AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF THE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY AN E NCYCLOPAE DIA OF TH E H I STORY OF TECH NOLO GY E D I T E D BY IAN McN E I L RO U T L E D G E LO N D O N A N D N E W YO R K First published 1990 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002 Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge a division of Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 © Routledge 1990 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data An Encyclopaedia of the history of technology Technology—History I McNeil, Ian 609 T15 ISBN 0-415-01306-2 (Print Edition) Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data An Encyclopaedia of the history of technology/edited by Ian McNeil p cm Bibliography: p Includes index ISBN 0-415-01306-2 (Print Edition) Technology—History I McNeil, Ian T15.E53 1989 609—dc20 89–10473 CIP ISBN 0-203-19211-7 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-19214-1 (Glassbook Format) CONTENTS Preface Introduction: Basic Tools, Devices and Mechanisms Ian McNeil The place of technology in history Science and technology The archaeological ages The seven technological ages of man The first age: man, the hunter, masters fire The second age: the farmer, the smith and the wheel The third age: the first machine age The fourth age: intimations of automation The fifth age: the expansion of steam The sixth age: the freedom of internal combustion The seventh age: electrons controlled 5 11 22 27 31 37 40 PART ONE: xiv MATERIALS Non-Ferrous Metals A.S.Darling Neolithic origins Copper Tin and bronze Metallurgy in the Roman world Brass and zinc The emergence of nickel The light metals, aluminium and magnesium Age hardening alloys Development of high temperature alloys 45 47 47 48 57 66 73 96 102 121 124 CONTE NTS Powder metallurgy Sintered carbide cutting tools Titanium and the newer metals Niobium 128 135 141 144 Ferrous Metals W.K.V.Gale 146 Introduction Wrought iron: the prehistoric era to AD 1500 Cast iron: 1500–1700 Mineral fuels Steam power and early industrialization Steel The industrial iron age: 1800–1850 The steel age Modern steelmaking 146 147 149 153 154 159 160 167 176 The Chemical and Allied Industries Lance Day 186 Introduction Pottery, ceramics, glass Textile chemicals Fuels Polymers: rubbers, plastics and adhesives Heavy inorganic chemicals 186 190 199 206 216 220 PART TWO: POWER AND ENGINEERING 227 Water, Wind and Animal Power F.Kenneth Major 229 Water power Water turbines Wind power Animal power 229 242 245 260 Steam and Internal Combustion Engines E.F.C.Somerscales 272 Introduction Steam engines Steam turbines Internal combustion engines Gas turbines 272 273 288 303 329 vi CONTENTS External combustion engines Appendix 341 342 Electricity Brian Bowers 350 Static electricity Current electricity Michael Faraday Generators Arc lighting The filament lamp Central power stations Transmission: AC v DC Economics: off-peak loads Measurement Electromagnetic engines Practical electric motors Modern electric motors The steam turbine Electricity today 350 351 354 356 362 365 369 370 372 373 377 381 384 385 385 Engineering, Methods of Manufacture and Production A.K.Corry 388 Introduction Bronze and iron age tools Early machines Measurement General machine tools Mass production Twentieth-century organization of production Welding, electro-forming and lasers Wartime advances Control revolution and electronic metrology Flexible manufacturing systems The automatic factory 388 388 390 391 392 404 412 417 420 422 424 427 PART THREE: TRANSPORT 429 Roads, Bridges and Vehicles Ian McNeil 431 Road construction Early road transport 431 438 vii CONTE NTS 10 Powered road transport: initial experiments Bicycles Motor cycles The motor car Automotive engines Trams and trolleybuses Buses Electrically operated vehicles Road transport ancillaries Road maps Bridges Tunnels Earthmoving and roadbuilding machinery 439 442 447 449 453 456 457 458 459 461 462 467 470 Inland Waterways John Boyes 474 The ancient world The British Isles France The Low Countries Germany The Rhine Italy Greece Sweden The Soviet Union Eastern Europe Spain and Portugal The Suez Canal Japan Canada The United States The Panama Canal Canal and river craft The contemporary scene 474 475 482 489 494 499 500 501 501 502 504 505 505 506 506 509 514 514 515 Ports and Shipping A.W.H.Pearsall 519 Oar and sail Steamships Merchant shipping Warships Submarines Hovercraft and hydrofoils Lifeboats and lifesaving 519 527 529 532 537 538 539 viii CONTENTS 11 12 Anchors and cables Lights and buoys Navigation Charts and sailing directions Ports and harbours Shipbuilding and dockyards Diving 540 541 543 546 547 551 553 Rail P.J.G.Ransom 555 Railways before locomotives The first steam locomotives The railway at work The first trunk lines Railway promotion Main line motive power and operation Early railway development in the United States Continental Europe Narrow gauge Japan and China Pullman and wagons-lit Larger locomotives Compounds Specialized railways Early electrification Monorails The peak years The aftermath of war Internal combustion Late steam Diesel take-over in the United States Post-War Europe British Railways Freight containers and bulk freight New high-speed lines Surviving steam Railway preservation 555 