-684-80669-X (vol 1) — ISBN 0-684-80670-3 (vol 2) — ISBN 0-684-31421-5 (e-book) Antiquities, Prehistoric—Europe—Encyclopedias Prehistoric peoples—Europe—Encyclopedias History, Ancient—Encyclopedias Europe—History—To 476—Encyclopedias Europe—History—392-814—Encyclopedias I Bogucki, Peter I II Crabtree, Pam J D62 A52 2004 936—dc22 2003015251 This title is also available as an e-book ISBN 0-684-31421-5 Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information Printed in the United States of America 10 EDITORIAL AND PRODUCTION STAFF Project Editor Alja Kooistra Collar Assisting Editors Cindy Clendenon, Shawn Corridor, Sharon Malinowski Copy Editors Marcia Merryman Means Lisa Dixon, Gretchen Gordon, Jeffrey J Hill, Jean Fortune Kaplan, Jane Marie Todd Proofreader Carol Holmes Indexer J Naomi Linzer Image Researcher Deanna Raso Senior Art Director Pamela Galbreath Imaging Lezlie Light, Leitha Etheridge-Sims, Mary Grimes, Dan Newell, Dave Oblender, Christine O’Bryan, Kelly A Quin, Denay Wilding Cartographer XNR Productions Line Illustrator GGS Information Services Composition Datapage Technologies International Manufacturing Wendy Blurton Senior Editor John Fitzpatrick Publisher Frank Menchaca CONTENTS VOLUME I ■ List of Maps xv Preface xvii Maps of Ancient Europe, 8000– 2000 B.C xix Chronology of Ancient Europe, 8000– 1000 B.C xxv List of Contributors xxix ■ 1: DISCOVERING BARBARIAN EUROPE Introduction (Peter Bogucki and Pam J Crabtree) Humans and Environments (I G Simmons) Origins and Growth of European Prehistory (Paul G Bahn) 14 The Nature of Archaeological Data (Pam J Crabtree and Douglas V Campana) 22 Tollund Man (Helle Vandkilde) 26 Survey and Excavation (Albert Ammerman) 29 Saltbæk Vig (Anne Birgitte Gebauer) 36 Dating and Chronology (Martin Bridge) 40 Archaeology and Environment (Petra Dark) 47 Settlement Patterns and Landscapes (John Bintliff) 55 Trade and Exchange (Robert H Tykot) 65 Status and Wealth (Peter S Wells) 72 Hochdorf (Peter S Wells) 79 Gender (Janet E Levy) 81 Ritual and Ideology (John Chapman) 90 Hjortspring (Peter S Wells) 99 Archaeology and Language (David W Anthony) 101 vii C O N T E N T S Warfare and Conquest (Lawrence H Keeley and Russell S Quick) 110 Maiden Castle (Niall Sharples) 118 ■ 2: POSTGLACIAL FORAGERS, 8000–4000 B.C Introduction (Peter Bogucki) Postglacial Environmental Transformation (Neil Roberts) The Mesolithic of Northern Europe (Peter Bogucki) Skateholm (Lars Larsson) Tybrind Vig (Søren H Andersen) The Mesolithic of Northwest Europe (Christopher Tolan-Smith) Mount Sandel (Peter C Woodman) Star Carr (Paul Mellars) The Mesolithic of Iberia (João Zilhão) Muge Shell Middens (João Zilhão) The Mesolithic of Upland Central and Southern Europe (Barbara Voytek) Iron Gates Mesolithic (Clive Bonsall) Franchthi Cave (Julie M Hansen) The Mesolithic of Eastern Europe (Marek Zvelebil) Oleneostrovskii Mogilnik (Marek Zvelebil) 123 126 132 140 141 144 151 153 157 164 167 175 179 183 192 201 204 211 218 226 ■ 3: TRANSITION TO AGRICULTURE, 7000–4000 B.C Introduction (Peter Bogucki) Crops of the Early Farmers (Julie M Hansen) Livestock of the Early Farmers (Nerissa Russell) First Farmers of Europe (Curtis Runnels) Achilleion (Ernestine S Elster) Last Hunters and First Farmers on Cyprus (Alan H Simmons) Transition to Farming in the Balkans (Mihael Budja) Obre (Mihael Budja) The Farming Frontier on the Southern Steppes (David W Anthony) Spread of Agriculture Westward across the Mediterranean (William K Barnett) Arene Candide (Peter Rowley-Conwy) Caldeirão Cave (João Zilhão) First Farmers of Central Europe (Lawrence H Keeley and Mark Golitko) Bruchenbrücken (Detlef Gronenborn) Bylany (Jonathan Last) Beginnings of Farming in Northwestern Europe (Anne Tresset) Neolithic Sites of the Orkney Islands (Peter Bogucki) Hambledon Hill (Roger Mercer) viii 229 233 240 242 248 253 255 259 266 269 273 281 283 A N C I E N T E U R O P E C O N T E N T S Transition to Farming along the Lower Rhine and Meuse (Leendert P Louwe Kooijmans) Transition to Agriculture in Northern Europe (Anne Birgitte Gebauer) Sarup (Niels H Andersen) Long Barrow Cemeteries in Neolithic Europe (Magdalena S Midgley) 286 293 301 304 ■ 4: CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURE, 5000–2000 B.C Introduction (Peter Bogucki) Early Metallurgy in Southeastern Europe (William A Parkinson) Early Copper Mines at Rudna Glava and Ai Bunar (William A Parkinson) Milk, Wool, and Traction: Secondary Animal Products (Nerissa Russell) Late Neolithic/Copper Age Southeastern Europe (William A Parkinson) Varna (Douglass W Bailey) Ovcharovo (Douglass W Bailey) Copper Age Cyprus (Edgar Peltenburg) Late Neolithic/Copper Age Eastern Europe (Malcolm Lillie) Domestication of the Horse (David W Anthony) Kolomischiina (Malcolm Lillie) Late Neolithic/Copper Age Central Europe (Sarunas Milisauskas) Brzes´c´ Kujawski (Peter Bogucki) Rondels of the Carpathians (Magdalena S Midgley) Neolithic Lake Dwellings in the Alpine Region (Jörg Schibler, Stefanie Jacomet, and Alice Choyke) The Iceman (Paul G Bahn) Arbon-Bleiche (Jörg Schibler, Stefanie Jacomet, and Alice Choyke) The Megalithic World (I G N Thorpe) Avebury (Caroline