Encyclopedia of information communication technology

Encyclopedia of Information Communication Technology Antonio Cartelli University of Cassino, Italy Marco Palma University of Cassino, Italy Volume I A-Im InformatIon ScIence reference Hershey • New York Director of Editorial Content: Managing Development Editor: Assistant Managing Development Editor: Assistant Development Editor: Senior Managing Editor: Managing Editor: Assistant Managing Editor: Copy Editor: Typesetter: Cover Design: Printed at: Kristin Klinger Kristin M Roth Jessica Thompson Deborah Yahnke Jennifer Neidig Jamie Snavely Carole Coulson April Schmidt and Erin Meyer Jennifer Neidig Lisa Tosheff Yurchak Printing Inc Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200 Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: cust@igi-global.com Web site: http://www.igi-global.com/reference and in the United Kingdom by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) Henrietta Street Covent Garden London WC2E 8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Web site: http://www.eurospanbookstore.com Copyright © 2009 by IGI Global All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of information communication technology / Antonio Cartelli and Marco Palma, Editors p cm Summary: "This book is a comprehensive resource describing the influence of information communication technology in scientific knowledge construction and spreading, with emphasis on the roles of product technologies, process technologies, and context technologies" Provided by publisher ISBN-13: 978-1-59904-845-1 (hardcover) ISBN-13: 978-1-59904-846-8 (e-book) Telecommunication Encyclopedias I Cartelli, Antonio, 1954- II Palma, Marco TK5102.E644 2008 004.6'5 dc22 2007043957 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library All work contributed to this encyclopedia set is original material The views expressed in this encyclopedia set are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher If a library purchased a print copy of this publication, please go to http://www.igi-global.com/agreement for information on activating the library's complimentary electronic access to this publication Editorial Advisory Board Antonio Calvani University of Florence, Italy John A Clarke Queensland University of Technology, Australia Paolo Frignani University of Ferrara, Italy Athanassios Jimoyiannis University of Peloponesse, Greece Juha Kettunen Rector of the Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland Terry Kidd University of Houston – Downtown, USA Marco Pedroni University of Ferrara, Italy Giorgio Poletti University of Ferrara, Italy Maria Ranieri University of Florence, Italy Piercesare Rivoltella Catholic University of Holy Heart, Italy Lawrence Tomei Robert Morris University, USA List of Contributors Addimando, Loredana / University of Milan – Bicocca, Italy Adomi, Esharenana E / Delta State University, Nigeria 384 Ajayi, I A / Federal College of Education, Abeokuta, Nigeria .127 Ajayi, O B / University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria 127 Akbulut, Asli Y / Grand Valley State University, USA 301 Alessandrini, Giuditta / University of Roma, Italy 791 Alvino, Serena / Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy 698 Bellou, Joan / The University of Ioannina, Greece 795 Berge, Zane / University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA .637 Carroll, Wendy R / Acadia University, Canada 390 Cartelli, Antonio / University of Cassino, Italy 350, 413, 656, 767 Castelli, Stefano / University of Milan – Bicocca, Italy .1 Chandra, Vinesh / Queensland University of Technology, Australia .532 Che Embe, Zarina / Multimedia University, Malaysia 202 Chen, Yangjun / University of Winnipeg, Canada 598, 607 Chen, Chun-Tsung / Kao Yuan University, Taiwan 401 Christozov, Dimitar / American University in Bulgaria, Bulgaria 66 Clarke, John A / Queensland University of Technology, Australia .759 Connolly, Thomas M / University of the West of Scotland, UK 268 Corazza, Laura / Università di Bologna, Italy .357 Corsi, Cristina / Università di Cassino, Italy 341 Cuccu, Roberto / University of Cagliari, Italy .276, 477 Czirkos, Zoltán / Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary 616, 622 Daltri, A / Biblioteca Malatestiana, Italy .656 de Pablos Heredero, Carmen / Rey Juan Carlos University, Spain 365 Dettori, Giuliana / Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy 576, 735 Diamantini, Davide / University of Milano – Bicocca, Italy 548 Edelist, Liran / Bar-Ilan University, Israel 443 Egba Ubogu, Andrew / Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria 396 Errani, P / Biblioteca Malatestiana, Italy 656 Fang, Chua Fang / Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, Malaysia 10 Ferri, Paolo / University of Milan – Bicocca, Italy 75 Fini, Antonio / University of Florence, Italy 713 Frabboni, Franco / University of Bologna, Italy 284 Frignani, Paolo / University of Ferrara, Italy 166 Gallerani, Manuela / University of Bologna, Italy 518 Gelbard, Roy / Bar-Ilan University, Israel .443 Guan, Sheng-Uei / Xian Jiatong-Liverpool University, China .470, 683 Hautala, Jouni / Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland 436, 503 Hosszú, Gábor / Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary 584, 616, 622, 676, 775 Hsu, C J / Griffith University, Australia 647 Hua, Winnie W / CTS Inc., USA 139 Huang, Yu-An / National Chi Nan