558 562 565 567 568 572 574 575 576 577 579 581 583 584 586 586 593 594 596 598 598 599 601 603 605 606 Aeronautics J.A.Bagley 609 Early attempts at flight Balloons Airships Heavier-than-air flying machines: the pioneers Steam power 609 609 614 617 619 ix INDEX OF TOPICS American 573; European 575; oil-fired 589; preservation 606–607 streamlining 596–7 superheating 590–91 Whyte notation to describe 564 Locomotion (locomotive) 560 locust, biological control 777 lodestone 21, 350 log construction 856, 865 logarithms 698 logs (ships’ speed recorders) 545 London Docklands Light Railway 603 drains and sewers 956–7 electric lighting 363, 364–5, 368, 370 hydraulic mains system 41 Kew Gardens (Palm House) 895 London Bridge waterworks 234, 235 St Paul’s Cathedral 860, 881–2 underground railway 382, 468, 583, 584, 592 water supply 951 Westminster Abbey 879 Westminster Cathedral 891 Westminster Hall 866 London & Birmingham Railway 566 London Gazettee 672 longbow 973 longitude measurement 544, 696 looms automatic 844–5 carpet 812, 845–6, 905–906 Dutch 820 early 22 flying shuttle 821–2 horizontal 812, 815–16 powered 834, 843–5 shuttle-less 845 vertical 811–12, 815 Lord Chancellor (micrometer) 398–9 ‘lost wax’ casting process 62, 68 lubricating oil 212 lubrication, forced 284 Lumitype machine 681 Luna moon probes 658–9 lustre ware 192 macadam road surface 436 Mach number 635–6 machine guns 985–6, 992 aircraft-mounted 995 machine tools 29, 392–404 controls for 422–4 for mass production 404–417 mackintosh fabric 216, 849 madder 199, 200, 202 magazines 673, 678, 680 magic lantern 738–9 magnesite 121, 194–5 magnesium 113–21 as scavenger 99 production: electrochemical 114–19; by sodium reduction 113, 114; thermochemical 119–21 magnesium alloys 115, 116, 123 magnetic alloys 137 magnetism 41, 350, 355–6 magneto 357–9 mail coach 438 mail services see postal services maize 764 majolica 192 malachite 52 Mallard (locomotive) 596, 598 malleable iron 168, 560, 563 man-made fibres 218, 219–20, 849–50, 948 dyes for 203 Manchester Ship Canal 481–2 manganese, as scavenger 99 manganese steel 174 mangle 932 Manhattan engines 285 Manhattan Project 214, 1005 manuring 774 maps road 461 see also cartography marble (building stone) 860 margarine 190, 799 marine engines compression ignition 323–5, 531, 532 gas turbines 340, 537 steam 286– 7, 398, 403 steam turbines 530–31, 535 marine railways 509 Mariner Spacecraft 659, 660 Marne-Rhine Canal 487–8 marquetry 908 Mars probes 660 Martesana Canal 500 masers 737 masonry construction 859–61 mass number 213 mass production 404–412 bricks 870 building units 900 clothing 850–51 firearms 30, 405–407, 983 photographic printing 733 matches 912 matchlock gun 976–7 Mathematical Analysis of Logic, The (Boole) 701 ‘mathematical gearing’ 17 Mauretania (ship) 37 1048 INDEX OF TOPICS mauve (dye) 190, 201–202 Mayas, use of rubber 216 measurement 391–2 electrical 373–7 measuring machines 401 automatic 427 optically controlled 422 mechanical digger 470–71 Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art of Printing (Moxon) 673 mechanization agriculture: dairy farming 792; ploughing 771; reaping and binding 781–3, 786–7; threshing 784–5 boot-making 854 brick-making 870 canal barge haulage 515 corn mills 238 furniture-making 909–10 glass-making 198 iron and steel industry see steam engines, applications in iron-making paper-making 673, 674 railway construction 470 textile industry: carding 830–31; cleaning and opening 835–6; combing 839– 40; drawing 831–2; fulling 817; knitting 819–20; lace-making 848; shearing 818; silk throwing 805–806; sizing 842–3; spinning 823–30, 832–3, 837–8, 840–42; weaving 820–23, 843–6 typesetting 680 wallpaper printing 903 Megadoc system 755 megaphone 687, 718 Megiddo (fortified city) 969 Meissen porcelain 193 Memex system 751 mercenary soldiers 970, 976 mercerized cotton 849 merchant iron 166 merchant ships 520, 523, 525–32 Merwede Canal 491 Mesolithic Age 10 Mesopotamia building and architecture 462, 856, 872–3 chariot 969 fuels 206 petroleum 210–11 pottery 16 silver artefacts 69 metallurgy, textbook see De Re Metallica Metamorphosis of Ajax (Harington) 921 meteorological satellites 657 meters, electricity supply 376 metrology see measurement Metropolis Water Act (1852) (UK) 951, 953 mezzotint 678 microcomputers see computers, micro microfiche systems 751 microfilms 733, 751 Micrographia (Hooke) 25 micrographics 733 micrometers 398, 417 electronic 423 microphotography 733–5 microrecording 733 microscopes 24, 196, 255, 730–31 microwave ovens 946–7 microwave radiation 725, 726, 729 military aircraft 628, 630, 632–3, 634, 990, 995, 998 gliders 645 milk, pasteurization 793–4 milking machines 792–3 Mill at wijk bij Durstede (van Ruisdael) 248 milling machines 408–409, 817 controls for 422, 424 turret 415 minehunters 537 minelaying machines 1009 mines anti-tank 1004, 1009 land 1009 sea 535, 536,537, 996, 1001–1002 trench weapon 991 minesweepers 535, 537 Mini (motor car) 452 Minicard system 751 mini-mill (steelworks) 184 mining animal-powered machines in 260–61, 264–5, 266–7, 269 coal 207–208, 555, 559, 560 copper 51, 67, 79–80, 82 electrification 381–2 gold 79 lead 71 silver 67, 69–71, 79– 80 textbook see De Re Metallica minting 27–8 mirror 910–11 Misanthrope, The (Brueghel) 248 Mississippi river, improved navigability 513 