Malone) Barnenez (Serge Cassen) Boyne Valley Passage Graves (George Eogan) Trackways and Boats (Malcolm Lillie) Consequences of Farming in Southern Scandinavia (Magdalena S Midgley) Pitted Ware and Related Cultures of Neolithic Northern Europe (Marek Zvelebil) Ajvide (Peter Rowley-Conwy) Late Neolithic Italy and Southern France (Caroline Malone) Sion-Petit Chasseur (Marie Besse) The Neolithic Temples of Malta (Caroline Malone) Late Neolithic/Copper Age Iberia (Katina T Lillios) Los Millares (Robert Chapman) A N C I E N T E U R O P E 313 317 322 325 334 341 344 347 354 363 368 371 378 382 385 392 395 398 406 408 413 415 420 431 435 439 446 450 456 464 ix C O N T E N T S Corded Ware from East to West (Janusz Czebreszuk) 467 Bell Beakers from West to East (Janusz Czebreszuk) 476 VOLUME II ■ List of Maps xv Maps of Ancient Europe, 3000 B.C.– A.D 1000 xvii Chronology of Ancient Europe, 2000 B.C.– A.D 1000 xxiii ■ 5: MASTERS OF METAL, 3000–1000 B.C Introduction (Peter Bogucki) The Significance of Bronze (Mark Pearce) The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Temperate Southeastern Europe (H Arthur Bankoff) 12 The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Central Europe (Vajk Szeverenyi) 20 Spisˇsky´ Sˇtvrtok (Helle Vandkilde) 31 The Italian Bronze Age (Mark Pearce) 34 Poggiomarino (Francesco Menotti) 42 El Argar and Related Bronze Age Cultures of the Iberian Peninsula (Antonio Gilman) 45 Sardinia’s Bronze Age Towers (Emma Blake) 50 Bronze Age Britain and Ireland (Joanna Brück) 54 Stonehenge (Caroline Malone) 61 Flag Fen (Francis Pryor) 67 Irish Bronze Age Goldwork (Mary Cahill) 69 Bronze Age Scandinavia (Helle Vandkilde) 72 Bronze Age Coffin Burials (Helle Vandkilde) 80 Bronze Age Cairns (Helle Vandkilde) 82 Late Bronze Age Urnfields of Central Europe (Peter Bogucki) 86 Bronze Age Herders of the Eurasian Steppes (David W Anthony) 92 Bronze Age Transcaucasia (Laura A Tedesco) 101 Bronze Age Cyprus (A Bernard Knapp) 108 The Minoan World (David B Small) 116 Knossos (Louise Steel) 121 Mycenaean Greece (John Bintliff) 126 ■ 6: THE EUROPEAN IRON AGE, C 800 B.C.–A.D 400 Introduction (Pam J Crabtree) 137 x A N C I E N T E U R O P E C O N T E N T S Celts (Susan Malin-Boyce) Hallstatt and La Tène (Susan Malin-Boyce) Celtic Migrations (Susan Malin-Boyce) Germans (Peter S Wells) Oppida (John Collis) Manching (Susan Malin-Boyce) Hillforts (Barry Raftery) Origins of Iron Production (Michael N Geselowitz) Ironworking (Michael N Geselowitz) Coinage of Iron Age Europe (Colin Haselgrove) Ritual Sites: Viereckschanzen (Matthew L Murray) Iron Age Feasting (Bettina Arnold) La Tène Art (Barry Raftery) Iron Age Social Organization (Ian Ralston) Greek Colonies in the West (Peter S Wells) Vix (Peter S Wells) Greek Colonies in the East (Gocha R Tsetskhladze) Iron Age France (John Collis) Gergovia (John Collis) Iron Age Britain (Timothy Champion) Danebury (Barry Cunliffe) Iron Age Ireland (Bernard Wailes) Irish Royal Sites (Bernard Wailes) Iron Age Germany (Bettina Arnold) Kelheim (Peter S Wells) The Heuneburg (Bettina Arnold) Iberia in the Iron Age (Teresa Chapa) Etruscan Italy (Rae Ostman) Pre-Roman Iron Age Scandinavia (Sophia Perdikaris) Iron Age Finland (Deborah J Shepherd) Iron Age Poland (Przemys1aw Urban´czyk) Biskupin (A F Harding) Iron Age Ukraine and European Russia (Gocha R Tsetskhladze) Iron Age East-Central Europe (Peter S Wells) Iron Age Caucasia (Adam T Smith) Dark Age Greece (John Bintliff) 140 144 149 151 154 158 160 164 167 169 174 179 184 191 198 205 208 212 219 222 229 232 239 241 247 249 253 260 269 276 281 286 289 296 303 312 ■ 7: EARLY MIDDLE AGES/MIGRATION PERIOD Introduction (Pam J Crabtree) Emporia (John Moreland) Ipswich (Keith Wade) Viking Harbors and Trading Sites (Dan Carlsson) Dark Ages, Migration Period, Early Middle Ages (Pam J Crabtree) History and Archaeology (Genevieve Fisher) State Formation (Tina L Thurston) Trade and Exchange (Tina L Thurston) A N C I E N T E U R O P E 321 324 331 334 337 340 346 351 xi : C O N S E Q U E N C E S O F A G R I C U L T U R E , 0 – 0 triangular arrowheads Specific to Bell Beakers are stone archery plates that protected the wrist of the hand holding the bow It is a formally rich group of objects, often decorated, which consisted of both four-hole and two-hole types The so-called shaft straighteners were used to polish the arrow shaft They consisted of two stones, each of which had one flat surface with a single straight groove in it When the two stones were placed together with their grooved sides facing each other, an opening resulted through which it was possible to pull the shaft With Bell Beakers, cutting weapons, mainly daggers, first appeared in Europe These were commonly made of copper and their characteristic typology was uniform throughout the entire Bell Beaker area This type is described by the term “tanged dagger.” The fact that copper was used, a relatively soft metal, indicates that these had ceremonial rather than utilitarian uses In the northeast part of the Bell Beaker domain (from Jutland to the regions on the lower Vistula River) flint daggers were manufactured on a large scale An invention of Bell Beakers are the