Encyclopedia of barbarian world and ancient europe 8000 BC to AD 1000 II

Ancient Europe 8000 B.C.–A.D 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World Peter Bogucki and Pam J Crabtree, Editors in Chief Copyright © 2004 by Charles Scribner’s Sons Charles Scribner’s Sons is an imprint of The Gale Group, Inc., a division of Thomson Learning, Inc Charles Scribner’s Sons™ and Thomson Learning™ are trademarks used herein under license ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage retrieval systems—without the written permission of the publisher For more information, contact Charles Scribner’s Sons An imprint of the Gale Group 300 Park Avenue South, 9th Floor New York, NY 10010 Or visit our Internet site at http://www.gale.com For permission to use material from this product, submit your request via Web at http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you may download our 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in the United States of America 10 EDITORIAL AND PRODUCTION STAFF Project Editor Alja Kooistra Collar Assisting Editors Cindy Clendenon, Shawn Corridor, Sharon Malinowski Copy Editors Marcia Merryman Means Lisa Dixon, Gretchen Gordon, Jeffrey J Hill, Jean Fortune Kaplan, Jane Marie Todd Proofreader Carol Holmes Indexer J Naomi Linzer Image Researcher Deanna Raso Senior Art Director Pamela Galbreath Imaging Lezlie Light, Leitha Etheridge-Sims, Mary Grimes, Dan Newell, Dave Oblender, Christine O’Bryan, Kelly A Quin, Denay Wilding Cartographer XNR Productions Line Illustrator GGS Information Services Composition Datapage Technologies International Manufacturing Wendy Blurton Senior Editor John Fitzpatrick Publisher Frank Menchaca CONTENTS VOLUME I ■ List of Maps xv Preface xvii Maps of Ancient Europe, 8000– 2000 B.C xix Chronology of Ancient Europe, 8000– 1000 B.C xxv List of Contributors xxix ■ 1: DISCOVERING BARBARIAN EUROPE Introduction (Peter Bogucki and Pam J Crabtree) Humans and Environments (I G Simmons) Origins and Growth of European Prehistory (Paul G Bahn) 14 The Nature of Archaeological Data (Pam J Crabtree and Douglas V Campana) 22 Tollund Man (Helle Vandkilde) 26 Survey and Excavation (Albert Ammerman) 29 Saltbæk Vig (Anne Birgitte Gebauer) 36 Dating and Chronology (Martin Bridge) 40 Archaeology and Environment (Petra Dark) 47 Settlement Patterns and Landscapes (John Bintliff) 55 Trade and Exchange (Robert H Tykot) 65 Status and Wealth (Peter S Wells) 72 Hochdorf (Peter S Wells) 79 Gender (Janet E Levy) 81 Ritual and Ideology (John Chapman) 90 Hjortspring (Peter S Wells) 99 Archaeology and Language (David W Anthony) 101 vii C O N T E N T S Warfare and Conquest (Lawrence H Keeley and Russell S Quick) 110 Maiden Castle (Niall Sharples) 118 ■ 2: POSTGLACIAL FORAGERS, 8000–4000 B.C Introduction (Peter Bogucki) Postglacial Environmental Transformation (Neil Roberts) The Mesolithic of Northern Europe (Peter Bogucki) Skateholm (Lars Larsson) Tybrind Vig (Søren H Andersen) The Mesolithic of Northwest Europe (Christopher Tolan-Smith) Mount Sandel (Peter C Woodman) Star Carr (Paul Mellars) The Mesolithic of Iberia (João Zilhão) Muge Shell Middens (João Zilhão) The Mesolithic of Upland Central and Southern Europe (Barbara Voytek) Iron Gates Mesolithic (Clive Bonsall) Franchthi Cave (Julie M Hansen) The Mesolithic of Eastern Europe (Marek Zvelebil) Oleneostrovskii Mogilnik (Marek Zvelebil) 123 126 132 140 141 144 151 153 157 164 167 175 179 183 192 201 204 211 218 226 ■ 3: TRANSITION TO AGRICULTURE, 7000–4000 B.C Introduction (Peter Bogucki) Crops of the Early Farmers (Julie M Hansen) Livestock of the Early Farmers (Nerissa Russell) First Farmers of Europe (Curtis Runnels) Achilleion (Ernestine S Elster) Last Hunters and First Farmers on Cyprus (Alan H Simmons) Transition to Farming in the Balkans (Mihael Budja) Obre (Mihael Budja) The Farming Frontier on the Southern Steppes (David W Anthony) Spread of Agriculture Westward across the Mediterranean (William K Barnett) Arene Candide (Peter Rowley-Conwy) Caldeirão Cave (João Zilhão) First Farmers of Central Europe (Lawrence H Keeley and Mark Golitko) Bruchenbrücken (Detlef Gronenborn) Bylany (Jonathan Last) Beginnings of Farming in Northwestern Europe (Anne Tresset) Neolithic Sites of the Orkney Islands (Peter Bogucki) Hambledon Hill (Roger Mercer) viii 229 233 240 242 248 253 255 259 266 269 273 281 283 A N C I E N T E U R O P E C O N T E N T S Transition to Farming along the Lower Rhine and Meuse (Leendert P Louwe Kooijmans) Transition to Agriculture in Northern Europe (Anne Birgitte Gebauer) Sarup (Niels H Andersen) Long Barrow Cemeteries in Neolithic Europe (Magdalena S Midgley) 286 293 301 304 ■ 4: CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURE, 5000–2000 B.C Introduction (Peter Bogucki) Early Metallurgy in Southeastern Europe (William A Parkinson) Early Copper Mines at Rudna Glava and Ai Bunar (William A Parkinson) Milk, Wool, and Traction: Secondary Animal Products (Nerissa Russell) Late Neolithic/Copper Age Southeastern Europe (William A Parkinson) Varna (Douglass W Bailey) Ovcharovo (Douglass W Bailey) Copper Age Cyprus (Edgar Peltenburg) Late Neolithic/Copper Age Eastern Europe (Malcolm Lillie) Domestication of the Horse (David W Anthony) Kolomischiina (Malcolm Lillie) Late Neolithic/Copper Age Central Europe (Sarunas Milisauskas) Brzes´c´ Kujawski (Peter Bogucki) Rondels of the Carpathians (Magdalena S Midgley) Neolithic Lake Dwellings in the Alpine Region (Jörg Schibler, Stefanie Jacomet, and Alice Choyke) The Iceman (Paul G Bahn) Arbon-Bleiche (Jörg Schibler, Stefanie Jacomet, and Alice Choyke) The Megalithic World (I G N Thorpe) Avebury (Caroline Malone) Barnenez (Serge Cassen) Boyne Valley Passage Graves (George Eogan) Trackways and Boats (Malcolm Lillie) Consequences of Farming in Southern Scandinavia (Magdalena S Midgley) Pitted Ware and Related Cultures of Neolithic Northern Europe (Marek Zvelebil) Ajvide (Peter Rowley-Conwy) Late Neolithic Italy and Southern France (Caroline Malone) Sion-Petit Chasseur (Marie Besse) The Neolithic Temples of Malta (Caroline Malone) Late Neolithic/Copper Age Iberia (Katina T Lillios) Los Millares (Robert Chapman) A N C I E N T E U R O P E 313 317 322 325 334 341 344 347 354 363 368 371 378 382 385 392 395 398 406 408 413 415 420 431 435 439 446 450 456 464 ix C O N T E N T S Corded Ware from East to West (Janusz Czebreszuk) 467 Bell Beakers from West to East (Janusz Czebreszuk) 476 VOLUME II ■ List of Maps xv Maps of Ancient Europe, 3000 B.C.– A.D 1000 xvii Chronology of Ancient Europe, 2000 B.C.– A.D 1000 xxiii ■ 5: MASTERS OF METAL, 3000–1000 B.C Introduction (Peter Bogucki) The Significance of Bronze (Mark Pearce) The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Temperate Southeastern Europe (H Arthur Bankoff) 12 The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Central Europe (Vajk Szeverenyi) 20 Spisˇsky´ Sˇtvrtok (Helle Vandkilde) 31 The Italian Bronze Age (Mark Pearce) 34 Poggiomarino (Francesco Menotti) 42 El Argar and Related Bronze Age Cultures of the Iberian Peninsula (Antonio Gilman) 45 Sardinia’s Bronze Age Towers (Emma Blake) 50 Bronze Age Britain and Ireland (Joanna Brück) 54 Stonehenge (Caroline Malone) 61 Flag Fen (Francis Pryor) 67 Irish Bronze Age Goldwork (Mary Cahill) 69 Bronze Age Scandinavia (Helle Vandkilde) 72 Bronze Age Coffin Burials (Helle Vandkilde) 80 Bronze Age Cairns (Helle Vandkilde) 82 Late Bronze Age Urnfields of Central Europe (Peter Bogucki) 86 Bronze Age Herders of the Eurasian Steppes (David W Anthony) 92 Bronze Age Transcaucasia (Laura A Tedesco) 101 Bronze Age Cyprus (A Bernard Knapp) 108 The Minoan World (David B Small) 116 Knossos (Louise Steel) 121 Mycenaean Greece (John Bintliff) 126 ■ 6: THE EUROPEAN IRON AGE, C 800 B.C.–A.D 400 Introduction (Pam J Crabtree) 137 x A N C I E N T E U R O P E C O N T E N T S Celts (Susan Malin-Boyce) Hallstatt and La Tène (Susan Malin-Boyce) Celtic Migrations (Susan Malin-Boyce) Germans (Peter S Wells) Oppida (John Collis) Manching (Susan Malin-Boyce) Hillforts (Barry Raftery) Origins of Iron Production (Michael N Geselowitz) Ironworking (Michael N Geselowitz) Coinage of Iron Age Europe (Colin Haselgrove) Ritual Sites: Viereckschanzen (Matthew L Murray) Iron Age Feasting (Bettina Arnold) La Tène Art (Barry Raftery) Iron Age Social Organization (Ian Ralston) Greek Colonies in the West (Peter S Wells) Vix (Peter S Wells) Greek Colonies in the East (Gocha R Tsetskhladze) Iron Age France (John Collis) Gergovia (John Collis) Iron Age Britain (Timothy Champion) Danebury (Barry Cunliffe) Iron Age Ireland (Bernard Wailes) Irish Royal Sites (Bernard Wailes) Iron Age Germany (Bettina Arnold) Kelheim (Peter S Wells) The Heuneburg (Bettina Arnold) Iberia in the Iron Age (Teresa Chapa) Etruscan Italy (Rae Ostman) Pre-Roman Iron Age Scandinavia (Sophia Perdikaris) Iron Age Finland (Deborah J Shepherd) Iron Age Poland (Przemys1aw Urban´czyk) Biskupin (A F Harding) Iron Age Ukraine and European Russia (Gocha R Tsetskhladze) Iron Age East-Central Europe (Peter S Wells) Iron Age Caucasia (Adam T Smith) Dark Age Greece (John Bintliff) 140 144 149 151 154 158 160 164 