mitrailleuse (machine gun) 985 Mittelalterliche Hausbuch 391, 392 Mittelland Canal 497 modem 709–710 modular design 900 mole plough 772 molybdenum 133 monastic orders 232 Monel metal 101–102 monorail 586 Monotype machine 680 Mons-Condé Canal 493 Monte Penedo (ship) 324 1049 INDEX OF TOPICS Montech water slope 485 moon, flight to 654, 658–9 mooring 541 moped 449 mordant dyes 199 mordants 199–200 Morris Canal 512 Morse code 715, 965 mortar (weapon) 980, 991 mortise and tenon joint 14 mortise gears 17 mosaic 905 Moscow: GUM department store 896 Moselle river, canalization 489 Moskva river, canalization 503 Mosquito bomber 632–3 Moteurs Hydrauliques (Armengaud) 242 motion pictures 738–42 colour 735, 742 film 739 sound 722–3 motor cars 37–9, 212, 449–56 brakes 45 engines see internal combustion engines gas turbine powered 341, 455 ignition systems 133 mass production 412–14, 417 radios 728 tyres 217 motor cycles 447–9 motorways 436–7 mould forming (pottery) 194 moulin pendant 236, 270 music 686, 717 muskets 29–30, 405, 979, 983 mustard gas 993 Mycenae bronze artefacts 62, 66 corbelled domes 883 masonry 859–60 nails 14 nap raising (blankets) 818 Napalm 121 Napoleonic wars 559, 648 Narrative of the Eddystone Lighthouse (Smeaton) 888 Narrow Boat (Rolt) 516 natron 203, 204 natural gas 210, 959 in gas engines 314–15 Natural History (Historia naturalis) (Pliny the Elder) 75, 187, 672 Nautical Almanac 544 Nautilus (submarine, 1802) 537 Nautilus (submarine, 1952) 538 naval warfare 996–8, 1000–1002 see also warships navigation 21, 543–6, 696, 698 see also radar Naviglio Grande (Milan) 500 needle gun 984 needles 851 negative feedback 31 Neolithic Age metallurgy 47 weapons 967 nerve gas 998 Neuffossée Canal 486 neutron, discovery 213 neutron bomb 1008 Neva river, canalization 503 Neva-Volga Canal 503 New Horse-Hoeing Husbandry, The (Tull) 774 Newry Canal 477 newspapers 672, 675–6 nichrome 386, 917 nickel 73, 96–102 nickel alloys 124 high-temparature 125, 126–7 magnetic 137 see also cupro-nickel alloys; Monel metal; nichrome; nickel silver; paktong nickel silver 97–8 nicotine (insecticide) 776 niello (inlay) 62 Nimonic alloys 126 niobium 144–5 Nipkow disc 744, 745 nitric acid 220, 221 manufacture 224 nitrogen fertilizers 224, 775 nitrogen fixation artificial: ammonia manufacture 5, 223–4; via titanium nitrides 141 natural see leguminous crops nitroglycerine 223, 988 nitrous oxide 352 Nivernais Canal 487, 517 noisemakers 686 Noordhollandsche Canal 491 norag (threshing sledge) 784 Nord-Ostsee Canal 496 Norman architechture see Romanesque architecture Norman warfare 972–3 Norse Mill (Greek Mill) 19, 229–30, 270 North Sea Canal 491 1050 INDEX OF TOPICS Novo Teatro di Machine el Edifici (Zonca) 265 nuclear energy 212–16 nuclear fusion 1006–1007 nuclear weapons 214, 1005–1008 numerical control 422–3 nylon 218, 850 oared ships 519–20 obelisks (Egyptian) 13 obsidian 195 obturation 984, 987 octane number 317 octant 544 Oder-Spree Canal 495 odometer 461 off-peak electricity 372–3, 917 offset lithography 678–9, 684 Ohio river, canalization 513 oil (mineral) see petroleum oil lamps 211, 913–14 oil mills animal-powered 266 wind-powered 253–5 oil stove 916 oil tanker 531, 532 oilskin 853 olive crushing mill 263 Oman, copper workings 55, 57 omnibus, horse-drawn 458 On Marvellous Things Heard 74 onager 12, 787 operational analysis 1001 optical character recognition (OCR) 684 optical glass 197 orders, architectural 858 Ordnance Survey maps 461 ore-carriers 177 organic chemistry, birth of 201 Orient Express 579 Orlon 850 oscillograph, mechanical 377 oscilloscope, cathode ray 377 osmium 131, 132 osmium filament lamps 386 Ottawa waterways complex 507 Otto cycle 306 Otto engine 307 Oude Gracht (Old Canal), Utrecht 490 ovens brick 940 camp 939 microwave 946–7 see also electric cookers; gas cookers oxen 787–8 oxy-acetylene welding 272 paddle engine 262, 268 paddle steamers 527, 529, 532–3 Page’s effect 718 paintings, cave 11, 686 paktong 96–7 Palaeolithic Age 10 paleophone 720 palladium 131, 132 paltrok (windmill) 251–2 Panama Canal 514 panel-and-frame construction 902–3, 907 Panoplia (Amman) 390 pantelegraph 744 pantiles 885 paper 18–19, 22, 667–8, 670 carbon 683 production: hand 673; mechanized 673, 674 see also papier mâché paper mills, wind-powered 252–3 papier mâché 909 paraffin 211, 212 paraffin lamps 211, 913–14 paraffin stoves 916 Paraguay (ship) 797 paravane charge 997 pargeting 864 Paris electric lighting 363 Pont Neuf waterworks 234, 235 parish system, road maintenance 432–3 parking meters 461 Parsons turbine 290–91 particle board 906 Pascal computer language 706 passenger liners 37, 530, 532 pasteurization (milk) 793–4 Patentee (locomotive) 564 pedestrian crossings 460–61 peg knitting 819 Pelton wheel 244 pencil 669 pendentive construction 880–81 pendulum 23–4, 695–6 penny-farthing bicycle 446 1051 INDEX OF TOPICS pens 667, 668–9 percussion cap 984 periodicals 672–3 Permalloy 137 Perpendicular architechture 876 Pershing missile 1007 Persia see Iran perspective 731 Perspex 219 pest control 775–7 petrol 212 octane number 317 taxation 37 petrol engine see internal combustion engines petrol pump 459 petroleum cracking 212 port facilities 549 ship’s fuel 531 petroleum industry 210–12, 452 phalanx formation 969 Pharos (Alexandria) 542 phenakistoscope 739 Philadelphia-Pittsburgh Canal 