so-called dagger scepters or halberds, in which the metal edge similar to that of a dagger is mounted transversely on a wooden handle We know them from the British Isles and central Europe, and they are widely interpreted as insignia of authority and, more generally, symbols of high social rank Another metal product, the so-called Palmela points are known mainly in southwest Europe A single unequivocal explanation of their use has yet to be formulated The larger examples could have been used as daggers, while the smaller ones were definitely arrowheads Other objects of sheet metal (copper and gold) are also associated with Bell Beakers These are in the form of earrings (hair decorations), lunulae, and other less-frequently seen objects, such as flat axe heads, awls, or pins Buttons with a V-shaped opening were made from various materials, not only horn and bone but also from various semiprecious stones (e.g., jet) and amber They were of various shapes, but most commonly were round In the southwestern Bell Beaker area, buttons of the Tortuga type were also made 480 B C Both types of buttons are considered to have served as necklace beads, parts of headdresses, or as decorations sown onto garments Still another form of object specifically connected to the Bell Beakers are models of bows made from bone, horn, or boar tusks They are found mainly in central Europe and appear to have been connected to the religious sphere of life, a confirmation of the high regard given to bow hunting SPREAD AND REGIONAL DIFFERENTIATION The line that divides Europe into areas with and without beakers runs along the Vistula River south to the Moravian Gate, as far as the Central Danube in the vicinity of Budapest, then makes a wide curved turn to the shores of the Adriatic in the region of the Po River delta The area with Bell Beakers takes in not only a large part of Europe west of this line, but also parts of northern Africa in Algeria and Morocco This area is unevenly covered with Bell Beaker sites They are mostly found in settlement centers— places that have a long tradition of regional development, where settlements of prehistoric societies concentrated over many periods In the entire Bell Beaker domain there are no examples of sites being found in areas that had a marginal cultural significance in previous times There are dozens of regions in Europe and Africa that have concentrations of Bell Beaker settlements A general geographic apportionment of Bell Beakers was proposed in 1980 by Richard J Harrison He divided the beaker area into three main provinces: southern, western, and eastern In central Europe, this general apportionment should be supplemented by one additional province—the northern—encompassing the area between Jutland, in Denmark, and the lower Vistula River The Southern Province This province takes in the entire Iberian Peninsula, southern France, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, and it also includes the enclaves in northern Africa (Morocco and Algeria) Especially characteristic to this province are the following objects: Palmela points and V-perforated Tortuga buttons Characteristic among the ceramic ware is the squat shape of the beaker that typologically corresponds to the S-shaped profile bowls A N C I E N T E U R O P E B E L L (e.g., Palmela-type bowls) and the frequent painting of the vessel surfaces with red paint In this province are found fortified settlements, such as Zambujal and Vila Nova de S˜ao Pedro These settlements had stone walls, bastions, and moats carved into the rock Their beginnings are connected to earlier cultures, but there is no question that they were used during Bell Beaker times Traces of metallurgical works were found in many settlements, especially for copper and gold The southern province is noted for its high production of metal objects These included daggers, earrings, flat axe heads, Palmela points, awls, and other items The funeral rites included single and multiple burials Many of the dead were placed in rock-cut tombs and in various types of megalithic tombs These were usually complicated constructions that included hallways and round chambers (similar to the tholos constructions found in the Aegean area) The dead were placed in the fetal position, on their sides, directly on the rock Caves and grottos were also used for burials The Western Province This province includes the Atlantic shores of France, the British Isles, the entire Rhine basin as far as Switzerland, and the lower part of Germany to the west of the lower Elbe In this area three main concentrations can be identified: in Brittany, southern England, and on the Lower Rhine The first two are characterized by the presence of many objects from the megalithic tradition Combined with Bell Beakers, the megalithic tradition reached its peak, the best example being the “beaker” phase at Stonehenge In Brittany there is a visible connection to the Iberian area in the form of the Palmela point found there Characteristic to the western province is the large number of metal items made of copper and gold These include halberds, lunulae, daggers, and flat axe heads These are all objects