167 169 174 179 184 191 198 205 208 212 219 222 229 232 239 241 247 249 253 260 269 276 281 286 289 296 303 312 ■ 7: EARLY MIDDLE AGES/MIGRATION PERIOD Introduction (Pam J Crabtree) Emporia (John Moreland) Ipswich (Keith Wade) Viking Harbors and Trading Sites (Dan Carlsson) Dark Ages, Migration Period Early Middle Ages (Pam J Crabtree) History and Archaeology (Genevieve Fisher) State Formation (Tina L Thurston) Trade and Exchange (Tina L Thurston) A N C I E N T E U R O P E 321 324 331 334 337 340 346 351 xi I N D E X Middle Ages (continued) farming, 2:329, 439–440, 448 foraging populations, 2:409–410, 570–571 fortifications Europe, central, 2:384, 385, 580, 582, 584–585, 588, 593–594, 597 Europe, eastern, 2:566, 580 Europe, northwestern, 2:452, 460–461, 471–472, 480, 481– 482, 492–493 gender roles and relationships, 2:361–365 gold industry, 2:328 hillforts, 2:480 historical evidence, 2:406–408, 563, 590–591, 593–594 hoards, 2:334, 404, 535, 535, 538, 538, 573 inscribed stones, 2:480–481, 485– 486 ironworking, 2:328, 397, 416 jewelry, 2:426–429, 427 landscape use, 2:557 languages, 2:386, 490 linguistic evidence, 2:406–408, 447 literacy, role of, 2:340–341 metalworking, 2:453–454, 454, 472, 570, 570 mills and milling technology, 2:376– 379, 377, 378, 454, 477 nomadic tradition, 2:368–369 pastoralism, 2:368–369, 369 political systems Europe, central, 2:327, 385, 398– 403, 556–561, 574, 582–585, 592–594, 595–597 Europe, eastern, 2:412–413, 556– 561, 564, 566, 576 Europe, northern, 2:418–419, 437–438, 443, 589 Europe, northwestern, 2:388, 494–495 population statistics, 2:492, 530– 532 pottery industry, 2:328, 332, 333, 381, 452–453, 472, 492, 496– 497 raths and cashels, 2:460–465, 463 ringforts, 2:451–452, 460–465, 463 ritual and ideology, 2:401, 410, 554, 587–588, 588 Europe, northern, 2:438, 442, 444 Europe, northwestern, 2:448, 450–451, 455–459, 473–474, 476, 480, 486–487, 491 644 settlement patterns Europe, central, 2:384–385, 554– 556, 560, 586, 587, 589, 591– 592, 594–595 Europe, eastern, 2:564–565, 569 Europe, northern, 2:418, 437– 438, 438–439, 440–441, 589 Europe, northwestern, 2:332, 333, 451–452, 471–472, 481–482, 493, 500, 501–506 Europe, western, 2:514–516 settlement structures Europe, central, 2:397, 415, 552, 552, 556, 587, 590 Europe, northern, 2:404, 418, 443–444 Europe, northwestern, 2:381, 462– 465, 463, 492–493, 500–501, 509, 509 Europe, western, 2:515 ship burials, 2:534 silver industry, 2:328 slavery, 2:474 social systems Europe, central, 2:398, 576, 584, 587–588, 592 Europe, eastern, 2:564, 566 Europe, northern, 2:418, 419 Europe, northwestern, 2:329–330, 386, 464, 471, 481–482 state societies, 2:347–349, 350 stone carvings, 2:405, 453, 472– 473, 476–478, 480, 510 subsistence resources, 2:418, 440– 441, 448 textile industry, 2:329, 397, 433, 433–435, 434 trade and exchange, 2:322–323, 324–336, 352–355, 433 Europe, central, 2:406–408, 407, 419–420, 557–558, 588, 591 Europe, eastern, 2:563, 565–566 Europe, northern, 2:326, 418, 433, 589 Europe, northwestern, 2:333–334, 493–494 Iberia, 2:530–532 Near East, 2:433 transportation routes, 2:387 urbanization Europe, central, 2:587, 590 Europe, eastern, 2:563, 564, 565 Europe, northwestern, 2:455, 456–459, 457, 466–468, 493, 501–507, 503, 516–518 Europe, western, 2:514, 516–518, 517 warfare and conquest Europe, central, 2:391–393, 399– 400, 414–417, 419–421, 554– 555, 559, 574–576, 578–579 Europe, northern, 2:417, 534, 586 Europe, northwestern, 2:330, 387– 388, 388 weapons and armor, 2:522, 588 woodworking industry, 2:454 writing, 2:405, 419, 586, 589 Middle Dnieper culture, 1:472 Mieszko I, 2:554–555, 559, 560, 561 Migration patterns, 1:224–225; 2:208 See also Settlement patterns Migration period, 2:270, 338–339, 380–422, 572–579 Mikhailovka site, 1:361 Mikłaszewska-Balcer, Ha D Róza, 2:287 Mikulcˇice site, 2:580 Milazzese site, 2:38, 39 Milek, Karen, 2:443 Los Millares site, 1:458, 459, 464– 466 Mills and milling technology, 2:376– 379, 377, 378, 454, 477 Mining industry, 2:258 Minoan culture, 2:5, 116–125, 117 Mittleberg site, 2:27 Mnaijdra site, 1:454 Modderman, P J R., 1:287 Moel Trigarn site, 2:481 Moita Sebasti˜ao site, 1:164–166, 165 Mojmír I, 2:582 Mokrin site, 1:86 Moldavia, 1:92, 94 Moldova, 1:340 Molène Island site, 1:276 Molin Nuovo site, 1:171 Molina, Fernando, 1:464 Molino de Gasparín site, 1:159 Molise site, 2:374 Mo⁄ llegabet site, 1:37, 138 Mölln site, 1:295 Mondeville site, 2:515 Mont Bego site, 1:95, 446 Mont Beuvray, 2:154–155, 156 Montelius, Oscar, 1:19, 425; 2:72 Montenegro, 1:172 Monteval de Sora (San Vito di Cadore) site, 1:170 Monumental structures Bell Beaker culture, 1:446 Bronze Age, 1:95, 96, 315; 2:61–67 Copper Age, 1:95 Iron Age, 1:96 A N C I E N T E U R O P E I N D E X Megalithic period, 1:95, 298, 302, 304–310, 439–440, 445 Neolithic period, 1:276, 305–310, 315, 446, 450–455, 459, 460, 463 Viking Age, 2:542, 544, 545 Moravia See also Czech Republic; specific sites artisans, 2:580 burials, 2:88 Christianity, 2:582 Corded Ware culture, 1:470 enclosure complexes, 1:382, 383, 384 fortifications, 2:580 Middle Ages, 2:582–584 political systems, 2:582–583, 584 ritual and ideology, 2:298 settlement patterns, 1:374; 2:22, 300–301 social systems, 2:580 Urnfield culture, 2:88 weapons and armor, 1:116 Moreau, Frèderic, 2:512–513 Morella la Villa-Cueva del Roure, 1:117 Morken, burial of, 2:398 Morningthorpe site, 2:490 Morris, Ian, 2:314 Mortillet, Gabriel de, 1:18 Morton site, 1:277 Mosega˚rden site, 1:298, 423 Most na Socˇi site, 2:297 Les Moulins Saint-Paul-TroisChateaux site, 1:445 Mount Ararat, 1:207 Mount Knocknarea site, 2:236 Mount Lassois, 2:202, 216 Mount Sandel site, 1:146, 147, 149, 151–153, 152 Mountrivers site, 2:60 Mousa site, 1:115 Mout Lassois, 2:200–201 Movius, Hallam, 1:151 Moynagh Lough site, 2:452 ˇ ehrovice site, 2:176, 301, Msˇecké Z 301 Msec site, 2:299 Mucking site, 2:490 Muge shell middens, 1:248, 249 Mulbjerg Man, 2:75, 80 Muldbjerg site, 1:298 Müller-Karpe, Hermann, 2:146 Müller-Wille, Michael, 2:401 Mureybet site, 1:205 Musèe de L’Hisoire du Fer, 2:513 Muzzana del Turgnano site, 1:170 Mycenae site, 1:114; 2:40–41 Mylouthkia site, 1:231, 348–349 A N C I E N T E U R O P E Myres, J N L., 2:343 Myrtos site, 2:117, 118 ■ N Naakamäe site, 1:186 Naglier-Zanier, Cordula, 1:77 Nahal Hemar site, 1:205 Namforsen site, 1:189 Napoleon III, Histoire de Jules César, 2:220 Narva-Riigiküla site, 1:186 Narva site, 1:184, 185, 189 Nash-Williams, V E., 2:486 National Center for Scientific Research, University of Rennes, 1:410 National Museum of Sarajevo, 1:241 Navan site, 2:234, 239, 240 Nea Nikomedeia site, 1:220, 221, 222 Neander Valley sites, 1:17 Neanderthal remains, 1:17, 111 Near East, 1:42, 205–207, 208, 211– 217, 223, 327, 367–368; 2:433 Nebel Mose site, 1:27 Nekselo⁄ site, 1:38 Neman site, 1:185 Neolithic period See also Linearbandkeramik (LBK) (Linear Pottery culture); Secondary Products Revolution; Stone Age; specific countries; specific sites about Pre-Pottery Neolithic period, 1:207, 208, 231 about regions and Europe, central, 1:96, 180–182, 226–229, 241–243, 269–272 Europe, northern, 1:402, 414, 431–438 Europe, northwestern, 1:273–291 Europe, southeastern, 1:334–346 Europe, western, 1:112, 160, 249, 249, 285 animal husbandry Europe, central, 1:246–247, 330, 380 Europe, eastern, 1:241, 247, 326, 328–329, 336–337, 362 Europe, northern, 1:277–278, 289, 290, 295, 296–297 Europe, northwestern, 1:279 Europe, southeastern, 1:330, 336, 337 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:390 Europe, western, 1:163 Mediterranean region, 1:204, 213– 215, 231–231, 253–258, 274– 276, 279, 443; 2:121 Near East, 1:211–217, 327 animal pulling power/traction, 1:328, 329 aquatic resources, 1:178, 257, 288, 289, 390, 397, 432 architecture, 1:452 artisans, 1:227 artworks, 1:361, 445–446, 458– 459 barrow burials, 1:306, 381, 402, 423, 473 bog deposits, 1:298, 315 bone industry, 1:389, 396 burials Europe, central, 1:267, 360–363, 365–366, 378–382, 381, 408– 413 Europe, eastern, 1:112, 298, 305– 310, 307, 360–363, 365–366, 378–382 Europe, northern, 1:298, 302– 304, 304–310, 433, 436, 437 Europe, northwestern, 1:274, 276, 283, 287, 288, 289, 403–404, 418 Europe, southeastern, 1:338, 345– 346 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:178, 181, 391, 446– 450, 447, 454 Europe, western, 1:403–404, 465 European, northern, 1:413–415 Iberia, 1:458, 460, 461, 463, 465 chronological sequence and, 1:372– 373, 373 copper artifacts, 1:23, 315, 318, 389, 392–395, 393 copper industry, 1:315, 318, 320, 373–374, 379–380, 389, 441, 459 crops, 1:204, 207, 208, 276, 433 Europe, central, 1:337, 380 Europe, eastern, 1:205, 208, 235, 241, 246, 336–337, 356–357, 361 Europe, northern, 1:289, 290, 295, 433 Europe, northwestern, 1:274–275, 276, 277, 279, 283, 289, 290 Europe, southeastern, 1:336, 337 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:390, 397 Mediterranean region, 1:204–209, 249, 254, 257, 274–276, 443, 459; 2:121 Near East, 1:205, 205–207, 208 645 I N D E X Neolithic period (continued) dairy industry, 1:373, 443 dates for Europe, central, 1:178 Europe, northern, 1:398, 433 Europe, northwestern, 