512 Phoenicians purple-dyeing 200 silver mines 70 writing 667 phonautograph 720 phonograph 720–22 Phonovid system 750 phosgene 993 phosphate fertilizers 224, 775 phosphorus matches 912 ‘phossy jaw’ 912 photocomposition (printing) 681 photocopying machines 684, 736 photoelectric effect 744 photographs, reproduction 679 photography 729–38 aerial 733 colour 735–6 film 218, 734 instant 736–7 magnesium light 113, 114 paper 366 stereoscopic 735 photogravure process 679, 680 photomicrography 734 piece-rate bonus payments 412 piecework payments 407 Pien Canal 475 pier buttress 877 pigeon post 733 pigments in cave paintings 11 grinding machines for 266 pike 976 Pilatus Railway 584 pile driver 19 piles, screw 541 pilots (sailing directions) 547 Pioneer spacecraft 660 Pioneer Zephyr (train) 596 pipes gas 161 water 72, 954 Pirothecnica (Biringuccio) 396 pisé construction 856 pistols 977, 985 pitch 206, 211, 220 Planet (locomotive) 562, 564 planing machines 399–400, 404 plaster 885–6, 903–904 plaster of Paris 885, 904 plasterboard 886, 904 plastics 217–20 building materials 900 domestic applications 947–8 foam 907 furniture 910 laminates 906 plate glass 197–8, 910 platforming (petroleum) 212 platinum 129–32 platinum filament lamp 238 ploughing, electric 381 ploughs 13, 769–72, 788 mole 772 wheeled 21, 770 plutonium 214–15 plutonium bomb 1005–1006 plywood 906 pneumatic power 962 see also air, compressed pneumatic tyres 37, 217, 436, 446, 449 tractor 790–91 Po waterways complex 500–501 pocket battleship 324 Polaroid cameras 736–7 pole lathe 26, 390 pollution 318, 966 polyamides 218 polyesters 850 polymers 216–20 polypropylene 910, 947 polystyrene 947 polythene 219, 947 polyvinyl acetate (PVA) 219, 220 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 219, 853, 947 Pompeii hourglass mill 230 plumbing 20, 72 poppet valve 282 porcelain 193–3, 194 1052 INDEX OF TOPICS Portland cement 466, 889 ports and harbours 547–51 post and lintel construction see trabeated construction post mills 20, 246–8, 249, 250 Post Office Act (1765) (UK) 438 postal services 438–9, 566, 965 automatic railway 602 road book 461 potassium fertilizers 224 pot-de-fer (gun) 975 potentiometer 75 potter’s wheel 12, 16 pottery 12, 15–16, 190–95 Pou-de-Ciel (aircraft) 645–6 poultry farming 796 powder metallurgy 128–38, 143 compaction methods 138–41 power stations see electric power generation pozzolana concrete 887–8 Practical Hints on Mill Building (Abernathy) 242 praxinoscope 739 pre-cast concrete 891 precision guided munition 1008–1009 prefabricated buildings 899–900 press stud 852 presses clothes 931–2 printing see printing presses screw: coining 28; paper-making 253 pressure cooker 946 pre-stressed concrete 466, 891–3 prickly pear cactus, biological control 777 Prinses Margriet Canal 492 printed circuit boards 419 printing 27, 28, 669–84 colour 681–2 office 682–4 textiles 835 transfer (pottery) 194 wallpaper 903 printing presses hand 670, 674–5, 677 mechanized 675–7 prison treadmill 264 privy 921 producer gas 195, 314 production organization, twentieth-century 412–17 Progress in Flying Machines (Chanute) 622 Propontis (ship) 286 proton, discovery 213 PTFE 947 public utilities 949–66 puddling brick-making 869–70 iron-making 157, 161–2, 165 Puffing Billy (locomotive) 560 pug-mill 870 pulley 18 Pullman cars 577–9 pulse-code modulation 749 pumped-storage scheme 833 pumps horse-powered 269 steam-powered 33, 275, 285, 952, 954 water-powered 235 wind-powered 258 punched-card systems 699, 701 see also Jacquard punched-card control systems Puritan (ship) 287 Purpura, dye from 200 pushtows 515 PVA 219, 220 PVC 219, 853, 947 pyramids, Egyptian 18 pyrrhotite 98 qantas 467–8, 768 QF (quick-firing) field gun 990 quadrant, surveyor’s 25, 544 quadricycle 450 powered 448 quadruple expansion steam engine 286–7, 530 quality control 420–21 quantum mechanics 213 quartz clock 696 Queen’s ware 193 quern 25, 229, 270 quill pen 667, 668 quipu 698 racing cars 315 rack railways 559, 584 radar 219, 536, 545, 728–9, 998–1000, 1010 jamming 1000 radiation protection 1007 radio 725–8 radio astronomy 729 radio broadcasting 727–8 radio waves 725 radioactivity 213 radiotelegraphy 715 railroads see railways 1053 INDEX OF TOPICS railway buildings 592–3, 894–5 railway carriage, electrically driven 378, 380 ‘railway mania’ 567 railways 35–6, 164, 555–608 American 572–4, 579–80, 589–90, 593–4, 598 atmospheric 570–71 automatic train control 602–603 brakes 580–81 British 590, 591, 593, 594, 599–601 British Empire 588–9, 591 centralrail system 583 Chinese 577, 605 coaches 562–3, 574, 579 construction mechanization 470 couplings 563 electricfication 382, 584– 5, 591–2, 594, 598, 599, 600 European 574–5, 587–8, 590, 593, 594, 598–9, 603– 605 first passenger service 560 freight transport 563, 600–603 glossary of terms 607–608 high-speed 603–605 horse 555–8 Japanese 576–7, 603 maglev system 603 monorail 586 narrow gauge 575–6 preservation 606–607 rack 559, 584 rails: cast iron 161, 556; longwelded 600; malleable iron 560, 563; steel 170, 580; wooden 555, 557 signalling systems 563–4, 571–2, 592, 593; electric telegraph 714, 965 single line working 581 sleeping cars 577–9 South American 589 stationary engines 557, 572 track 563–4, 566, 573, 580; gauge 563, 565, 567–8 trunk lines 565–7 tunnels 468, 470, 565, 603 underground 382, 468, 583, 