that had definite prestige and insignia value Burials continued to be made in various types of megalithic monuments, especially in Brittany In the British Isles and on the Lower Rhine the graves are mainly single burials, with the body placed on its side in the fetal position, often covered by a barrow In this province we also have much evidence of settlement sites This is mainly in the form of traces of rectangular post houses In the British Isles we find a greater variety of house types A N C I E N T E U R O P E B E A K E R S F R O M W E S T T O E A S T The Eastern Province This province includes the areas of the upper and central Danube (up to Budapest), the Bohemian-Moravian basin, and the upper basins of the Oder and Vistula Rivers Among the most characteristic objects found in the eastern province are the model bows made from bone There were also many copper daggers In this province, Bell Beakers come into contact with the Balkan Early Bronze Age tradition, and vessels from both traditions appear in the same context Bell Beaker artifacts in this area come mainly from single-burial graves where the body was placed in the fetal position and positioned on a northsouth axis The placement of the body (the direction of head and the orientation of the face) was dependent on gender, although the rules governing orientation were regional in nature For example, in Moravia men were placed on their right side, women on their left side, whereas in Bohemia the positions were reversed A specific feature of the burial rites in this province is the frequent use of cremation, which was most likely a continuation of earlier traditions from the Balkan area where this custom was known during the Neolithic Remains of permanent settlements with dwellings are known only in the vicinity of Budapest and consist of large post houses The Northern Province This province includes Jutland in Denmark, then stretches through northern Germany to the lower Elbe, then across northern Poland to the lower Vistula basin A characteristic attribute of this province is the intense manufacture of flint daggers Numerous metal items, especially lunulae and halberds, indicate a connection with the western province A key factor in reconstructing the placement of the northern province in the framework of Bell Beakers is amber Here were the main centers where amber objects were manufactured and exported to other localities This area has yielded many finds of Bell Beaker settlement sites These often consisted of rectangular huts, built using post construction techniques, with a partly sunken floor An analysis of house construction in Jutland showed that the Bell Beaker phase was not a time of radical changes but rather a continuation of the steady developments that had been taking place since the beginning of the Neolithic Bell Beaker burials are known from both the 481 : C O N S E Q U E N C E S O F A G R I C U L T U R E , 0 – 0 megalithic tombs as well as from a few individual burials where the body was placed in the fetal position In the above geographic division of Bell Beakers there are no sharp, definite lines of demarcation There are many regions that can be characterized by their own Bell Beaker attributes One such center, for example, is the area on the Saale River in eastern Germany where the attributes of the western and eastern provinces were combined into a unique whole METALLURGY In all the places where Bell Beakers appear we also see the development of metallurgy This consisted of the working of copper and gold, where most of the objects are made from hammered sheet metal (lunulae, earrings, pins) or simple casting methods (daggers, flat axe heads, Palmela points, halberds) From a typological viewpoint one can speak of a Bell Beaker style that has a uniform character that takes in the whole of the Bell Beaker domain—a rather large area This was the oldest single-origin style for metal objects in Europe In addition to the manufactured objects, we are also familiar with the tools used for metalworking These are of the “smithy” type, mainly stone anvils of various sizes and chiseling tools Bell Beakers represent a breakthrough where the majority of European societies adapted to the widespread use of metal Thus began an era where metal objects were always present in society, along with the techniques for working the material (Earlier there had only been sporadic episodes where the use of metal objects was widespread, for example, in the horizon of the Lengyel, Polgár, and Brzes´c´ Kujawski cultures, c 4500–4000 B.C.) CHRONOLOGY In the archaeological literature, there exists a widely held theory about the principal trends in the stylistic development (i.e., the relative chronology) of Bell Beaker ceramic ware At the beginning were the Maritime beakers, after which follow various types of ceramic ware that have a regional dimension characterized by more squat proportions A principal change has occurred in our knowledge of the duration of the Bell Beaker period The image of Bell Beakers as a short-term event that took place at the end of the Copper Age and the beginning of the 482 B C Bronze Age is a thing of the past