1:398 Europe, southeastern, 1:334 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:451 Iberia, 1:456–459 Mediterranean region, 1:398, 442 economic systems, 1:375 enclosure complexes Europe, central, 1:337–338, 380– 381, 382–384, 383 Europe, northern, 1:298, 301– 304, 302, 403 Europe, northwestern, 1:284–286, 285 Europe, southeastern, 1:337–338, 344–345 Europe, western, 1:284–286, 285, 403–404 environments Europe, eastern, 1:244–245, 356, 357, 359 Europe, northern, 1:286–287, 294, 435–436 Europe, northwestern, 1:281, 283– 284, 286–287 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:385, 389, 390, 395, 396, 451 Europe, western, 1:283–284 human impacts on, 1:51, 52, 127– 128, 389 Iberia, 1:457–458 Mediterranean region, 1:439; 2:121 farming about spread of, 1:218–232, 219 crops, 1:204 dates for early, 1:204 Europe, central, 1:259–272, 378– 382 Europe, eastern, 1:185, 202, 223– 225, 234–248, 378–382 Europe, northern, 1:51, 202, 421– 422, 431–432, 436 Europe, northwestern, 1:150, 273–291; 2:498 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:150, 177–179, 178, 180, 181, 243–248 Europe, western, 1:163, 243–248, 273 Iberia, 1:163, 459 646 Mediterranean region, 1:201–202, 213, 218, 223, 231–232, 248– 257, 293, 439, 459 fauna Europe, central, 1:337, 380 Europe, eastern, 1:358, 361, 362 Europe, northern, 1:433 Europe, northwestern, 1:288 Europe, southeastern, 1:337 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:389, 390–391, 396 Europe, western, 1:443 Iberia, 1:459 Mediterranean region, 1:229, 443, 459 figurines, 1:85, 227, 228, 446 Europe, central, 1:377–378 Europe, eastern, 1:359, 369 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:84–85, 452, 454, 454 Mediterranean region, 1:223 fires, use of, 1:10–11, 50–51, 52, 154–155 fishing populations, 1:202, 358, 443 flint industry, 1:376, 389, 424– 425, 441, 444 flora, 1:337, 357, 361, 389, 390, 397 foraging populations Europe, central, 1:202, 365 Europe, eastern, 1:202, 234–235, 364, 365 Europe, northern, 1:202, 426– 427, 431–432, 433, 434, 436 Europe, northwestern, 1:151 Iberia, 1:459 Mediterranean region, 1:229, 443, 459 fortifications Europe, northwestern, 2:160 Europe, western, 1:113–114, 465–466 Iberia, 1:465 Mediterranean region, 1:465 gender roles and relationships, 1:84– 85, 85, 376, 379, 381 gold industries, 1:441 health and disease issues, 1:377, 394, 454 herding, 1:215–216 horses, role of, 1:361, 364, 366, 367–368, 373 human remains, and evidence of warfare, 1:112 landscape use, 1:118–120 Europe, eastern, 1:129 Europe, northern, 1:60, 61, 62, 289–291 Europe, northwestern, 1:60, 60, 61–64, 62, 288, 315 Europe, western, 1:128, 315, 405, 406–408, 407 Mediterranean region, 1:97, 128– 129 lithic industry, 1:441 metallurgy industries, 1:319, 320, 322–324 migration patterns, 1:224–225 monumental structures Europe, eastern, 1:305–310 Europe, northern, 1:298, 302, 304–310, 307, 315–316 Europe, northwestern, 1:276, 315 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:446, 450–455, 453 Europe, western, 1:128, 306, 315, 406–408, 407 Iberia, 1:459 Mediterranean region, 1:439–440, 460 obsidian artifacts, 1:241 pastoralism, 1:161 political systems, 1:389, 432–433, 441–442, 448–450, 449, 451, 460–462 pottery industry Europe, central, 1:185, 202, 238– 240, 268, 369–370, 373, 374 Europe, eastern, 1:185, 235–237, 238–240, 243, 245, 247, 369– 370, 373 Europe, northern, 1:185, 202, 289, 290, 296–298, 432, 434, 436 Europe, northwestern, 1:185, 273– 277, 279, 280, 287, 289, 290 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:171, 172, 180, 389, 395–396, 452 Europe, western, 1:257, 391 Iberia, 1:163, 459 Mediterranean region, 1:163, 249, 255–256, 257, 439, 452, 459; 2:121 resource use, 1:52, 53, 84–85 ritual and ideology Europe, central, 1:92, 377–378, 378–382 Europe, eastern, 1:94, 378–382 Europe, northern, 1:296, 298, 301, 425–426, 432, 433, 437 Europe, northwestern, 1:274, 284– 285 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:391 Europe, western, 1:284–285 Iberia, 1:460, 463 A N C I E N T E U R O P E I N D E X Mediterranean region, 1:97, 232, 274; 2:121 rock art, 1:459 salt industry, 1:376 settlement patterns Europe, central, 1:335–336 Europe, eastern, 1:239, 241, 314, 335–336, 337, 368, 374–375 Europe, northern, 1:289, 372, 421, 432, 436 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:386–387, 389, 395 Iberia, 1:458 Mediterranean region, 1:35, 439, 458 settlement structures Europe, eastern, 1:369, 369, 374, 379, 380 Europe, northwestern, 1:273, 274, 279, 281–282, 282, 283, 398, 399 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:178, 180, 314 Iberia, 1:163, 465 Mediterranean region, 1:220; 2:121 social systems, 1:241–243, 263, 337, 460 steppe region, 1:243–248 stone tool industries Europe, eastern, 1:369 Europe, northern, 1:287, 290, 426, 432 Europe, northwestern, 1:150, 274, 287, 289, 290 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:171, 172, 441, 452 Iberia, 1:459 Mediterranean region, 1:249, 274, 275, 452, 459; 2:121 subsistence resources Europe, central, 1:365, 394 Europe, eastern, 1:336–337, 365 Europe, northern, 1:289, 313, 431–432, 432–433, 436 Europe, northwestern, 1:276, 283, 285, 289, 398 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:178, 180, 202, 389– 390, 397, 454 Europe, western, 1:285, 394 Mediterranean region, 1:454, 459– 460 tool industries, 1:386, 387, 389, 393, 396, 432 trackways, 1:416–417; 2:55 trade and exchange, 1:69–70, 239, 241, 253, 255, 376, 391, 459– 460 A N C I E N T E U R O P E warfare and conquest, 1:111–112, 113–114, 367–368, 376–377, 460 wheeled vehicles, 1:388 wool industry, 1:314, 327–328, 330, 390, 426 Nerja cave site, 1:162 Netherlands, The See also specific cultures and people; specific sites Bronze Age, 1:49; 2:4, 88 Iron Age, 1:61; 2:372 Megalithic period, 1:401 Mesolithic period, 1:144, 147, 149– 150 Middle Ages burials, 2:589 economic systems, 2:592 emporia, 2:324, 325, 328, 329, 330 landscape use, 1:62 political systems, 2:589 ritual and ideology, 2:588 settlement patterns, 2:589 trade and exchange, 2:589 warfare and conquest, 2:586 Neolithic period animal husbandry, 1:288–289, 290 aquatic resources, 1:288, 289 barrow burials, 1:402 burials, 1:287, 288, 289 crops, 1:289, 290 environments, 1:286–287 fauna, 1:288 landscape use, 1:60, 62, 288 pottery industry, 1:185, 289, 290 settlement patterns, 1:289 stone tool industries, 1:287, 289, 290 subsistence resources, 1:289 Neutron activation analysis (NAA), 1:68 Nevali Cari site, 1:205 Newark site, 2:490 Newgrange site, 1:46, 402, 414, 414– 415; 2:62 Newton, Isaac, 1:40 Niederzier site, 1:76 Nikolskoye site, 1:358 Nilsson, Sven, 1:306, 426 Ninth International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archeology, 1:164 Njál’s Saga, 2:447 Noah’s Flood (Ryan and Pitman), 1:126 Nomadic traditions, 2:368–369 See also Herding; Pastoralism; Steppe herders Norforlk Museums Service, 2:496 Normanton Down site, 2:65 Norsminde site, 1:295, 423 North Mains site, 2:180 Northey site, 2:67–69 Northumbrian culture, 2:471 Norway, 1:471; 2:533 See also specific cultures and people; specific sites burials, 1:87 Christianity, 2:535 environments, human impacts on, 1:51 farming, 2:371 fires, use of, 1:10–11 fishing populations, 2:535 gender roles and relationships, 1:87 Mesolithic period, 1:139 political systems, 2:534 settlement patterns, 1:372 social systems, 2:535 textile industry, 2:434 trade and exchange, 2:326 Viking Age, 2:534–535 warfare and conquest, 2:534 Nové Kosˇariská site, 2:297 Novgorod site, 2:564, 566–567 Novye Rusesˇty site, 1:370 Nowa Huta site, 1:374 Noyen-sur-Seine site, 1:274, 275 Nunnaminster, 2:506 Nuragic culture, 2:50–53, 52 ■ O Obałki site, 1:306 Ober-Hörgern site, 1:264 Obermeilen site, 1:387 Obre site, 1:240–242, 337 O’Brien, William, 1:97 Obsidian industry, 1:45, 68–69, 179, 223, 228–229, 241, 441, 444 Ocean levels, and effects on environments, 1:8, 9, 48, 124, 146, 171–172, 180 Ưcsưd-Kováshalom site, 1:338 Odmut site, 1:172 Odyssey (Homer), 2:10, 289, 316 Offa, king of Mercia, 2:326–327 Ofnet Cave site, 1:111 Ohalo II site, 1:205, 205–206 O⁄lby Lyng site, 1:295 Oldest Irish Tradition: A Window on the Iron Age (Jackson), 2:237 Oleg (prince), 2:563, 569 Oleneostrovskii Mogilnik (Olenii Ostrov) site, 1:141, 187, 188, 189, 192–198, 193, 194 Oleslyst site, 1:53 647 I N D E X Oliveira, Paul e, 1:165 Olsen, Olaf, 2:442, 443 On the Fall of Britain (Gildas), 2:489 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (Darwin), 1:17, 40, 102 Opovo site, 1:95 Oppida Celtic culture, 2:152, 154–159 Europe, central, 2:154–159, 158, 246, 247–249, 300 Europe, northwestern, 2:157, 224, 228 Europe, western, 2:154–157, 212, 218, 219–221 Iberia, 2:256–257 La Tène culture, 2:142, 148, 158, 158–159 Or site, 1:162 Orientius, 2:376 Origin and Deeds of the Goths (Jordanes), 2:575 Origins of Human Society (Bogucki), 2:14 Orkney Islands sites, 1:92, 94, 278, 281–283, 282; 2:404, 445–449 Orkneyinga Saga, 2:446 Ornehus site, 1:298 Oronsay sites, 1:52, 148, 149, 277 Oseberg site, 2:423, 434 Osłonki site, 1:315, 374 Oss site, 1:60, 61, 62, 63 Östenberg, Carl Eric, 2:36 O⁄sterbo⁄ lle site, 2:374 Ostrogoth culture, 