584, 592 wartime role 988 see also locomotives Rainhill Trials 561, 562 Rakete zu den Planetenraumen, Die (Oberth) 649 Ramelius (horse) 79 Ramepithecus Ranger spacecraft 659 rapid transit systems 602–603 rapier 980 Ras Ratnasmuchchaya 77 Rateau turbine 291–3, 294 Rattler (ship) 528 rayon 850 reaction turbine see Parsons turbine reaping and binding 779–83 reaping machines 268 see also combine harvester rectifiers 372, 383, 725 ‘Red Flag’ Act (1865) (UK) 448, 451 Redstone missile 661 re-forming (petroleum) 212 refrigeration 795, 796–8, 937–8 Regents Canal 479 Regulation of Railways Act (1889) (UK) 580– 81 reinforced concrete 466, 859, 885, 889–91 relative atomic masses see atomic weights remote sensing satellites 658 remotely piloted vehicle (RPV) 1010 Renaissance architechture 879, 880, 881–2 reservoirs 951–2 retting (flax) 806 reverberatory furnace 83–4, 104, 157, 162 revolver 985 rheostat 80 Rhine—Herne Canal 497 Rhine-Main-Danube Canal 498–9, 504 Rhine Navigation (Vaartse Rijn) 491 Rhine river, canalization 499–500 rhodium 131 Rhône-Rhine Canal 488–9 rib vault 875–6 ribauld (gun) 975–6 ribbon weaving 811, 820–21 rice 764 Rideau Canal 507 ridge and furrow 772, 782 rifle grenades 991, 1004 anti-tank 994 rifles 403, 405, 983–4 anti-tank 994 Browning automatic 992 repeating 985 ring frames 841–2 Rio Tinto mines 55, 70, 231 rivets 14 age-hardening 122 road maps 461 road transport 438–42 see also bicycles; motor cars; etc roads 37, 963–4 construction 431–9; machinery for 470–73 lining 460 see also motorways roasting food 939 robots, industrial 425–7 Rocket (locomotive) 35, 561, 562 rocket launcher (weapon) 1005 rocket-propelled aircraft 634, 635 rockets 648–54, 656, 661–2, 747 weapons 648– 51, 986, 995, 1005 roller bearings 413 1054 INDEX OF TOPICS roller mill (corn) 257 roller printing (textiles) 835 rolling mills 28, 152, 180, 381 Roman cement 888, 889 Roman mill 19, 20 Romanesque architecture 874, 875, 876 Romans 18 baths and sanitation 918 brass and zinc artefacts 75 bridges 19, 462–3 building and architecture 19–20, 856, 859, 868, 873, 875, 876, 879–80, 885, 887–8, 889 canals 475–6, 490 central heating 917 cereal storage 799 cleansing agents 203 cooking 93 copper and bronze artefacts 66–8 corn mills 230 floor bricks 904 glass 196 kitchens 934–5 lead and silver artefacts 72 measuring instrucments 391 mill gears 17 navigational towers 542 pottery 191 road books 461 road transport 438 roads 431–2 treadwheel 262 warfare 970–71 waterraising devices 231 water supply 20 writing 667 Rome 20 Pantheon 879 water supply 20 roofing 883–5 roofing materials 857 aluminium 111 glass/iron (ferro-vitreous) 895–6 iron 95, 894 Monel metal 101 zinc 93, 96 ‘ro-ro’ (roll on, roll off) vessels 550 Rothamsted Experimental Station 775 Rotherhithe tunnels 468–9 roundshot 981 roving frame 839 Royal Canal (Dublin-Shannon) 481 Royal Institution 352, 354, 355 Royal Society 3, 188–9, 672 Royal William (ship) 527 RR alloys 122 rubber natural 216–17, 849, 853 synthetic 218– 19, 472 rubble construction 860 rudder 21, 520 Ruhr river, canalization 495 rushlights 912 ruthenium 131 rutile 143 sabre 980 saddle 13 safflower 200 saffron 200 sailing directions 547 sailing ships 14, 520–26 St Lawrence Seaway 509 salt tax 204, 221 salted food 798 saltpetre 221 Salyut space missions 654, 656 sand-glass 22, 23 sanitation 918, 921–2 satellites, earth 652, 656–8 communications 657, 746–8, 965–6 meteorological 657 military 1010 Saturn probes 660–61 Saturn rockets 653–4, 661 Savannah (ship) 35, 527 saw mills 231, 251 textbook 236 scavenging (in two-stroke engine) 308–309, 315 Scharnebeck boat lift 498 Schauplatz der Muehlen-Bau-Kunst (Leupold) 235– Schedula Diversarum Artium (Theophilus) 196 Schelde-Rhine Canal 492 Schneider Trophy 630 schooners 524, 526 Schuylkill and Susquehanna Canal 511 science, distinct from technology 2–4 Scotch turbine 243 screen printing 683–4 screw cutting machines 392–4, 395, 403, 410 screw piles 541 screw press coining 28 paper-making 253 screw propulsion 528, 529, 533 screws 91–2 Archimedean 19 thread: inspection gauges 415; standardization 401–403 see also woodscrews scribbling machines 836 sculpture glazed 191 see also statuary scutching (flax) 806 scutching machines 835–6 scythe 780–81 seaplanes 630 see also flying boats seed drills 773 Seine river, canalization 489 Selandia (ship) 323, 531 1055 INDEX OF TOPICS Selectavision videotape system 752 selenium 743, 744 semaphore 711–13 semiconductors 42, 383, 384 service stations 459–60 Sèvres porcelain 193 sewage disposal 921, 922, 956–7 sewing 851 sewing machines 407, 848, 851–2 sextant 544 shaduf 18 Shang bronzes 63–4 shaping machine (Nasmyth) 401 shear steel 159 shearing (cloth) 818 shears 15 Sheffield: iron and steel industry 160, 170, 240 ‘Sheppey stone’ 466 sherardizing 96 shields 969, 970 mediaeval 974 Viking 972 shift working 151 wartime 421 shingles (roof tiles) 857, 884 shipbuilding 551–3 ships 519–41 canal and river craft 514–15 cathodic protection 144 engines see marine engines iron 156, 164 nuclear-powered 215 rudder 21, 520 sailing 14, 520–26 steampowered 35, 37, 527–31 Sutton Hoo burial 21 see also brig; schooners; warships etc shrapnel 986, 990 Shropshire Union Canal 480 Shubenacadie Canal 509 shuttle, flying 821–2 sickle 780, 781 siege warfare 974–5, 982–3 Silbury Hill 470 silicon carbide 195 silk 