Accurate chronological data from carbon-14 testing of samples from various regions show that Bell Beakers were a longlasting and dynamic phenomenon An analysis by Johannes Müller and Samuel van Willigen published in 2001 took into consideration selected carbon-14 determinations on short-lived substances such as bone and plant seeds while omitting samples from long-lasting sources such as wood charcoal Results of this dating provide a picture of an extended Bell Beaker development period having various features in different regions Its earliest beginnings were in the southern province (Iberian Peninsula, southern France, and northern Italy) about 2800 B.C The latest dates extend into the first centuries of the second millennium B.C and are found in the western and northern provinces Chronological data show that the development of Bell Beakers took place from the west (more specifically from the southwest) toward the east and northeast POSITION OF BELL BEAKERS IN THE PROCESS OF CULTURAL CHANGE While searching for an explanation for the Bell Beaker phenomenon one must take into consideration not only the characteristic attributes described above Two other aspects are of importance: the cultural base on which the Bell Beaker phenomenon was shaped and the world of the early Bronze Age cultures that succeeded the Bell Beakers Three basic varieties of cultural base can be named: the megalithic world, the Corded Ware culture, and the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age cultures of Carpathian culture basin In the megalithic zone of western Europe, the Bell Beakers made use of megalithic tombs as well as single graves Various forms of stone tombs were used, several of which can be seen in the famous cemetery of Sion-Petit Chasseur in Switzerland In the time of the Bell Beakers there was a flowering of megalithic constructions in the form of complex circles and avenues These are widely known from examples in southern England Stonehenge, for example, was developed to its fullest during the Bell Beaker era Therefore, it can be said that in the megalithic zone, the appearance of Bell Beakers does not break the megalithic tradition, but rather brings it to its apogee Likewise, in places where the Bell Beakers came in contact with the Corded Ware culture, the two A N C I E N T E U R O P E B E L L coexisted However, there is a definite contrast between the cultural behavior of Bell Beakers and that of the Corded Ware culture, which can be described as a dialectic connection between them This fact can be best observed in the burial rites For example, in the Upper Danube both the Bell Beakers and the Corded Ware culture used the same form of mortuary expression (single burial, the body in the fetal position lying on its side, with the two genders placed in opposite ways), but the two groups differ in the specific placement of the bodies In the Carpathian culture basin there was interaction between Bell Beakers and the oldest groups of the Early Bronze Age (successors to the Vucˇedol culture) These contacts developed differently from those in the Corded Ware zone, but similarly to that in the megalithic regions There are no visible cultural barriers in the development of contacts, which on the level of archaeological practice is problematic for the researchers: there exist many contexts where it is difficult to assign items definitely to one or the other cultural tradition Given this evidence, it is difficult to describe the appearance of the Bell Beakers as an invasion that led to radical disruptions in the process of historical change However, this general picture does not exclude the possibility that in some regions the genesis of Bell Beakers was combined with the phenomenon of migration One example of this process can be seen in the part of southern Poland known as Małopolska In examining the Early Bronze Age cultures that appeared immediately after the disappearance of the Bell Beakers, significant trends are evident In this domain were the earliest places in Europe (outside the Aegean area) where bronze was made The list of cultural successors to Bell Beakers is long Among them are the Wessex, Úneˇtice, Polada, Armorican, Rhône, and Montelavar cultures Each is characterized by its own style of bronze artifacts, rich deposits of metal objects, an elaborate, stratified society, and an extensive network of cultural contacts It is difficult to imagine that this prosperous civilized zone was only coincidentally contiguous with the domain of Bell Beakers B E A K E R S F R O M W E S T T O E A S T search confirms the traditional view that Bell Beakers spread from west to east and, more specifically, from southwest to northeast But the dimensions, from the geographic and the chronological perspective, preclude the possibility of explaining this phenomenon as the expansion of a “Beaker People.” In some exceptional instances we can speak about the anthropological characteristics of people who are associated with beaker ware, a situation which we have in Małopolska In a general comparison, however, the individuals associated with the Bell Beaker “peoples” exhibit great variation in anthropological