2:402, 402–403, 593, 596 Otto III, 2:561 Otzaki Magoula site, 1:206, 208 Ötzi See Iceman Ovcharovo site, 1:338, 344–346, 345 Ozero site, 1:358 ■ P Pactus Alamannorum, 2:376 Padina site, 1:124, 175, 178 El Pajarillo de Huelma site, 2:255 Palaeolithic period, 1:8, 111, 144, 145, 179, 208, 254 Palheiro ˜ es Alegra site, 1:160 Parekklisha Shillourokambos site, 1:231 Paris Basin, 1:273–275, 279, 306 Parow site, 1:295 Pas de Julié site, 1:445 Passek, T S., 1:370 Passo della Comunella site, 1:170 648 Passo di Cova site, 1:249, 250, 446 Passy-sur-Yonne site, 1:274, 306, 307, 401 Pastoralism, 1:161, 362; 2:368–369 See also Herding; Nomadic traditions; Steppe herders Pauli, Ludwig, 1:74 Paulus, Eduard, 2:249, 250 Pavlu˚, Ivan, 1:269, 270 Pavúk, J., 1:383 Peacock, David, 2:327 Pearson, Gordon, 1:42 Pefkakia site, 1:338 Peiro Signada site, 1:249, 250 Penedo Comprido site, 1:463 Pengelly, William, 1:18 Penn, Kenneth, 2:496 Perdigo ˜ es site, 1:458 Périn, Patrick, 2:396, 399, 514, 522 Perlès, Catherine, 1:229 Peroni, Renato, 2:37 Petters Sports Field site, 2:60 Philip II of Macedon, 2:170, 413 Phillips, Charles, 2:498 Phoenician culture, 2:253–255 Phylakopi site, 1:90 Piana di Curinga site, 1:249, 250 Pianaccio di Tortoreto site, 1:442 Piast culture, 2:554–555, 558–559, 560–561 Piazzana site, 1:170 Pico Ramos site, 1:159 Pict culture, 2:403–405, 404, 447, 472–473, 475, 478 Piette, Edouard, 1:18 Piggott, Stuart, 2:3, 65 Pigs, 1:212, 214–215 La Pijotilla site, 1:458 Pilloy, Jules, 2:512 Pirenne, Henri, 2:352 Pispa site, 1:190 Pit-Comb pottery culture, 1:357 Pit-Grave (Yamnaya) culture, 1:361– 363 Pitman, Walter, 1:126, 244 Pitt-Rivers, Augustus Henry, 1:4, 18 Pitted Ware culture, 1:431–438 about, 1:426 burials, 1:433 crops, 1:433 dates for, 1:433 foraging populations, 1:433, 434 political systems, 1:432–433 pottery industry, 1:432, 434 ritual and ideology, 1:432, 433 settlement patterns, 1:432 subsistence resources, 1:432–433 tool industries, 1:432 trade and exchange, 1:434 Plains region, 1:170–171 Plas Gogerddan site, 2:485 Platia Magoula Zarkou site, 1:340 Plato, Laws, 2:180 Plattling-Pankofen site, 2:176 Pléchâtel site, 1:399 Pleistocene era, 1:167, 183–184 Pliny the Elder, 2:180, 396, 575 Plow artifacts, 1:329, 330, 330–331, 373 Plussulien, 1:404 Pod Crmukljo site, 1:171 Poggio Civitate site, 2:262 Poggiomarino site, 2:42–44, 44 Poland See also specific cultures and people; specific sites Bronze Age, 1:114; 2:21, 29, 87 Iron Age, 2:281–288 artworks, 2:285 burials, 2:281, 282, 283, 284 economic systems, 2:281–282, 283–284 farming, 2:283 fortifications, 2:282, 286, 286–288 gender roles and relationships, 2:283 ironworking, 2:166, 283, 284–285 political systems, 2:285 pottery industry, 2:283 ritual and ideology, 2:282 trade and exchange, 2:283–284 urbanization, 2:287 urnfields, 2:282 warfare and conquest, 2:282 Mesolithic period, 1:133, 135, 136, 184, 185, 186–187 Middle Ages agricultural surpluses, 2:559 economic systems, 2:557 landscape use, 2:557 political systems, 2:556–561, 558 ritual and ideology, 2:554 settlement patterns, 2:554–556, 560 settlement structures, 2:552, 552, 556 trade and exchange, 2:557–558 warfare and conquest, 2:554, 555, 556, 556, 557, 559 Neolithic period barrow burials, 1:402 bog deposits, 1:298 burials, 1:112, 298, 304–310, 306, 379 chronological sequence, 1:373 copper industry, 1:315, 379–380 farming, 1:378–382 flint industry, 1:376 A N C I E N T E U R O P E I N D E X gender roles and relationships, 1:379 landscape use, 1:129 monumental structures, 1:304– 310, 307 ritual and ideology, 1:378–382 salt industry, 1:376 settlement patterns, 1:374 settlement structures, 1:374, 379, 380 trade and exchange, 1:376 warfare and conquest, 1:112 Polderweg site, 1:147, 149 Polgár-Csszhalom site, 1:337338 Polignac, Franỗois de, 2:255 Political systems See also specic countries; specific sites about state societies, 2:346–350 about khagan, 2:574, 577 Bronze Age Europe, central, 2:15–16, 18 Europe, eastern, 2:18, 104 Europe, northwestern, 2:59–61 Europe, southeastern, 2:15–16, 18 Iberia, 2:47–49 Mediterranean region, 2:5, 47–49, 109, 113 Copper Age Iberia, 1:460 Mediterranean region, 1:460 Iron Age Europe, central, 2:156, 159, 246, 250, 300 Europe, eastern, 2:285, 292–293, 305–307, 309–310 Europe, northern, 2:534, 542–547 Europe, western, 2:213, 217, 218 Iberia, 2:255, 257 Mediterranean region, 2:255, 314 Middle Ages, 2:327 Europe, central, 2:385, 398–403, 556–561, 575–576, 582–585, 592–594, 595–597 Europe, eastern, 2:556–561, 564, 566 Europe, northern, 2:418–419, 437–438, 443, 589 Europe, northwestern, 2:388, 494–495 Mediterranean region, 2:347–348 Neolithic period, 1:389, 432–433, 448–450, 449, 451, 460–462 Polyanitsa site, 1:96, 338 Polybius, 2:211, 217 Pontic-Caspian region, 1:108 Popiel, 2:554, 559 Population statistics See also specific countries; specific sites Bronze Age, 2:36, 111, 124 A N C I E N T E U R O P E Copper Age, 1:359 Iron Age, 2:249, 250, 256, 270– 271 Mesolithic period, 1:148, 158, 160, 161, 165, 166 Middle Ages, 2:492, 530–532 Porcuna site, 2:255 Pori site, 2:550 Portmahomack site, 2:476–477, 478 Porto Badisco site, 1:95 Porto Perone site, 2:37, 38 Portugal See also specific sites Copper Age, 1:458, 460 Mesolithic period aquatic resources, 1:164 fauna, 1:164 fishing populations, 1:124 midden sites, 1:164–166 population statistics, 1:158, 165 settlement patterns, 1:124, 157– 158 social systems, 1:196 stone tool industries, 1:165 subsistence resources, 1:160–161 Neolithic period artworks, 1:458–459 burials, 1:458, 460, 463 dates for, 1:398 farming, 1:202 monumental structures, 1:463 pastoralism, 1:161 political systems, 1:460–462 pottery industry, 1:459 settlement patterns, 1:458 social systems, 1:460 stone tool industries, 1:160 subsistence resources, 1:160, 249, 249 warfare and conquest, 1:460, 462 Porvoo site, 2:550 Posidonius, 2:151 Post, Lennart von, 1:19 Post-Roman culture, 2:348–349, 353, 369–370 Post-Roman period, 2:469–470, 480–481, 504–505, 587–588, 590–591 Postglacial period ecofacts, 1:24 environments, 1:7–8, 118–120, 126–131, 130, 130, 183 fishing populations, 1:8, 124, 138, 184 landscape use, 1:118–120, 130, 130 ocean levels during, 1:124 resource use, 1:142, 154 subsistence resources, 1:142, 143 tool industries, 1:142, 154, 155 Postoloprty site, 1:374 Potterne site, 2:59 Pottery industry See also Figurines; specific countries; specific cultures and people; specific sites about dating methods and chronology, 1:66 Bronze Age, 2:16–18, 21, 37–38, 40–41, 46, 96, 104–105 Copper Age, 1:358, 359, 361, 362 Iron Age, 2:199–200, 200–203, 225, 266, 283, 292, 300, 305– 306 Mesolithic period, 1:159, 162, 177, 178, 184–185, 278, 279 Middle Ages, 2:328, 332, 333, 381, 452–453, 472, 492, 496–497 Neolithic period Europe, central, 1:185, 202, 238– 240, 268, 369–370, 373, 374 Europe, eastern, 1:185, 235–237, 238–240, 243, 245, 247, 369– 370, 373 Europe, northern, 1:185, 202, 289, 290, 296–298, 432, 434, 436 Europe, northwestern, 1:185, 273– 277, 279, 280, 287, 289, 290 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:171, 172, 180, 389, 395–396, 452 Europe, western, 1:257, 391 Iberia, 1:163, 459 Mediterranean region, 1:249, 255– 256, 257, 439, 440–441, 452; 2:121 Pouech, Abbé, 1:18 Poundbury site, 1:114 Powlesland, Dominic, 2:363 Poznan´ University, 2:286 Pradestel site, 1:168 Prehistory, origins of, 1:3, 14–21, 34 See also Archaeology; History, field of Pre-Pottery Neolithic period, 1:207, 208, 231 Predmost site, 1:111 Prehistoric Times (Lubbock), 1:18 Presteigne site, 2:485 Pretty, Edith May, 2:498 Primitive Social Organization (Service), 2:15 Principles of Archaeological Stratigraphy (Harris), 1:33 Principles of Geology (Lyell), 1:17 Prítluky site, 1:114 The Problem of the Picts (Wainwright), 2:404 Procopius, 2:381, 394, 414, 415 649 I N D E X Proton-induced x-ray and gamma-ray emission, 1:67–68 Protruding Foot Beaker culture, 1:470 Ptolemy, 2:381 Ptolemy, Geographica, 2:388 Publius Quintilius Varus, 2:247 Puglisi, Salvatore M., 2:36 Pupicina site, 1:171 Pylos site, 1:114 Pyramids of Egypt, 1:40, 44 ■ Q Quadi people, 2:573–574 Quanterness site, 1:283 Quentovic site, 2:324 ■ R Raczky, Pál, The Late Neolithic of the Tisza Region, 1:335 Radovanovicˇ, Ivana, The Iron Gates Mesolithic, 1:176 Radovesice site, 2:299 Raevskoe site, 2:294 Rainsborough site, 1:115 Rajewski, Zdsisław, 2:286 Ramad site, 1:208 Ramsauer, Johann Georg, 1:17; 2:144 Randsborg, Klavs, 1:100 Rassokhovatka site, 1:370 Rath of the Synods site, 2:237 Rathlin Island site, 1:404 Rathtinaun site, 2:234 Redwald, 2:499 Rega, Elizabeth, 1:86 Regensburg site, 2:385, 593, 596 Reim, Hartmann, 2:251 Reinecke, Paul, 2:86, 147 Remedello site, 1:445 Remigius, 2:376 Rendswühren Man, 1:27 Renfrew, Colin “The Autonomy of the South-East European Copper Age,” 1:318 on calibration and dating methods, 1:45 on copper industry, 1:318, 319 on Indo-European influences, 1:340 on megalithic tombs, 1:400 on populations based on hypogea, 1:454 on radiocarbon dating, 1:41 on ritual, evidence of, 1:91 650 and study of shrines, 1:90 Rerum gestarum libri (Ammianus Marcellinus), 2:180 Resource use See also specific countries; specific sites