805–806 throwing 815; machines 805–806, 824; mills 815 weighting 849 silver 69–72 composites (contact materials) 138 mining 67, 69–71, 79–80 Silver Jubilee (locomotive) 596–8 sintered materials 129–37 Sirius (ship) 35 sizing (cotton warp) 842–3 Sketches of the Coal Mines in Northumberland and Durham (Hair) 266 Skylab space station 654 skyscrapers 896–9 slag 151 as fertilizer 170 slash and burn farming 776, 779 Slaski Canal 505 slate, building material 861, 884 slate industry, water power in 240, 244 slide-rule 698, 707 slide valve 282, 344–5, 404 slip (pottery) 191 slitting mill 152 ‘smart’ munition 1008–1009 smelting 13 copper 48, 51–5 iron see blast furnace; bloomery lead 71 smock mills 249–50, 253, 255, 259 smoke jack 940 smokeless powders 988 ‘snail’ see Archimedean screw snap-lock pistol 977 Snowdon Mountain Railway 584 soaps 203–205, 923 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 677 soda, production: by Leblanc process 221–2; by Solvay process 222 sodium, production 224 sodium chlorate, production 225 sodium discharge lamps 387, 961 soil drainage 772, 782 soil preparation 768–72 sonar see echo-sounder sound recording 720–25, 755–6 sowing 772–3 space, war in 1010 Space Shuttle 654–5, 656, 661–2, 748 spaceflight 648–62 Spacelab project 655 spade 768–9 spark erosion 419 spark ignition engines 305, 309, 311, 316–19 emissions control 318–19 Wankel 325–8, 455–6 spectacles 197 Spectator, The 672–3 spear 967, 976 sphalerite 77, 78, 80 spin drier 931 1056 INDEX OF TOPICS spinning 16, 28, 808–810 Casablanca systems 841 gill boxes 840–41 mechanization 823– 30, 837–8 open end (break) 842 roving frame 839 self-twist machine 842 spindle and whorl 809–810 spinning jenny 825–7 spinning mule 832–3, 837–8 spinning wheels 22, 813–15, 825 throstle and ring frames 841–2 spit roasting 939 Spitfire fighter 632 spokeshave, stone 11 Spring (Brueghel) 780 springs 124 furniture 907 Sputnik satellites 652, 656, 662 squinch construction 880 SS9 missile 1007 stained glass 22, 196 stainless steel 174–5, 300 welding 418 standards ASCII codes 709 bronze composition 65–6 building components 900 electrical 374, 377 length measurement 18, 391, 697 time measurement 697 Stanhope printing press 674–5 static electricity 350–51 inverse square law 373 statuary aluminium (‘Eros’) 108–109, 111 brass 75 bronze 62–3, 67 copper 62, 67–8 lead 69 zinc 74, 93 stave churches 865 steam bicycle 447 steam carriages 441–2, 457–8 steam engines 3, 31–7, 154–6, 272, 273–303, 343–4, 397, 453–4 applications: in agriculture 772, 788; in aircraft 619–21; in airships 614; in iron-making 154, 155–6, 158, 166; in mining 207–208; in minting 28; in pottery industry 193–4; in textile industry 28–9, 833 atmospheric 34–5 automatic variable cut-off 281–3 compound 278–9, 284–5, 530, 581–2; marine 286–7 Corliss 282–3, 285 Cornish 277–8 doubleacting 276–7 high pressure 277 high speed 284 marine 286–7, 398, 403 medium speed 283–4 pumping 33, 275, 285, 952, 954 rotative 325 speed regulation 30–31, 284 Uniflow 287–8 valves 282, 344–5 see also locomotives, steam steam shovel 470–71 steam trams 456–7, 583 steam tricycle 447 steam turbines 3, 37, 288–303, 346–7 crosscompound 298 Curtis 293–4 high pressure 298, 300 high speed 299 high temperature 300–301 hybrid 297 impulse 290, 294 steam turbines—cont marine engines 530– 31, 535 Parsons (reaction) 290–91 power generation 295–303, 385 Rateau 291–3, 294 reheat cycle 299–300 supercritical 300 superposition 298 steamship 35, 37, 527–31 Stecknitz Canal 494 steel 18, 146 alloy (special) 172–5 applications: as building material 850, 896–9; in drill bits 212; in gun barrels 987; in ships 529; in water pipes 954; see also reinforced concrete crucible 159–60, 397 nickel 98 plasticcoated 180–81 pre-painted 181 production 159–60, 167–85; by basic oxygen (L.D.) process 177, 179; by Bessemer process 167– 70, 171, 172, 194; by cementation 159; electrification 81; gas engines for 314; by Siemens-Martin open-hearth process 171–2; by Thomas process 170–71 shear 159 stainless 174–5, 300, 418 Wayland’s 128–9 steering mechanisms ships’ 21, 520, 523 vehicles’ 449 Stellite (alloy) 127, 412 stenter 817–18 stereophonic sound 723–4 stereoscopy 735 stereotypes (printing plates) 676 Stirling engine 342 stirrup 13, 21, 971 stoas 858 stocking-knitting machines 820, 847 Stockton & Darlington Railway 560, 563 Stone Age 4, 6, 9–11 stone bridges 462 stone circles 698 stone tools 9–11 stone weapons 11, 967, 968 storage heaters, electric 386, 917 Stourbridge Lion (locomotive) 562 strain gauges 420 Strategic Defense Initiative 1008 1057 INDEX OF TOPICS stratified charge engines 306–307, 319 Stratoliner airliner 634 streamlining, locomotive 596–7 street lighting 363, 387, 961 street tramways 456 streets, surfacing for 436 strip farming system 771–2 strip mill 180, 181 stroboscope 739 Strömsholms Canal 502 stucco 860–61, 885, 886, 904 sub-contractors 410 sub-machine gun 1004 submarines 144, 535, 537–8, 997–8, 999, 1000–1001 one-man 996 suction cleaners 925–7 Suez Canal 505, 525 sugar 801 sulphur dioxide, bleaching agent 205 sulphuric acid 205, 221–3 Sumerians armour 968 bronze artefacts 58 copper artefacts 57, 62 cuneiform script 15, 666 decline 768 wheel 13, 16, 431 Summa perfectionis (Geber) 220–21 sun-and-planet gear 276 sundial 694 portable 22 ‘superalloys’ 126, 128 supercharged engines 309, 