types and represent a large number of the major European cultural groups from the third and the beginning of the second millennia B.C While the theory of a “Beaker People” has been discarded, this does not preclude the fact that some migration did occur within the Bell Beaker domain A spectacular example of this is the rich burial of a man in Amesbury, not far from Stonehenge in southern England On the basis of isotope testing of the man’s teeth, archaeologists concluded that he had spent his youth in the Alpine regions, while his son, buried nearby, was a native Briton What were Bell Beakers? The main characteristics are as follows: • They were distributed throughout half of Europe, covering an immense area roughly equivalent to that now occupied by the countries of the European Union • The history of Bell Beakers is contained in a time frame that extends for more than one thousand years (though in specific regions the time frame is always shorter) • They were a phenomenon with internal dynamics Starting in the southern province they spread from west to east and lasted the longest in the northern province and in the British Isles • The central feature of Bell Beakers was a set of artifacts connected with the drinking of specific beverages, war, and hunting WHAT WERE THE BELL BEAKERS? • These objects were always carefully made, thus having an intrinsic cultural value for their users and are most often found in graves in which a single body was laid in the fetal position on its side It is not accidental that the question is “what were” and not “who were” the Bell Beakers The latest re- • The general typological evolution of Bell Beaker artifacts is similar in all regions; their forms A N C I E N T E U R O P E 483 : C O N S E Q U E N C E S O F A G R I C U L T U R E , 0 – 0 are rather unified in the beginning (as can be seen in the Maritime beakers) but in time acquire regional differentiation • Bell Beakers are closely linked to metallurgy, mainly of copper and gold As a consequence, metallic items became common across a wide expanse of prehistoric Europe, leading to the manufacture of the first stylistic metal objects on the Continent • The Bell Beaker phenomenon was culturally mobile and moved with great ease from region to region but was concentrated in the established settlement centers • Bell Beakers quickly combined with traditional forms that existed in the various regions As a result, the appearance of Bell Beakers created no radical interruption in the process of cultural evolution • In the places reached by Bell Beakers, there was a period of civilized prosperity that continued even after the phenomenon had disappeared during the Early Bronze Age What then were Bell Beakers? Among the proposed answers, archaeologists now assign a greater role to social factors These concepts are mainly being developed by British archaeologists Researchers treat Bell Beakers as a cultural “package.” A significant element of this package must have been the libation ritual where the bell-shaped beaker was used The remaining elements of this package, such as the archery set or the dagger, belong to different spheres of life: war and the hunt Andrew Sherratt has argued that the beakers were used for the consumption of an alcoholic beverage, probably beer or mead, as part of a growing pattern of warrior feasting and hospitality The characteristic artifacts of the Bell Beaker complex may well have served as status symbols of an emerging elite whose presence became clearer in the Early Bronze Age of the second millennium B.C Such theories point to Bell Beakers as an important part of the long process that formed the warrior caste in the societies of later prehistoric Europe The phenomenon became the basis for the creation of the first permanent hereditary elites among the inhabitants of Europe See also Early Metallurgy in Southeastern Europe (vol 1, part 4); The Megalithic World (vol 1, part 4); Sion-Petit Chasseur (vol 1, part 4); Corded Ware 484 B C from East to West (vol 1, part 4); The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Central Europe (vol 2, part 5); Bronze Age Britain and Ireland (vol 2, part 5) BIBLIOGRAPHY Abercromby, John A Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland and Its Associated Grave Goods Vol Oxford: Clarendon, 1912 Besse, Marie “Bell Beakers Common Ware during the Third Millennium B.C in Europe.” In Similar but Different: Bell Beakers in Europe Edited by Janusz Czebreszuk Poznan´, Poland: n.p., 2003 Bocksberger, Olivier J., Alain Gallay, and Louis Chaix Le Site Préhistorique du Petit-Chasseur (Sion, Valais) vols Lausanne, Switzerland: Département d’anthropologie de l’Université de Genève, 1976–1989 Buttler, J J., and J D van der Waals “Bell Beakers and Early Metal-working in the Netherlands.” Paleohistoria 12 (1966): 42–139 Burgess, Colin The Age of Stonehenge London: Dent, 1980 ——— “The Beaker Phenomenon: Some Suggestions, Part I: General Comments and the British Evidence.” In Settlement and Economy in the Third and Second Millennia B.C.: Papers Delivered at a Conference Organised by the Department of Education, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, January 