about environments and, 1:52–53 Bronze Age, 1:53–54 Holocene era, 1:170 Iron Age, 1:53–54 Mesolithic period, 1:52, 142, 154 Neolithic period, 1:52, 53, 84–85 postglacial period, 1:142, 154 Rhetor Priscus, 2:391 Rhine and Meuse Valleys, 1:286–291 Ribe site, 2:325, 328, 358, 546 Ribeiro, Carlos, 1:164 Rickett, Robert, 2:496 Riek, Gustav, 2:250 Rig Veda, 1:101, 102; 2:99–100 Rijckholt site, 1:404 Rijswijk site, 2:589 Ring of Brodgar site, 1:283 Ringkloster site, 1:135, 295 Rinyo site, 1:283 Ríordáin, A B ó, 2:467 Riparo Gabon site, 1:168 Ripiceni-Izvor site, 1:172 Ripoli site, 1:442, 444 Risch, Roberto, 2:47 Ritual and ideology, 1:170 See also specific countries; specific cultures and people; specific sites about artifacts, and evidence of, 1:91–92 about human sacrifices, 2:270 about Renfrew on evidence of, 1:91 Bronze Age Europe, central, 1:95, 96; 2:26– 27, 33 Europe, eastern, 2:26, 32, 99 Europe, northern, 2:77–78 Europe, northwestern, 2:57–58, 62, 68–69 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:450 Iberia, 2:48, 49 Mediterranean region, 2:35, 37, 40, 119–120, 123, 124 Copper Age, 1:92, 93, 95, 360, 361, 363, 365–366 Iron Age Europe, central, 2:250, 282, 298, 299, 301–302 Europe, northern, 1:93, 99–100; 2:181–183, 270, 551 Europe, northwestern, 2:225–227, 237–238 Iberia, 2:254–258, 256, 257 Megalithic period, 1:95, 97, 411– 412 Mesolithic period Europe, central, 1:189 Europe, eastern, 1:187, 188–190, 196 Europe, northwestern, 1:12, 149– 151 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:170, 177 Iberia, 1:159, 165 Mediterranean region, 1:170 Middle Ages Europe, central, 2:401, 554, 587– 588 Europe, northern, 2:410, 588 Europe, northwestern, 2:448, 450–451, 453, 456–459, 473– 474, 478, 486–487, 491 Migration period, 2:270 Neolithic period Europe, central, 1:92, 377–378 Europe, eastern, 1:94, 378–382 Europe, northern, 1:296, 298, 301, 425–426, 432, 433, 437 Europe, northwestern, 1:274, 284– 285 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:391 Europe, western, 1:284–285 Iberia, 1:460, 463 Mediterranean region, 1:97, 232, 274, 460, 463; 2:121 Rive d’Arcano site, 1:171 Roaix site, 1:112 Robb, John, 1:97 Roberts, Howell, 2:437 Robin Hood’s Ball site, 2:65 Rocca di Rivoli site, 1:442 Roche, Jean, 1:165 Rock art, 1:18, 85, 188–189, 193, 446, 459; 2:5 See also stone carvings; specific countries; specific sites Rogerius, Carmen miserabile, 2:579 Rogerson, Andrew, 2:496 Romagnano site, 1:168 Roman culture, 2:142–143, 228– 229, 236–237, 247, 257, 294– 295 Roman period about, 1:3, 12, 15, 47, 87 Europe, central, 2:573–574, 586– 590 Europe, northern, 1:62 Europe, northwestern, 2:501–504, 508–510 Romanellian culture, 1:172 A N C I E N T E U R O P E I N D E X Romania See also specific sites Bronze Age, 2:15, 17, 18, 21, 22 Copper Age, 1:92, 94, 339, 364 Iron Age, 1:115; 2:187, 375 Mesolithic period, 1:124, 172, 175, 177 Neolithic period, 1:238–239, 245, 335–336, 366 Rondeneto site, 1:170 Rosenhof site, 1:295, 296 Rössen culture, 1:287–290, 371–375, 377 Rossmore Park site, 2:69 Roth, Helmut, From Attila to Charlemagne, 2:426 Roum Girl, 1:27 Rowlands, Michael, 1:78; 2:10 Rowley-Conwy, Peter, 1:154; 2:372 Royal sites, 2:239–240 Rudbeck, Olof, 1:14 Runes, 2:589 Runnymede Bridge site, 2:180 Runnymede site, 1:276; 2:61 Rurik Gorodishche site, 2:564, 566 Rurik site, 2:563, 564 Rus culture, 2:406–408, 407 Russia See also Soviet Union; specific cultures and people; specific sites Bronze Age burials, 2:93–97 copper industry, 2:9 dates for, 2:92–93 horses, domestication of, 2:93 Indo-Iranian languages, 2:99–100 Indo-Iranian languages, influences of, 2:99–100 metallurgy industries, 2:94, 96–97 pottery industry, 2:96, 99 ritual and ideology, 2:99 settlement patterns, 2:93, 93–94, 95–96 settlement structures, 2:98 social systems, 2:93 steppe herders, 2:92–100 wheeled vehicles, 2:94–95 Copper Age, 2:94–97, 102 Iron Age, 2:166, 289–295 Middle Ages, 2:563–571, 564 animal husbandry, 2:570–571 archaeological evidence, 2:563–564 burials, 2:566, 569 economic systems, 2:563–567, 569–571 ethnic identities, 2:563, 564, 565, 566, 571 foraging populations, 2:570–571 fortifications, 2:566 historical evidence, 2:563 metalworking, 2:570, 570 A N C I E N T E U R O P E political systems, 2:564, 566 settlement patterns, 2:564–565, 569 social systems, 2:564, 566 trade and exchange, 2:563, 565– 566 urbanization, 2:563, 564, 565 Russian Primary Chronicle, 2:563, 565 Rütimeyer, Ludwig, 1:387 Ryan, William B F., 1:126, 244 Rzucewo culture, 1:471–472 ■ S Saami culture, 2:279, 408–410, 535 Sachsenwald site, 1:307 Sahlins, Marshall, 1:337 Saint-Germain-des-Prés site, 2:376 Saint Michel du Touch site, 1:443, 445 Saint Patrick, 2:181, 464–465 St Methodius, 2:554, 558 St Ninian’s Isle site, 2:404 Sakarovka I site, 1:243 Saleux site, 2:515 Salin, Bernhard, 2:539 Salin, Édouard, 2:400, 513–514 Salt industry, 1:74, 376; 2:223 Saltbæk Vig site, 1:36–39 Saltmade site, 1:37 Samo, 2:582 San Giorgio de Nogaro site, 1:170 San Juan ante Portam Latinam site, 1:460 San Vincenzo al Volturno site, 2:395 Sandagerga˚rd site, 2:78 Sandarna site, 1:185 Sangmeister, Edward, 1:478 Sant Gregori de Falset site, 1:163 Santa Maria site, 1:442 Santimamiñe cave site, 1:160 Santorini eruption, 1:43–44 Sardinia, 1:68–69, 70, 114, 440, 454; 2:50–53, 52 See also specific sites Sarmatian people, 2:573–574 Sarnate site, 1:434 Sarnowo site, 1:297, 305–310, 307 Sarre site, 1:445 Sarup on Fyn site, 1:301–304, 303, 403 Sautuola, Marcelino Sanz de, 1:18 Sauvterrian culture, 1:145, 145, 167– 170, 169, 173 Sauvterrian-la-Lémance site, 1:167 Sawyer, Peter, Kings and Vikings, 2:417 Saxo-Thuringia site, 2:23 Saxon culture, 2:381–384 Scandinavia See also specific countries; specific sites about prehistory, origins of, 1:18 Bronze Age, 2:72–85, 84 bronze industry, 2:74 burials, 2:5, 74–76, 76, 80–91, 81 clothing, 2:75–76, 81 coffin burials, 2:5, 75, 80–82 dates for, 2:73 gender roles and relationships, 1:81, 85–86, 86; 2:75–76 hoards, 2:27 metallurgy industries, 2:73–74 ritual and ideology, 2:77–78 rock art, 2:5 settlement patterns, 2:72–73, 76–77 settlement structures, 2:77, 78, 79 social structures, 2:75–76 social systems, 2:73–74, 75–76 trade and exchange, 2:78–79 Copper Age, 1:92, 93, 422–427 Holocene era, 1:49 Iron Age, 1:75, 117 artworks, 2:269, 270 burials, 2:269–270, 279 cairn fields, 2:273–274 environments, 2:272–273 farming, 2:273–274 fortifications, 2:138 hoards, 2:270 human sacrifices, 2:270 iron industry, 2:269 landscape use, 2:270–272 population statistics, 2:270–271 ritual and ideology, 2:270 Saami culture, 2:279, 409 settlement patterns, 2:270–273 settlement structures, 2:273 warfare and conquest, 2:269–270 watercraft, 2:270 weapons and armor, 2:270 wheeled vehicles, 2:270 Megalithic period, 1:399, 402, 403 Mesolithic period burials, 1:149, 196 environments, 1:183 farming, 1:202 foraging populations, 1:184, 185 gender roles and relationships, 1:83 pottery industry, 1:185 stone tool industries, 1:144, 145 Middle Ages artworks, 2:417, 418 Christianity, 2:535 clothing, 2:433–435, 434 651 I N D E X Scandinavia (continued) coinage, 2:358 political systems, 2:418–419 Saami culture, 2:408–410 settlement patterns, 2:418 settlement structures, 2:418 social systems, 2:418, 419 state societies, 2:348–349 subsistence resources, 2:418 textile industry, 2:433–435, 434 trade and exchange, 2:418 warfare and conquest, 2:417 writing, 2:419 Migration period, 2:270 Neolithic period, 1:431–438 aquatic resources, 1:432 barrow burials, 1:402, 423 burials, 1:433 crops, 1:433 dates for, 1:398, 433 farming, 1:421–422 foraging populations, 1:433, 434 landscape use, 1:129 political systems, 1:432–433 pottery industry, 1:185, 432, 434 ritual and ideology, 1:432, 433 settlement patterns, 1:421, 432 stone tool industries, 1:432 subsistence resources, 1:432–433 trade and exchange, 1:434 Pleistocene era, 1:183–184 postglacial period, 1:24 Stone Age, 1:433 Viking Age, 2:417, 417–419, 423– 425, 425, 549 Scania See Scandinavia; Sweden Schadla-Hall, Tim, 1:155 Schela Cladovei site, 1:175, 176, 177, 177, 178 Schlammersdorf site, 1:295 Schletz-Asparn site, 1:111, 264 Schliemann, Heinrich, 1:18; 2:249 Schmerling, Philippe-Charles, 1:17 Schmidt, Robert, 1:83 Schnabelkannen, 2:245 Schutz, Herbert, Tools, Weapons, and Ornaments, 2:426 Schwab, Friedrich, 2:147 Schwarz, Klaus, 2:177 Scoglio del Tonno site, 1:444 Scotland See also specific cultures and people; specific sites about prehistory, origins of, 1:17 Iron Age, 1:115; 2:180, 223 Megalithic period, 1:398, 403 Mesolithic period, 1:50, 52, 148, 149–150, 277, 277–278 Middle Ages artisans, 2:472, 477, 478 652 artworks, 2:388 burials, 2:474, 476, 478 Christianity, spread of, 2:469, 473–474 church architecture, 2:476–477 fortifications, 2:472 hoards, 2:404 metalwork, 2:472 mills and milling technology, 2:477 political systems, 2:388 post-Roman period, 2:469–470 pottery industry, 2:472 ritual and ideology, 2:448, 473– 474, 476, 478 settlement patterns, 2:471–472 slavery, 2:474 social systems, 2:386, 471 stone carvings, 2:472–473, 473, 476–478 transportation routes, 2:387 warfare and conquest, 2:387–388, 388 Neolithic period, 1:129, 277–278, 