315–16, 322, 332 superconductors 144–5 superheterodyne tuning circuit 727 superphosphate fertilizers 224, 775 supersonic aircraft 39–40, 638–9 surface roughness gauge 415, 423 surveillance devices 1010 surveying hydrographic 546, 547 trigonometrical 461 surveying instruments 24, 25 Surveyor spacecraft 659 suspension bridges 465–6 Sutton Hoo burial ship 21 swords 968, 979–80, 988 bronze 66 Norman 972 Viking 972 Wayland’s 128–9 swidden see slash and burn farming synchromesh gearbox 452 Syncom satellites 657, 747 systems building 900 2.4.5-T 778 tablet weaving 811 Tacoma Narrows bridge 465 tally iron 939 Talyllyn Railway 575, 606 Talyrond 423 Talysurf 415, 423 Talyvel 423 tankers 531, 532 tanks 472, 933–4, 1002–1004, 1009 tantalum carbide tools 137 tantalum lamp filament 133 tape recorders 722, 724–5 Tatler 672–3 taxes brick 869 petrol 37 salt 204, 221 Tay bridge disaster 463 Technicolor process 735 technology distinct from science 2–4 place in history 1–2 Teldec system 750 telectroscope 744 telefax 744 telegraphone 722 telegraphy 710–15 electric 357, 572, 574, 713– 15, 964–5; railway signalling system 714, 965; wartime role 988–9 visual 711–13 wireless 726; see also radio telephone 716, 717–20, 965–6 field 990 teleprinter 715, 717 telescopes 24–5, 196, 730 teletex service 717 Teletype service 717 televison 744–6 direct broadcast by satellite 748 use of videotape 751–2 telex 716–17 Telstar satellite 657, 747 Tennessee-Tombigbee Canal 514 tenter frame 817 terra cotta 871 terrace fields 767–8 terry towelling 846 Terylene 220, 850 textile fibres 804–808 textile industry factory system 28 water power in 239, 241 see also spinning; weaving; etc textiles, furnishing 906–907 1058 INDEX OF TOPICS Thailand 59 Thames flood barrier 956 water supply from 951 thatch 857, 884 thaumatrope 739 thermionic valves 41, 727 see also diode; triode thermonuclear bombs 1006–1007 threshing 783–5 threshing machines 267, 268 throstle frame 841 tidal mills 20 tidal power 245 tiles 870–71, 885 floor 904 timber-frame buildings 861–4 time measurement 3–4, 22–4, 392, 694–7 Times, The, printing of 675, 676, 680 Timna (Negev) 52, 54, 57, 67 tin 59–60 tin alloys see bronze tinder box 911 tinder pistol 911 tinplate 180, 181 Tiros meteorological satellites 657 Titan missile 1007 titanium and titanium alloys 141–4 expolosive compaction 139 TNT 988 toasters, electric 939 tongs 15 ‘tops and bottoms’ process (nickel extraction) 100 torcs, arsenical copper 61 torpedo boats 534 torpedoes 534, 537, 997, 1000 ‘human’ 1002 Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain (Defoe) 434 towelling 847 tower buttress 877 tower mills 20, 246, 248 see also smock mills town gas see coal gas trabeated construction 857–9 tracer ammunition 995 trachite 199 tracked vehicles 472 tractor shovel 471 tractors, agricultural 788–91 traffic islands 460 traffic lights 460 traffic signs 460 tramp steamers 530 trams 583 electric 381, 584, 959–60 horse 583 steam 456–7, 583 tramways 161, 456, 555–8 transfer machines 417 transfer printing (pottery) 194 transformers 371 transistor radios 728 transistors 42, 419, 703 transmission cables 371–2 transplanting 773 transporter bridges 496, 518 trapetum 263 Travels (Marco Polo) 19, 27 treadle 25, 390 treadmills 262 oblique 262, 265, 269 prison 264 treadwheels 262, 263–4 oblique 262, 266, 268– Treatise on Mills and Millwork (Fairbairn) 242 trebuchet 974–5 trenails 14 trench mortar 991 trench warfare 983, 989 Trenton-Severn waterway 508–509 tricycles, powered 447–8, 451 triode 41, 720, 726–7 triple expansion steam engine 285, 286, 530 trolleybuses 457 trunnions, gun 978 truss bridges 463 trussed roofs 864, 865–6 TT races 448 tungsten 133–4 tungsten carbide 135, 138, 417 tungsten filament lamps 386–7, 915 tungsten steel 174, 412 tunnels 467–70 canal 478, 479, 484, 488, 506 irrigation 467–8, 768 railway 468, 470, 565, 603 Tupolev Tu-144 aircraft 639 Turbinia (ship) 37 turbines see gas turbines; steam turbines; water turbines; wind turbines turbocharging see supercharged engines 1059 INDEX OF TOPICS turbofan engines 336, 338, 638 turbojet airliners 637 turbojet engines 330, 336 turboprop engines 334, 336, 636–7 turboshaft engines 643 Turkey, bronze artefacts 60 turnpike roads 433, 963 turnspit dog-powered 939–40 electric 377–8 turpentine 211 Turtle (ship) 537 tuyeres, Bronze Age 60 two-stroke engines 307–309, 322, 454 type-casting 676 type metal 670–71, 673 typefaces 671 typesetting 679–80 typewriter 682–3 tyres iron 439 pneumatic 37, 217, 436, 446, 449; tractor 790–91 solid 217 Tyrian purple 200 Variomatic belt dirve 452 vat dyes 199 vaulting 874–9 Velcro fastener 852–3 velocipede 445 steam-powered 447 Velox boiler 332, 333 velvet 847 veneers plastic laminates 906 wood 908 Venera spacecraft 659–60 Venice glass 196 horses of San Marco 67–8 Venus at the Forge (Brueghel) 232 Venus probes 659–60 vernier scale 25 Versailles, water supply to gardens 235 videodiscs 753–4 Videofile videotape system 751–2 videotape 751–2 Viking spacecraft 660 Viking weapons 972 viscose rayon 850 Viscount airliner 637 Vitallium (alloy) 127 Vitaphone recording system 723 Vitruvian mill 19, 20, 230, 233, 270 Vliet (canal) 490 Volga—Don Canal 503 Volkswagen Beetle 452 voltaic pile 41, 94–5, 352 voltmeters 373–4 Von der Wasser-Muehlen und van dem inwendigen Werke der Schneide Muehlen (Kaovenhofer) 236 Vortex