1976 Edited by Colin Burgess and Roger Miket, pp 309–323 British Archaeological Reports, no 33 Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1976 Cartailhac, Émile Les âges préhistoriques de l’Espagne et du Portugal Paris: C Reinwald, 1886 Clarke, David L Beaker Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland vols Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1970 Czebreszuk, Janusz “Bell Beakers in the Sequence of the Cultural Changes in South-Western Baltic Area.” In The Northeast Frontier of Bell Beaker Edited by Janusz Czebreszuk and Marzena Szmyt BAR International Series Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 2003 Czebreszuk, Janusz, and Marzena Szmyt “The Northeast Frontier of Bell Beakers: First Step to Outline.” In The Northeast Frontier of Bell Beaker Edited by Janusz Czebreszuk and Marzena Szmyt BAR International Series Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 2003 Harrison, Richard J The Beaker Folk: Copper Age Archaeology in Western Europe London: Thames and Hudson, 1980 Kunst, Michael “Invasion? Fashion? Social Rank? Consideration concerning the Bell Beaker Phenomenon in Copper Age Fortifications of the Iberian Peninsula.” In Bell Beakers Today: Pottery, People, Culture, Symbols in Prehistoric Europe Edited by Franco Nicolis, pp 81–90 Trento, Italy: Provincia Autonoma di Trento, Servizio Beni Culturali, Ufficio Beni Archeologici, 2001 A N C I E N T E U R O P E B E L L Lanting, J N., and J D van der Waals “Beaker Culture Relations in the Lower Rhine Basin.” In Glockenbecher Symposion Oberried 1974, pp 1–80 Bussum, The Netherlands: Fibula-Van Dishoeck, 1976 Müller, Johannes “Economic Continuity and Political Discontinuity in Central Europe during the Third Millennium B.C.” In The Northeast Frontier of Bell Beaker Edited by Janusz Czebreszuk and Marzena Szmyt BAR International Series Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 2003 Müller, Johannes, and Samuel van Willigen “New Radiocarbon Evidence for European Bell Beakers and the Consequences for the Diffusion of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon.” In Bell Beakers Today: Pottery, People, Culture, Symbols in Prehistoric Europe Proceedings of the International Colloquium Riva del Garda (Trento, Italy) 11–16 May 1998 Edited by Franco Nicolis, pp 59–80 Trento, Italy: Provincia Autonoma di Trento, Servizio Beni Culturali, Ufficio Beni Archeologici, 2001 Shennan, Stephen “The Appearance of the Bell Beaker Assemblage in Central Europe.” In Beakers in Britain and Europe: Four Studies Contributions to a Symposium Organised by the Munro Lectureship Committee, Edinburgh University Edited by Roger Mercer, pp 51–70 BAR Supplementary Series, no 26 Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1977 A N C I E N T E U R O P E B E A K E R S F R O M W E S T T O E A S T Sherratt, Andrew “Sacred and Profane Substances: The Ritual Use of Narcotics in Later Neolithic Europe.” In Sacred and Profane: Proceedings of a Conference on Archaeology, Ritual, and Religion, Oxford 1989 Edited by Paul Garwood et al., pp 50–64 University of Oxford Committee for Archaeology Monographs, no 32 Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, 1991 ——— “Cups That Cheered: The Introduction of Alcohol to Prehistoric Europe.” In Bell Beakers of the Western Mediterranean: Definition, Interpretation, Theory and New Site Data The Oxford International Conference, 1986 Edited by William H Waldren and Rex Claire Kennard, pp 81–106 BAR International Series, no 331 Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1987 Vandkilde, Helle From Stone to Bronze: The Metalwork of the Late Neolithic and Earliest Bronze Age in Denmark A˚rhus, Denmark: Jutland Archaeological Society, 1996 Waals, J D van der, and Willem Glasbergen “Beaker Types and Their Distribution in the Netherlands.” Paleohistoria (1955): 5–47 JANUSZ CZEBRESZUK (TRANSLATED BY PETER OBST) 485 A Tollund Man The bog body of the Iron Age man from Tollund Mose in central Jutland, Denmark, c 220 B.C His body was deposited in the bog, presumably after being hanged, and was preserved under a thick layer of peat until discovered in 1950 © CHRIS LISLE/CORBIS REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.14/00160538: Corded Ware from East to West to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160540: Bell Beakers from West to East to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160539: Bell Beakers from West to East to come THE ART ARCHIVE/DEVIZESMUSEUM/EILEENTWEEDY REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION TOP RIGHT: Hochdorf Reconstruction of the Hochdorf chamber, a richly outfitted grave from c 550 B.C Grave goods, such as the gold ornaments, bronze couch, and rich textiles found here, give evidence of the social status of the buried ROSE HAJDU, FOTOGRAFIE, STUTTGART REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION Hjortspring Model of the boat deposited in the Hjortspring bog, southern Denmark, c 350–300 B.C The original boat, of which little remains, was more than 19 meters long © THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF DENMARK REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION BELOW: 4.14/00160538: Corded Ware from East to West to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160540: Bell Beakers from West to East to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160539: Bell Beakers from West to East to come THE ART ARCHIVE/DEVIZESMUSEUM/EILEENTWEEDY REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION Mesolithic of Northern Europe Excavations at BELOW: The the Late Mesolithic stratified shell midden at Norsminde, Jutland, Denmark Such deposits contain the leftover shells from consumption of shellfish by hunter-gatherers COURTESY OF S ØREN H A NDERSEN , N ATIONAL M USEUM OF D ENMARK REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION yikes! Using @ 135% Ask for IMC magic? 4.14/00160538: Corded Ware from East to West to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160540: Bell Beakers from West to East to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI TOP Arene BY Candide Reconstruction of life inside Arene ORTIRIGHT: REPRODUCED PERMISSION Candide in northwestern Italy during its Middle Neolithic 4.15/00160539: Bell Beakers from West East to heyday, c 4700–4000 B.C ON CONCESSION OF to MINISTERO PERcome I BENI THE ARCHIVE /DEVIZES MUSEUM/EILEENPER TWEEDY REPRODUCED BY E LE ART TTIVITÀ CULTURALI –SOPRINTENDENZA I B.ENI ARCHEOLOGICI PERMISSION REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION DELLA LIGURIA Neolithic Sites of the Orkney Islands Decorated stone artifact from the Neolithic site of Skara Brae, Orkney Islands, c 3100–2500 B.C © ADAM WOOLFITT/CORBIS REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION BELOW: 4.14/00160538: Corded Ware from East to West to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160540: Bell Beakers from West to East to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160539: Bell Age Beakers from West to East a tosymbol come TOP LEFT: Copper Cyprus Cruciform figurine, THEfertility, ART Afrom RCHIVEYiacia, /DEVIZESc M3000 USEUM/E ILEEN TWEEDY15.3 REPRODUCED BY of B.C Height: cm DEPART PERMISSION MENT OF ANTIQUITIES, CYPRUS REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION OPPOSITE PAGE: The Iceman The Iceman on display at the Bolzano museum after being frozen on the Tirolean Alps over 5,000 years ago © SOUTH TYROL MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY, ITALY, WWW.ICEMAN.IT REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION Boyne Valley Passage Graves The Great Mound of the megalithic passage grave from Knowth, Ireland, was built more than 5,000 years ago © RICHARD CUMMINS/CORBIS REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION TOP RIGHT: Trackways and Boats The Neolithic trackway at Sweet Track is an elevated pathway that ran nearly kilometers across swamps in Somerset, England, almost 6,000 years ago SOMERSET LEVELS PROJECT (JOHN COLES) REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION BELOW: 4.14/00160538: Corded Ware from East to West to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160540: Bell Beakers from West to East to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160539: Bell Beakers from West to East to come THE ART ARCHIVE/DEVIZESMUSEUM/EILEENTWEEDY REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.14/00160538: Corded Ware from East to West to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION 4.15/00160540: Bell Beakers from West to East to come THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION TOP RIGHT: Bell Beakers from West to 4.15/00160539: Bell Beakers from West East Bell-shaped to East to come beaker plain/Dand decorated horizontal from Late THE ARTwith ARCHIVE EVIZES MUSEUM/EILEEN TWEEDYzones REPRODUCED BY Neolithic burial near Salisbury in southern England, c 2200 B.C PERMISSION THE ART ARCHIVE/DEVIZESMUSEUM/EILEENTWEEDY REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION MIDDLE RIGHT: Bell Beakers from West to East Late Neolithic flint dagger from southern Sweden, c 2000 B.C., that imitates forms of metal daggers characteristic of Bell Beaker assemblages in central Europe, including the simulated mold mark on the handle THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION Corded Ware from East to West Cord-impressed vessels from southern Scandinavia in forms typical of the Corded Ware/Single Grave/Battle-Axe cultural complex of the mid-third millennium B.C THE ART ARCHIVE/HISTORISKA MUSÉET STOCKHOLM/DAGLI ORTI REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION BELOW: ... Prehistoric? ?Europe? ??Encyclopedias Prehistoric peoples? ?Europe? ??Encyclopedias History, Ancient? ??Encyclopedias Europe? ??History? ?To 476—Encyclopedias Europe? ??History—392-814—Encyclopedias I Bogucki, Peter I II Crabtree, Pam... combining ever improving standards of fieldwork with somewhat uncritical interpretations Scandinavia, too, produced distinguished antiquaries in this period who studied antiquities and systematically... Saami) were to persist beyond “prehistoric” times BARBARIAN LANDS THROUGH TO MEDIEVAL TIMES The next major environmental changes of wide significance to human societies in Europe were a significant