398 Viking Age, 2:445–449, 446, 469, 473–474 Scythian culture, 2:282, 290–291, 294–295, 368, 369, 411–414 Sˇebrn Abri site, 1:171 Secondary Products Revolution See also specific countries; specific sites about effects of, 1:339; 2:109 animal pulling power/traction, 1:314, 327–329; 2:14, 15, 26, 46 artifacts associated with, 1:328 artifacts for, 1:327 dairy industry, 1:314, 325–327, 373, 425; 2:14, 26, 46 wool industry, 1:314, 327–328, 330, 390, 425; 2:14, 26, 46 Selevac site, 1:320 Selzen site, 2:512 Semibratnoe site, 2:294 Semnones people, 2:592, 595 Sennacherib, 2:290 Serbia about prehistory, origins of, 1:18 Bronze Age, 1:95; 2:9, 17, 18, 22 Copper Age, 1:320, 339 Iron Age, 2:301 Mesolithic period, 1:124, 175, 176– 177, 178, 179, 202 Neolithic period, 1:94, 178, 235– 237, 238–239, 318, 335–336, 337 Sered site, 1:173 Sernander, R., 1:49 Serra d’Alto site, 1:444 Service, Elman, 1:78 Service, Elman, Primitive Social Organization, 2:15 Sesklo site, 1:208, 209, 220, 337 Sestieri, Anna Maria Bietti, 2:38 Settlement patterns See also Fortifications; Migration patterns; specific countries; specific cultures and people; specific sites about archaeology and, 1:55–64 about emporia, 2:324–336 about field systems, 2:59–60, 214, 222 Bronze Age Europe, central, 2:15, 21–22, 87, 88–89 Europe, eastern, 2:15, 72–73, 76– 77, 93, 93–94, 95–96, 103, 104 Europe, northwestern, 1:129; 2:58–59 Europe, southeastern, 2:17–18 Europe, western, 2:214 Iberia, 2:45–46, 48 Mediterranean region, 2:35–40, 42–44, 45–46, 48, 111, 113 Copper Age, 1:320, 338–339, 358– 359, 362, 458 Iron Age Europe, central, 1:77; 2:208–209, 299, 300–301 Europe, eastern, 2:291–292, 293– 294, 304–306, 307 Europe, northern, 1:77; 2:270– 273, 278–279, 548 Europe, northwestern, 1:77; 2:501–502 Europe, western, 2:212–213, 213, 215, 217–218 Iberia, 2:255, 256–257, 258 Mediterranean region, 2:255, 258, 314–315, 317–318 Mesolithic period Europe, eastern, 1:184–185, 187 Europe, northern, 1:147–148 Europe, northwestern, 1:148, 153–156 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:202 Europe, western, 1:157–158 Iberia, 1:157–158, 159, 160, 161, 162 Mediterranean region, 1:124 Middle Ages Europe, central, 2:384–385, 554– 556, 560, 586, 587, 589, 591– 592, 594–595 Europe, eastern, 2:564–565, 569 A N C I E N T E U R O P E I N D E X Europe, northern, 2:418, 438– 439, 440–441, 589 Europe, northwestern, 2:332, 333, 451–452, 471–472, 481–482, 483–484, 492–493, 500, 501– 506 Europe, western, 2:514–516 Neolithic period Europe, central, 1:335–336, 374– 375 Europe, eastern, 1:239, 241, 314, 335–336, 337, 368, 374–375 Europe, northern, 1:289, 314, 372, 421, 432, 436 Europe, northwestern, 1:226–227, 275, 289, 314–315, 398 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:314–315, 335–336, 386–387, 389, 395 Europe, western, 1:257, 314 Iberia, 1:458 Mediterranean region, 1:35, 253– 254, 275, 439, 458 post-Roman period, 2:504–505 Roman period, 2:501–504 Settlement structures See also specific countries; specific sites Bronze Age Europe, central, 2:21–22, 88–89, 89 Europe, eastern, 2:103, 104 Europe, northern, 2:77, 78, 79 Europe, northwestern, 2:57–58, 59, 231 Europe, southeastern, 2:18 Europe, upland central and southern, 2:22 Europe, western, 2:214 Copper Age, 1:320, 349–350, 351, 351 Iron Age Europe, central, 1:87; 2:209–210 Europe, eastern, 2:292 Europe, northern, 2:273, 534– 535, 537–538 Europe, northwestern, 2:223–224, 224 Europe, western, 1:75, 76, 87; 2:216, 218–219 Iberia, 2:257, 258 Mediterranean region, 2:316 Megalithic period, 1:399 Mesolithic period Europe, eastern, 1:187 Europe, northwestern, 1:148–149, 152, 153 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:175, 176, 178, 179 Iberia, 1:160, 165–166 A N C I E N T E U R O P E Middle Ages Europe, central, 2:397, 415, 552, 552, 556, 587, 590 Europe, northern, 2:418, 443–444 Europe, northwestern, 2:381, 404, 462–465, 463, 492–493, 500– 501, 509, 509 Europe, western, 2:515 Neolithic period, 1:222 Europe, central, 1:369, 369, 374 Europe, eastern, 1:369, 369, 374, 379, 380 Europe, northern, 1:314, 436–437 Europe, northwestern, 1:273, 274, 281–282, 282, 283, 398, 399 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:178, 180, 314 Europe, western, 1:314 Iberia, 1:163, 465 Mediterranean region, 1:202, 220, 232, 250, 257, 398; 2:121 Viking Age, 2:534–535, 537–538 Seuss, H E., 1:42 Sezegnin site, 2:514, 517 Shapwick site, 1:60, 60 Sheep, 1:212, 213–214, 314, 326, 327–328, 330 Sherman, Stephen, 2:10 Sherratt, Andrew, 1:330, 331, 332, 479; 2:14 Shetland sites, 2:445–449, 446 Ships, 2:423–425, 425, 498–500, 534 See also Boats and boatbuilding Shramko, Boris Andreevich, 2:293 Siberia, 1:189 Sicily, 1:114 See also specific sites Sigersdal Mose site, 1:298, 404 Siggeneben-Süd site, 1:295, 297 Silbury Hill site, 1:128, 405 Silkeborg site, 2:270 Silver industry, 1:441; 2:25, 170, 171, 328, 358, 358–359, 359 See also specific countries; specific sites Simeoni, Gabriele, 2:220 Similaun Man See Iceman Simpson, Linzi, 2:466 Single Grave culture, 1:373, 427, 469–470 Sintashta-Arkaim culture, 2:97–98 Sion-Petit Chasseur site, 1:391, 446– 450, 447 Siret, Henri, 2:45 Siret, Louis, 1:464; 2:45 Sitagroi site, 1:320, 338 Skallagrim, 2:440 Skara Brae site, 1:282, 282–284, 398 Skateholm site, 1:138, 140–141, 196, 295, 296, 309, 420 Skir people, 2:574 Skoteini site, 1:207 Skræppega˚rd site, 1:298 Skrydstrup site, 2:76 Skrydstrup Woman burial, 2:75, 80 Skuldelev site, 2:424 Slatino site, 1:320 Slavery, 2:196–197, 473 Slavonic culture, 2:414–417, 415, 552, 554–556, 556, 593, 596 Slettnes site, 1:139 A Slice through Time (Baillie), 1:43 Slovakia See also specific sites Bronze Age burials, 2:22, 32 copper industry, 2:9 deposits, 2:26 fortifications, 1:114–115; 2:31–33, 32 hoards, 2:33 pottery industry, 2:21 ritual and ideology, 2:26, 33 settlement structures, 2:21, 22 social systems, 2:32 trade and exchange, 2:32 warfare and conquest, 1:114–115 weapons and armor, 1:116 Iron Age, 1:75; 2:301 Mesolithic period, 1:173 Middle Ages, 2:580, 582, 582 Neolithic period, 1:372, 374, 376, 377, 382, 383, 384 Slovenia, 1:171, 202; 2:242, 297– 298, 302 Smakkerup Huse site, 1:37, 38, 295, 299 Snaeburn site, 1:428 Snaesdóttir, Mjoll, 2:437 Snape site, 2:490 Snettisham site, 1:77, 77; 2:226 Snodgrass, Anthony, 2:312, 313 Social systems See also specific countries; specific sites about archaeology, and evidence for, 1:72–80 Bronze Age, 1:62–63 Europe, central, 2:5, 32 Europe, eastern, 2:93 Europe, northern, 1:85–86; 2:75– 76 Europe, northwestern, 1:46; 2:5, 57–58, 60–61, 231 Europe, western, 2:5 Iberia, 2:48–49 Mediterranean region, 2:10–11, 36, 40, 48–49, 113, 123–124 653 I N D E X Social systems (continued) Copper Age, 1:343–344, 349–350, 362 Iron Age, 1:62 Europe, central, 1:79–80; 2:156, 159, 181, 241–242, 246, 250, 282 Europe, eastern, 2:304–305, 306 Europe, northern, 2:535, 548 Europe, northwestern, 2:181, 227–228 Europe, western, 2:214, 216, 217 Iberia, 2:255–258, 256, 257, 258 Mediterranean region, 1:73, 75, 76, 87; 2:266, 314 Mesolithic period, 1:62–63, 196 Middle Ages Europe, central, 2:398, 576, 584, 587–588, 588, 592 Europe, eastern, 2:564, 566 Europe, northern, 2:419 Europe, northwestern, 2:329–330, 386, 471, 481–482, 483–484 Neolithic period, 1:241–243, 337, 436, 460, 461, 464–466 Society of Antiquaries of London, 2:498 So⁄ lager site, 1:423 Soman site, 1:168 Somerset Levels site, 1:31 Son Matge site, 1:459 Sopra Fienile Rossino site, 1:170 Sopron site, 2:297 So⁄ rensen, Marie Louise Stig, 1:81, 85, 94 Soroki II site, 1:244, 358 Sotira culture, 1:231, 347 Soudsky´, Bohumil, 1:269, 270 Soufli Magoula, 1:205 Soviet Union, origins of prehistory and, 1:20 See also specific countries; specific sites Spain See also specific sites about prehistory, origins of, 1:17–18 Bronze Age, 2:5 Copper Age, 1:458, 460, 464–466 Iron Age, 1:117; 2:199–200 Mesolithic period, 1:124, 159, 161– 162 Neolithic period artworks, 1:458–459 burials, 1:458, 465 crops, 1:208 dates for, 1:398 farming, 1:202 political systems, 1:460–462 pottery industry, 1:257, 459 settlement structures, 1:465 social systems, 1:464–466 654 subsistance resources, 1:249, 249 Spisˇsky´ Sˇtvrtok site, 2:31–33, 32 Spong Hill site, 2:383, 490, 496–497 Srendny Stog culture, 1:359–361 Srubnaya culture, 2:99 Staigue Fort site, 1:115 Stanton Drew site, 2:66 Staosnaig site, 1:50, 277 Star Carr site, 1:153–156 artifacts, 1:155 environments and, 1:19, 25, 47–48, 50 fires, and impacts of use by humans on, 1:154–155 foraging populations, 1:154 population statistics, 1:154 resource use, 1:154 ritual and ideology, 1:12 ritual behaviors, 1:149 settlement patterns, 1:147–148, 154, 155–156 subsistence resources, 1:147 tool industries, 1:154, 155 Staraya Ladoga site, 2:564, 564, 565– 566, 568–571, 570 Starcˇevo culture, 1:177–178, 237, 238–239 Staré Hradisko site, 2:300–301 Sta˚lmosega˚rd site, 1:298 Stary Kolín site, 2:302 State societies, 2:346–350 See also Political systems Stefermark site, 1:118 Stelae artifacts, 1:448–450, 449 Stentinello site, 1:35 Steppe herders, 2:92–100 See also Herding; Nomadic traditions; Pastoralism burials, 2:93, 94, 95–96, 97 dates for, 2:92–93 horses, domestication