turbine 243, 244 Voshkod spacecraft 652 Vostok spacecraft 652 Voyager spacecraft 660–61 vulcanization of rubber 216–17, 849, 853 U-boats 538, 999, 1000–1001 Uelzen lock 498 ultrasonics 419 U-matic videotape system 752 umbrellas 853 underground railways 382, 468, 583, 584, 592 Uniflow engine 287–8 Union Pacific Railroad 574 UNIVAC 702 upholstered furniture 907 Ur 57, 58, 60, 62, 69 uranium, nuclear fission 214 uranium glazes 194 Uranus probe 661 V-1 flying bomb 1005 V-2 rocket bomb 649–51, 661, 1005 V-mail (microfilm) 734 vacuum 32–3, 273 vacuum cleaners 925–7 valves drop 282 poppet 282 slide 282, 344–5, 404 thermionic 41, 727, see also diode; triode Wankel rotating disc 328 Van Harinxma Canal 492 Van Starkenborgh Canal 492 Vanguard rocket 656 wagons 434, 440 wainscot 902 Walkman (cassette player) 725 wall coverings 902–903 wallpaper 903 wallower 270 Wankel engine 325–8, 455–6 Warrior (ship) 533 warships 520, 532–7, 980, 987–8 dockyards for 552 1060 INDEX OF TOPICS wash boilers 929 washing personal 917, 918–20 textiles 92 8–31 washing machines 929–31 Washington Monument 106 Wasserräder und Turbinen, Die (Henne) 242 waste disposal 962–3 watches 24, 392, 696, 697 water clock 16, 22–3, 392, 694 water closets 921–2 water conservation 954–5 water desalination 955 water heaters 919–20, 928–9 water power 22, 229–45 applications: in ironworking 150, 152, 154; in textile industry 817, 824, 829–30 see also hydroelectric power; tidal mills; tidal power; watermills; waterwheels water-raising devices 231, 235, 263, 273 water slopes 484, 485–6 water supply 19–20, 72, 234–5, 285, 918, 919, 950–55 water towers 954 water turbines 241, 242–5 watermills 19, 20 glossary of terms 269–70 Greek (Norse) 19, 229–30, 270 Smeaton’s designs 236–7 waterproof clothing 849, 853 waterwheels 269–70 horizontal 19, 230; see also Norse mill iron 239 large 240, 241 suspension 239 textbooks 233–4, 235–6 ventilated bucket 241–2 vertical 230 for water supply 234–5 wattle and daub construction 856 wattmeter 374 waveforms, visualization 377, 720 waywisers 461 Weald, ironworking in 150, 156, 232 weapons 967–1011 see also guns; swords; tanks; etc weaving 28, 810–12, 815–16, 820–23 basketwork 15 pattern 822–3, 844 see also looms wedge-shaped script see cuneiform script weed control 777–8 Weespertrekvaart 491 Wege zur Raumschiffart (Oberth) 747 weights, standard 18 weld (dyers’ weed) 200 welding 417–20 robot 426 Welland Canal 507 Wellington bomber 632 Wessel-Datteln Canal 497 Wharfedale press 677 wheat 11–12, 764 Wheatstone bridge circuit 375 wheel 13, 16, 431 coach 438–9 minimum width 434 potter’s 12, 16 wheel-lock pistol 977 Whirlwind computer 702, 703 whitening agents 205 Widia (sintered alloy) 135, 137 Wimshurst machine 351 wind engines 257–60 wind power 14, 20, 245–60 see also sailing ships; windmills wind turbines 259 windlass, horse-powered 264 Windmill by a River (van Goyen) 248 windmills 20, 245–6, 259 glossary of terms 269–70 sails 246, 247, 255–8 winding 257 window glass 22, 196 winnowing 784 Winschoter Diep 492 wire drawing 82, 85, 99 wireless telegraphy 726 see also radio wirephoto process 744 woad 199, 200 women in industry 420 wood bridges 463 building material 856, 857, 861–6, 905, 906 fuel 206, 915 furniture 908 gas from 40 gears 16, 17 millwork 19, 233, 238 rails 555, 557 ships 519–25, 526, 551 tools wall covering 902–903 water pipes 954 wood ash, for soap-making 204, 206 wood turning 389 woodcuts 669, 673–4, 678 woodscrews 14 wool 806–807 carding machines 836 combing 809, 839–40 fulling 816–17 spinning 842 see also worsted Woolf engines 279, 285, 286 World War I agriculture 789 air warfare 994–5 aircraft construction 218, 628 airships 615 1061 INDEX OF TOPICS artillery and trench warfare 989–94 balloon barrage 613 dyestuffs industry 202 internal combustion engine 593 naval warfare 996–8 World War II 420–21 agriculture 786–7 air warfare 536, 632–3, 998–1000 atomic bomb 214, 1005–1006 balloon barrage 613 land warfare 1002–1005 naval warfare 536, 1000–1002 plastics and rubber development 219 radar 545, 729 shipbuilding 531 V-1 flying bomb 1005 V-2 rocket bomb 649–51, 661, 1005 V-mail 733 worsted, spinning 841 writing 15, 666–9 wrought iron 147–9, 155, 162, 164–6 drill bits 212 gears 17 water pipes 954 Wylam Dilly (locomotive) 560 X-ray tube 134 X-rays 725–6 xerography 684, 736 xylographica 669 xylyl bromide 992 Y alloy 122 yarn 804 Yngaren (ship) 325 Young Mill-bright and Miller’s Guide (Evans) 238 Zederik Canal 490 Zeppelins 617 zinc 74, 76–9, 80–81 applications 94–6 in bronzes 67, 73, 74 Chinese 79, 80 production 76, 77–8, 87–8, 92–4 zinc alloys see brass; paktong zincographs 679 zip fasteners 852 zoetrope 739 zoopraxiscope 740 Zuid-Willemsvaart Canal 493–4 1062 ... Encyclopaedia of the history of technology Technology? ?History I McNeil, Ian 609 T15 ISBN 0-415-01306-2 (Print Edition) Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data An Encyclopaedia of the history of. .. study and teaching of history, so little attention is paid to the history of technology Political and constitutional history, economic history, naval and military history, social history? ??all are... largely dependent on the state of their technology and that of their enemy Their motivation was more often than not economic, and economic history and the history of technology can surely be considered