of, 2:93 Indo-Iranian languages and, 2:99– 100 kurgan burials, 2:94–97 metallurgy industries, 2:94, 96–97 pottery industry, 2:96, 99 ritual and ideology, 2:99 settlement patterns, 2:93, 93–94, 95–96 settlement structures, 2:98 social systems, 2:93 wheeled vehicles, 2:94–95, 98 wool industry, 2:94 Sticˇna site, 2:297 Stockbridge Down site, 2:491 Stoffel, Eugène, 2:220 Stokes, Paul, 2:372 Stolpe, Hjalmar, 2:540 Stone Age, 1:433; 2:533 See also Mesolithic period; Neolithic period Stone carvings See also specific countries; specific sites about rock art, 1:18, 85, 188–189, 193, 446, 459; 2:5 Europe, northern, 2:542, 544, 545 Europe, northwestern, 2:405, 453, 472–473, 476–478, 480, 510 Stone industry, 2:225 See also Stone carvings; specific countries; specific sites Stone tool industries about lithic industry, 1:441 Copper Age, 1:361 Iron Age, 2:225 Mesolithic period Europe, eastern, 1:184–185, 186 Europe, northern, 1:144, 145, 185 Europe, northwestern, 1:144–145, 145, 151, 153, 155, 294–295 Iberia, 1:158–163, 165, 167, 168 Mediterranean region, 1:144, 145 Neolithic period Europe, eastern, 1:369 Europe, northern, 1:289, 290, 432 Europe, northwestern, 1:150, 274, 287, 289, 290 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:171, 172, 441, 452 Iberia, 1:459 Mediterranean region, 1:249, 274, 275, 441, 452; 2:121 Palaeolithic era, 1:144, 145, 179 Stonehenge site, 2:61–67, 63 burials, 2:62 construction sequence, 2:62–64, 63 dates for, 2:62–64 environments, 2:65 landscape use, 1:3, 25, 128, 315; 2:65 monumental structures, 1:315, 405 ritual and ideology, 2:62, 65 social systems, 1:46 stone materials for, 2:64 Stones of Stenness site, 1:283 Stöng site, 1:49 Stonyford site, 2:236 Stora Förvar site, 1:134–135, 436 Stora Köpinge site, 2:271 Store A˚mose site, 1:422, 425 Storebælt site, 1:52 Strabo, 2:220, 290, 294, 374 Strachotín site, 2:301 Stradonice site, 2:300 Strandtved site, 2:75, 76 Struve, K W., 1:467 Sˇturms, Eduard, 2:390 A N C I E N T E U R O P E I N D E X Stuiver, Minze, 1:42 Stukeley, William, 1:14 Stumble site, 1:276 Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt site, 1:268, 269 Subsistence resources See also specific countries; specific cultures and people; specific sites Bronze Age, 2:89, 99, 112 Copper Age, 1:356, 358, 361, 365 Europe, central, 1:394 Iron Age, 2:222–223 Mesolithic period Europe, eastern, 1:124, 184, 186, 187 Europe, northwestern, 1:50, 52, 145–147, 277–288, 436 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:176 Europe, western, 1:147 Iberia, 1:159, 160, 161, 162, 163 Middle Ages, 2:418, 440–441, 448 Neolithic period Europe, central, 1:365, 394 Europe, eastern, 1:336–337, 365 Europe, northern, 1:289, 313, 432–433, 436 Europe, northwestern, 1:276, 283, 285, 289, 398 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:178, 180, 202, 388– 389, 397, 454 Europe, western, 1:285, 394 Iberia, 1:459–460 Mediterranean region, 1:454 Suffolk County Council, 2:498 Suomusjärvi site, 1:184, 185 Surrey site, 1:276 Sutton Hoo site, 1:24; 2:181, 342, 344, 490, 491, 498–500, 499 Svobodnoe site, 2:94 Svodín site, 1:374, 376, 377, 383 Sweden See also specific cultures and people; specific sites about prehistory, origins of, 1:19 Bronze Age, 2:75, 76, 78, 84 Iron Age, 2:534–535, 537, 537– 538, 539 Megalithic period, 1:401–402 Mesolithic period, 1:124, 132–141, 156 burials, 1:124, 140–141, 196 foraging populations, 1:185 gender roles and relationships, 1:83 landscape use, 1:129 and prehistory, origins of, 1:14 rock art, 1:189 stone tool industries, 1:185 A N C I E N T E U R O P E Middle Ages, 1:23; 2:325–326, 326, 427, 434 Neolithic period, 1:435–438, 471 animal husbandry, 1:436 burials, 1:428 crops, 1:436 environments, 1:435–436 foraging populations, 1:432 settlement patterns, 1:372, 436 stone tool industries, 1:426 subsistence resources, 1:313, 436 trade and exchange, 1:432 Viking Age, 2:537–541 artisans, 2:539 burials, 2:538–539 Christianity, 2:540 economic systems, 2:539–540 hoards, 2:535, 535, 538, 538 settlement structures, 2:534–535, 537–538 subsistence resources, 2:534–535, 537–538 trade and exchange, 2:540 urbanization, 2:539–540 Sweet, Ray, 1:416 Swein Forkbeard, 2:506 Swiderian culture, 1:184 Swifterbant site, 1:288 Swithun (bishop), 2:505 Switzerland See also specific sites about prehistory, origins of, 1:17 Bronze Age, 1:115; 2:21, 22, 25 Iron Age, 2:186, 187, 242 Neolithic period, 1:395–397 burials, 1:391 copper artifacts, evidence of, 1:315, 389, 392, 392–395, 393 environments, 1:47, 51, 52 health and disease issues, 1:394 pottery industry, 1:391 settlement structures, 1:202 stone tool industries, 1:441 subsistence resources, 1:394 tool industries, 1:386, 387, 393 trade and exchange, 1:391 S’yezzhe site, 1:366 Syria, 1:206, 208, 223 Szazhalombatta site, 2:18 Szigetszentmárton site, 1:331 Szwajcer (Schweitzer), Walenty, 2:286 ■ T Tacitus, 2:151, 192, 279, 388, 396, 398, 542, 545 Táin Bó Cúailnge, 2:237 Talheim site, 1:111, 264 Tandderwen site, 2:485 Tankardstown site, 1:280 Taplow site, 2:491 Tara site, 2:69, 239, 240, 454, 454 Ta˚gerup site, 1:135, 136 Tarbat Historic Trust, 2:476 Tarbat sites, 2:476–478 Tardenoisian culture, 1:145, 145, 168 Tarquinia, 2:260 Tartaruga site, 1:171 Tarxien site, 1:451, 452, 453, 454 Taurus Mountains, 1:206, 207; 2:8 Tayac site, 1:76 Technologies, 2:224–225, 248 See also specific industries Teishebai URU site, 2:307, 308 Tell Aswad site, 1:205, 206, 207 La Tène culture, 2:146–148, 245– 247 about, 2:140, 144, 192 artworks, 2:184–190, 216, 234, 235, 298 burials, 2:147–148, 216–217, 245 coinage, 2:216 dates for, 2:138, 144, 147, 148 farming, 2:142 feasting, 2:181 fortifications, 2:141–142, 158, 158– 159 metallurgy industries, 2:216 oppida, 2:142, 148, 158, 158–159 political systems, 2:142, 217 pottery industry, 2:216 settlement patterns, 2:142, 147, 212, 217–218, 245 settlement structures, 2:216 social systems, 2:216 state societies, 2:348 trade and exchange, 2:216 Viereckschanzen, 2:177 warfare and conquest, 1:117, 118; 2:217, 246 Tèpe site, 2:574, 577 Te˘sˇetice-Kyjovice site, 1:374, 382, 383 Téviec site, 1:141, 147, 148, 274– 275, 309, 400 Textile industry, 1:143; 2:225, 248, 329, 375, 397, 433–435, 434 See also specific countries; specific sites Thapsos site, 2:36–37 Theocharis, Dimitrios, 1:229 Theodoric, 2:402–403 Theopetra site, 1:173, 204 Thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), 1:68 Thomas, Charles, 2:481 655 I N D E X Thomsen, Christian Jürgensen, 1:15, 25, 137; 2:3, 72 Thule Inuit people, 2:438 Tigranakert site, 2:310 Tigran II, 2:310 Tilley, Christopher, 1:97 Timmendorf-Nordmole site, 1:138 Tin industry, 2:7–8 Tinè, Santo, 1:254 Tiryns site, 1:114 Tischler, Otto, 2:86 Tiszapolgár site, 1:92, 315, 330, 374, 377, 378 Titterstone Clee site, 1:115 Toftum site, 1:403 Tollund Man, 1:19, 26–27, 47; 2:270 Tomb of the Chariots site, 2:263 Tomb of the Five Chairs site, 2:263 Le tombeau de Childéric I (Cochet), 2:519 Tool industries See also specific countries; specific industries; specific sites Bronze Age, 2:14 Copper Age, 1:315, 318, 339, 393, 441–442 Holocene era, 1:167 Megalithic period, 1:404–405 Neolithic period, 1:386, 387, 389, 393, 396, 432 postglacial period, 1:142, 154, 155 Tools, Weapons, and Ornaments (Schutz), 2:426 Toppo Daguzzo site, 2:36 Tornow site, 2:588, 592 Torre Spaccata site, 1:442 Toumba Balomenou site, 1:209 Tournal, Paul, 1:17 Towyn site, 2:486 Trackways, 1:415–417 Trade and exchange See also specific countries; specific sites about archaeological evidence for, 1:65–71 about emporia, 2:324–336, 325 about luxury and non-luxury artifacts, 2:354–355 about origins of, 2:351–352 about theories on, 2:352–353 Bronze Age Europe, central, 2:27–29, 28, 32 Europe, eastern, 2:111–113 Europe, northern, 2:78–79 Europe, northwestern, 2:55–56 Europe, western, 1:418; 2:214 Mediterranean region, 1:69–70; 2:109–110, 111–113, 122 Copper Age, 1:69, 70, 339, 352 656 Iron Age Europe, central, 2:138, 159, 210, 242–245, 248–249, 250, 283– 284 Europe, northern, 2:278–279 Europe, northwestern, 2:228, 237 Europe, western, 2:202–204, 215, 216 Iberia, 2:256 Mesolithic period, 1:176, 177, 179, 187 Middle Ages, 2:351–355 Europe, central, 2:406–408, 419– 420, 557–558, 588, 591 Europe, eastern, 2:563, 565–566 Europe, northern, 2:326, 353– 354, 418, 433, 589 Europe, northwestern, 2:333–334, 353–354, 493–494 Iberia, 2:530–532 Neolithic period Europe, eastern, 1:239, 247, 376 Europe, northern, 1:434 Europe, upland central and southern, 1:391 Iberia, 1:459–460 Mediterranean region, 1:69–70, 253, 255, 459–460 post-Roman culture, 2:353 Viking Age, 2:540, 542–547 Transcaucasia, 2:101–107, 102 See also Caucasia Transdanubia site, 2:576 Transportation See also Transportation routes boats and boatbuilding, 2:430–432, 431, 432 horses, use of, 1:330 ships, 2:423–425, 425 watercraft, 1:124, 202, 417–418, 418 wheeled vehicles, 1:329, 331, 362, 373, 374; 2:15, 106 Transportation routes, 1:415–417, 426; 2:42–44, 67–68, 68, 69, 476 See also Transportation Transylvania, 1:116 la Trecha, 1:159 Trelleborg site, 2:544 Trethellan Farm site, 2:57 Tribal Hidage, 2:494 Trichterbecher (TRB) culture See Funnel Beaker culture Trieste karst region, 1:171–172 Trindho⁄ j site, 2:76, 80 Trinity College, 2:451 Tripolye culture, 1:354, 355, 357– 359, 358, 368–370 Tro⁄ delag site, 2:270 Trofastbacken site, 2:278 Trump, David, 1:453 Trundholm Mose site, 2:77 Tudozero site, 1:190 Tuna site, 2:535, 538 Tuppo dei Sassi site, 1:172 Turkey, 1:69–70, 105, 205–208, 223; 2:8, 111, 112 See also Anatolia Turkmenistan, 2:99 Turku site, 2:550 Turoe stone, 2:234, 235 Tusa, Sebastiano, 2:37 Tybrind Vig site, 1:23, 37, 137–138, 141–143, 142, 299 ■ U Ukraine See also specific sites about Proto-Indo-European language, archaeological data and origins of, 1:107–108 Bronze Age, 2:95–96, 99 Copper Age, 1:354–370 animal husbandry, 1:358, 361, 362 burials, 1:358, 360–361, 362–363 crops, 1:358, 361 environments, 1:356, 359 fauna, 1:358, 361, 362 figurines, 1:359 fishing populations, 1:358 flora, 1:358, 361 horses, domestication of, 1:361 kurgan burials, 1:340, 361, 362 population statistics, 1:359 pottery industry, 1:358, 359, 361, 362 ritual and ideology, 1:360, 361, 363 settlement patterns, 1:358–359, 362 settlement structures, 1:358, 359, 360–361, 362 stone tool industries, 1:361 subsistence resources, 1:358, 361 trade and exchange, 1:358 Iron Age, 1:76; 2:289–295 Mesolithic period, 1:184, 185, 364 Neolithic period, 1:245, 354–370 Ulriksen, Jens, 2:335 Uluburun site, 1:69–70; 2:8, 111, 112 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), 2:540 Úneˇtice culture, 2:5, 6, 8, 22 A N C I E N T E U R O P E I N D E X United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2:540 University of California at Los Angeles, 1:241 University of Frankfurt, 1:261 University of Rennes, 1:410 University of York, 2:476, 498 Uppa˚kra site, 2:539 Uppsala University, 1:363 Upton Lovell site, 2:66 Ural Mountain cultures, 1:107, 108, 184 Urbanization See also Oppida; specific countries; specific sites Anglo-Saxon culture, 2:493 Iron Age, 2:138–139, 287, 550 Middle Ages, 2:565 Europe, central, 2:587, 590 Europe, eastern, 2:563, 564, 565 Europe, northwestern, 2:455, 456–459, 457, 466–468, 493, 501–507, 503, 516–518 Europe, western, 2:514, 516–518, 517 Viking Age, 2:539–540 Urfirnis ware, 1:181 Urnfield culture, 1:24, 114, 116; 2:86–91, 90, 241 See also Hallstatt culture Urnfields, 1:24; 2:4, 38, 87–88, 214, 282, 393 See also Burials Ursus, 2:376 Ussher, James, 1:14 ■ V Václav, 2:585 Vadastra site, 1:320 Vacˇe site, 2:297 Vaiale site, 1:168, 170 Vaihingen site, 1:112 Val Camonica site, 1:446 Vale of Pickering Research Trust, 1:155 Valencina de la Concepción site, 1:458 Valsgärde site, 2:535, 538 Vandal people, 2:574 Vænget Nord site, 1:37 Varikkoniemi site, 2:550 Varna site, 1:321, 340, 341–344, 342 Varsinais Suomi site, 2:278, 278 Vasic´, Miloje, 1:18 Vasiliev, Igor, 1:365 Västerbjers, 1:432, 433 Västmanland site, 2:535, 538 A N C I E N T E U R O P E Västra Hoby site, 1:401–402 Vatte di Zambana site, 1:168 Vázquez, Victoria Villoch, 1:96 Vedas, 1:101, 102 Vedbæk site, 1:138, 309, 420 La Vela site, 1:442, 445 Velatice site, 1:112 Velim site, 1:112 Venantius Fortunatus, 2:384 Veretye site, 1:184 Verhulst, Adriaan, The Carolingian Economy, 2:330 Veselovskii, Nikolai, 1:18 Vesely Kut site, 1:358 Vésteinsson, Orri, 2:437, 442, 443 Vészt-Mágor site, 1:339 Viborg site, 2:506 Viereckschanzen, 2:174–178, 175, 177, 246, 247, 301 Vignely site, 1:274 Viking Age about regions and Europe, northern, 2:436–444, 533–541, 544–547, 550 Europe, northwestern, 2:445–449, 446, 454–456, 466–468, 469, 474–475 artisans, 2:539, 550 burials, 2:534, 538–539 Christianity, 2:540, 549 coinage, 2:549, 550 dates for, 2:548 economic systems, 2:539–540, 542–547 fortifications, 2:544, 546, 546–547 hoards, 2:535, 535, 538, 538, 549 inscribed stones, 2:542, 544, 545 monumental structures, 2:542, 544, 545 political systems, 2:541–542, 544– 545, 546 settlement structures, 2:534–535, 537–538 state societies, 2:349 stone carvings, 2:542, 544, 545 subsistence resources, 2:534–535, 537–538 trade and exchange, 2:540, 542– 549 urbanization, 2:539–540 Viking culture about Wales and, 2:487 emporia, 2:334–336, 335 gender roles and relationships, 1:87 harbors, 2:334–336, 335 hoards, 2:334, 334, 359 jewelry, 2:427 settlement patterns, 1:53–54 settlement structures, 1:53–54 ships, 2:423–425, 425 state societies, 2:350 trade and exchange, 2:334–336, 335 warfare and conquest, 2:331 Vikletice site, 1:470 Ville-neuve-Tolosane site, 1:443, 445 Villeneuve-la-Guyard site, 1:274, 445 Villey-Saint-Etienne site, 2:513 Vincˇa culture, 1:85, 320, 323 Vincˇa site, 1:18, 336, 339 Visborg site, 1:422 Visigoth culture, 2:419–422, 420, 421, 514 Vita Sancti Severini (Eugippius), 2:384 Vitelli, Karen D., 1:91 Vix site, 1:75, 76, 87; 2:201, 205, 205–207, 216 Vladar, J., 2:31 Vladimirovka site, 1:368 Vlasac site, 1:124, 175–176, 176, 177 Volterra site, 2:262, 262, 264, 267 Von Sacken, Baron, 2:144 Voytek, Barbara, 1:320 Vucˇedol site, 1:320, 339 Vukovar site, 1:320 Vulci site, 2:266 Vykhvatintsy site, 1:358 ■ W Waals, Johannes D van der, 1:470, 476 Wade-Martins, Peter, 2:496 Wagons, 2:55, 98, 106, 270 Wainwright, Frederick T., The Problem of the Picts, 2:404 Wales, 2:480, 480–484, 481 Wallace, Patrick, 2:455, 466 Walsh, Clare, 2:466 Wangels site, 1:295, 296 Waremme-Longchamps site, 1:113 Warendorf site, 2:587, 588, 590, 592 Warfare and conquest, 1:110–120 See also specific countries; specific sites Bronze Age, 1:114; 2:120 Copper Age, 1:112, 460, 462, 464– 466 Iron Age, 2:196 Europe, central, 1:112–113, 117– 118; 2:246, 247, 282, 300 Europe, eastern, 2:290, 294–295, 310–311 Europe, northern, 1:118; 2:269– 270 657 I N D E X Warfare and conquest (continued) Europe, northwestern, 1:118–120; 2:227–228 Europe, western, 2:217 horses and effects on, 1:367–368 Iberia, 2:256, 258–259 Mediterranean region, 1:117–118; 2:258–259, 266–267, 317–318 Mesolithic period, 1:111, 176 Middle Ages Europe, central, 2:391–393, 399– 400, 414–417, 419–421, 554– 555, 559, 574–576, 578–579 Europe, northern, 2:417, 534, 586 Europe, northwestern, 2:331, 387– 388 Neolithic period Europe, central, 1:111–112, 367– 368 Europe, eastern, 1:112, 367–368, 376–377 Europe, northwestern, 1:112, 285 Europe, western, 1:113–114 Iberia, 1:460, 462, 464–466 Mediterranean region, 1:111, 112, 460, 462 Merovingian Franks, 2:399–400 Palaeolithic era, 1:111 Wassenaar site, 2:4 Watercraft boats and boatbuilding, 1:417–418; 2:55–56, 270, 430–432 ships, Viking, 2:423–425, 425 Waterford site, 2:455 Waterways, 2:42–44 Watson, Patty Jo, 1:83 Weapons and armor, 1:115–117; 2:196, 214, 242, 270, 522, 588 See also specific countries; specific sites Weier site, 1:51 Welbeck Hill site, 2:490 Welinder, Stig, 1:432 Welwyn site, 1:75 Wessex site, 2:5, 66 West Heslerton site, 2:490 658 West Stow site, 1:24; 2:491, 500– 501 Western facade region, 1:160–162 Wetzleindorf, 1:376 Wheeled vehicles, 1:373, 374, 388; 2:55, 94–95, 98, 106, 270 Wheeler, Mortimer, 1:19, 33, 118 White Horse artifact, 1:46 Whitehouse, Ruth, 2:40 Whithorn site, 2:471 Whittle, Alasdair, 1:321 Wicnica site, 1:112 Wieland, Günther, 2:177 Wielbark culture, 2:388, 389, 390 Wietrzychowice site, 1:306 Wihtred of Kent, 2:362 Willemstad site, 1:149 William, Leopold, 2:511, 519 William the Conqueror, 2:493, 505, 510 Winchester Excavations Committee, 2:502 Winchester site, 2:501–507, 503 Windeby Girl, 1:27 Wine production, 2:374 Winterbourne Stoke site, 2:65 Women in Prehistory (Ehrenberg), 1:81 Wood Quay site, 2:455 Woodhenge site, 2:65 Woodman, Peter, 1:151 Wool industry, 1:426; 2:14, 26, 46, 59, 94, 124 Worsaae, Jens Jacob Asmussen, 1:25 Wright, Edward V., 1:417 Writing about ogham script, 2:142, 405, 482, 483 about runes, 2:586, 589 Bronze Age, 2:112, 119 Iron Age, 2:141, 142, 237, 302 Middle Ages, 2:405, 419, 586, 589 Württemburg culture, 1:114 ■ X X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), 1:67 ■ Y Yamnaya culture, 1:361–363; 2:95– 96 Yeavering site, 2:492 Yi-Fu Tuan, 1:94 York site, 1:30, 53–54; 2:434, 508– 510, 509 Yugoslavia See also specific sites Bronge Age, 1:86 Copper Age, 1:320, 339 Iron Age, 1:73 Mesolithic period, 1:83, 124 Neolithic period, 1:320, 335–336, 337 Yurrita, Alberto del Castillo, 1:476 ■ Z Zagros Mountains, 1:206, 207, 213 Zambujal site, 1:459, 460, 462 Zammit, Themistocles, 1:452 Závist site, 2:297, 298, 300 Zawi Chemi Shanidar site, 1:213 Zdanovich, Gennady, 2:98 Zealand sites, 1:136 Zeiss, Hans, 2:513 Zemplin site, 2:301 Zengövarkony site, 1:374 Zenjak site, 2:302 ˇ idovar site, 2:301 Z Zilh˜ao, Jo˜ao, 1:250, 252, 253 Zimmerman, D W., 1:46 ˇ lkovce site, 1:374, 376 Z Złota culture, 1:470 Zvejnieki site, 1:141, 187–188, 189– 190, 196 Zvelebil, Marek, 1:252, 254 A N C I E N T E U R O P E ... Prehistoric? ?Europe? ??Encyclopedias Prehistoric peoples? ?Europe? ??Encyclopedias History, Ancient? ??Encyclopedias Europe? ??History? ?To 476—Encyclopedias Europe? ??History—392-814—Encyclopedias I Bogucki, Peter I II Crabtree, Pam... VOLUME I ■ List of Maps xv Preface xvii Maps of Ancient Europe, 8000? ?? 2000 B.C xix Chronology of Ancient Europe, 8000? ?? 1000 B.C ... 475 VOLUME II Maps of Ancient Europe, 3000 B.C.–A.D 1000 xvii–xxii Tin deposits in Europe Principal trade routes of the Early and Middle Bronze Ages