University, Taiwan 371 Hussain, Hanafizan / Multimedia University, Malaysia 69, 202 Hyrkkänen, Ursula / Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland 669 Ifinedo, Princely / Cape Breton University, Canada 209, 839 Igun, Stella E / Delta State University Library, Nigeria .384 Infante, Debora / University of Basilicata, Italy 160, 189, 315 Inoue, Y / University of Guam, Guam 14 Ira, Katherine / University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA 637 Jimoyiannis, Athanassios / University of Peloponnese, Greece 106, 321 Jin, Feng / Nanyang Technological University, Singapore .291 Jovanovic, Jelena / University of Belgrade, Serbia 464 Kantola, Ismo / Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland 691 Kantola, Mauri / Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland 436, 503 Kantor, Jeffrey / Bar-Ilan University, Israel & University of Windsor, Canada 443 Karampotsios, Charilaos A / Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece 226 Kardaras, Dimitris K / Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece 55, 226 Kerr, Don / University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia 40 Kettunen, Juha / Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland 436, 503, 542, 669, 691 Kidd, Terry T / University of Texas School of Public Health, USA .490, 569, 847 Kljajevic, Vanja / NewHeights Software, Canada & Carleton University, Canada 457 Kovács, Ferenc / Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary 584, 676 Kovanovic, Vitomir / University of Belgrade, Serbia 464 Krcadinac, Uros / University of Belgrade, Serbia 464 Kuen Wong, Yuk / Griffith University, Australia .40, 429, 647 Lastrucci, Emilio / University of Basilicata, Italy 160, 189, 315 Lecoure, Jason S / Saint Mary’s University, Canada 390 Lee, Kar-Tin / Queensland University of Technology, Australia 532 Lin, Chad / Curtin University of Technology, Australia 371 Lin, Weisi / Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 809 Macefield, Ritchie / Staffordshire University & MEFU Ltd., UK 378 Mahmood, Omer / University of Sydney, Australia .662 Manca, Stefania / Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy 121 Markellos, Konstantinos / University of Patras, Greece .180 Markellou, Penelope / University of Patras, Greece .180 Mende, Jens / University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa 150, 419 Mertis, Aristotelis / University of Patras, Greece 180 Mikroyannidis, Alexander / University of Manchester, UK 704 Motwani, Jaideep / Grand Valley State University, USA .301 Ng, Eugenia M W / The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong 21 Ololube, Nwachukwu Prince / NOVENA University Ogume, Nigeria 100, 396 Ong, Ee Ping / Institute for Infocomm Research, Singapore 809 Orosz, Mihály / Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary 584 Ozcelik, Yasin / Fairfield University, USA 286, 498 Palma, M / University of Cassino, Italy 656 Panayiotaki, Angeliki / University of Patras, Greece & Hellenic Ministry of Economy & Finance, Greece 180 Papathanassiou, Eleutherios A / Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece 226 Pascale, Angela / University of Basilicata, Italy 160, 189, 315 Pattinson, Colin / Leeds Metropolitan University, UK 592 Pedroni, Marco / CARID Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Italy 173, 222 Pepe, Alessandro / University of Milano – Bicocca, Italy Perra, Annarella / CIRD – SSIS Cagliari University, Italy 84 Persico, Donatella / Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy 335, 698, 735 Petrucco, Corrado / University of Padua, Italy .195 Pieri, Michelle / University of Milano – Bicocca, Italy 548 Pillay, Hitendra / Queensland University of Technology, Australia .532, 759 Poletti, Giorgio / CARID, University of Ferrara, Italy 95 Pozzi, Francesca / Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy 335 Putkonen, Ari / Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland 669 Raisinghani, Mahesh S / TWU School of Management, USA .526 Ranieri, Maria / University of Florence, Italy .132, 249, 308, 750, 817 Richly, Gábor / Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary .676 Rittgen, Peter / University College of Borås, Sweden 554 Rosso, Giovanni / University of Roma, Italy 791 Sala, Nicoletta / Università della Svizzera italiana, Switzerland 833 Santoianni, Flavia / University of Naples Federico II, Italy 243 Sarti, Luigi / Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy 335 Sattar, Farook / Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 291 Scancarello, Immacolata / Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Italy 256 Shan, Tony C / IBM, USA 139 Song, Holim / Texas Southern University, USA 569 Sorrentino, Fortunato / Università degli Studi di Firenze, Italy .32, 215, 510, 825 Stankovic, Milan / University of Belgrade, Serbia 464 Stansfield, Mark / University of the West of Scotland, UK 268 Tan, Ping Cheng / National University of Singapore, Singapore 470 Teachout, Mark S / University of the Incarnate Word, USA 721 Tegze, Dávid / Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary .584, 775 Theodoulidis, Babis / University of Manchester, UK .704 Torriero, Anna / Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Italy 256 Trentin, Guglielmo / Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy .742 Väänänen, Ossi / Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland 563 Vanin, Barbara / Biblioteca del Museo Correr, Italy .631 Vanin, Luca / University of Milan – Bicocca, Italy Velibeyoglu, Koray / Izmir Institute of Technology, Turkey 728 Vequist IV, David G / University of the Incarnate Word, USA 87, 721 Vowels, Susan A / Washington College, USA 782 Yigitcanlar, Tan / Queensland University of Technology, Australia 728 Zanfini, P / Biblioteca Malatestiana, Italy .656 Contents by Volume Volume I Academic Guidance Model to Orient Distance Students, An / Luca Vanin, University of Milan – Bicocca, Italy; Stefano Castelli, University of Milan – Bicocca, Italy; Alessandro Pepe, University of Milan – Bicocca, Italy; and Loredana Addimando, University of Milan – Bicocca, Italy Adaptation of Cognitive Walkthrough in Response to the Mobile Challenge / Chua Fang Fang, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, Malaysia 10 Adult Education and Adult Learning Processes with ICT / Y Inoue, University of Guam, Guam 14 Alternative Learning Platform to Facilitate Usability and Synchronization of Learning Resources, An / Eugenia M W Ng, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong 21 Ambient Intelligence / Fortunato Sorrentino, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Italy 32 Applying Constructivist Self-Regulating Learning Approach for ICT Students / Yuk Kuen Wong, Griffith University, Australia; and Don Kerr, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia 40 B2B E-Commerce Development in Syria and Sudan / Dimitris K Kardaras, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece 55 BISER / Dimitar Christozov, American University in Bulgaria, Bulgaria 66 Blended Approach Environment Shift in Higher Education / Hanafizan Hussain, Multimedia University, Malaysia 69 Children and Computers / Paolo Ferri, University of Milan – Bicocca, Italy 75 Classics Teaching Through ICT Experience to ICT Manual for Classics Teachers / Annarella Perra, CIRD – SSIS Cagliari, Italy 84 Collaborative Knowledge Management (CKM) and Enterprise Knowledge Management / David G Vequist IV, University of the Incarnate Word, USA 87 Comparison of Technologies and Methodologies in the E-Learning EXPO Experience / Giorgio Poletti, CARID, University of Ferrara, Italy 95 Computer Communication and ICT Attitude and Anxiety Among Higher Education Students / Nwachukwu Prince Ololube, NOVENA University Ogume, Nigeria 100 Computer Simulations and Scientific Knowledge Construction / Athanassios Jimoyiannis, University of Peloponnese, Greece 106 Computer-Mediated Communication Learning Environments: The Social Dimension / Stefania Manca, Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy 121 Cooperative Learning Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning Science Courses in Large Classes / I A Ajayi, Federal College of Education, Abeokuta, Nigeria; and O B Ajayi, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria 127 Cyberspace’s Ethical and Social Challenges in Knowledge Society / Maria Ranieri, University of Florence, Italy 132 Data Caching Patterns / Tony C Shan, IBM, USA; and Winnie W Hua, CTS Inc., USA 139 Data Flow Diagram Use to Plan Empirical Research Projects / Jens Mende, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa 150 Distance Education to E-Learning as Integrated Training, From / Emilio Lastrucci, University of Basilicata, Italy; Debora Infante, University of Basilicata, Italy; and Angela Pascale, University of Basilicata, Italy 160 Distance Learning Techniques in University Courses / Paolo Frignani, University of Ferrara, Italy 166 Dynamic Reconstruction of Concept Maps / Marco Pedroni, CARID Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Italy 173 E-Commerce Recommendation Systems / Konstantinos Markellos, University of Patras, Greece; Penelope Markellou, University of Patras, Greece; Aristotelis Mertis, University of Patras, Greece; and Angeliki Panayiotaki, University of Patras, Greece & Hellenic Ministry of Economy & Finance, Greece 180 Education and E-Learning Evaluation and Assessment / Emilio Lastrucci, University of Basilicata, Italy; Debora Infante, University of Basilicata, Italy; and Angela Pascale, University of Basilicata, Italy 189 EduOntoWiki Project for Supporting Social, Educational, and Knowledge Construction Processes with Semantic Web Paradigm, The / Corrado Petrucco, University of Padua, Italy 195 Edutainment Framework Implementation Case Study, An / Zarina Che Embe, Multimedia University, Malaysia; and Hanafizan Hussain, Multimedia University, Malaysia 202 E-Government Growth Barriers in Sub-Saharan Africa / Princely Ifinedo, Cape Breton University, Canada 209 E-Knowledge / Fortunato Sorrentino, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Italy 215 E-Learning Function Integration with Corona / Marco Pedroni, CARID Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Italy 222 E-Learning Improve the Communication Among Students and Lecturers?, Does / Charilaos A Karampotsios, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece; Dimitris K Kardaras, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece; and Eleutherios A Papathanassiou, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece 226 E-Learning is What Kind of Learning? / Flavia Santoianni, University of Naples Federico II, Italy 243 E-Learning Methodological Models and Typologies / Maria Ranieri, University of Florence, Italy 249 E-Learning Project for a Basic Mathematics Course at the University, An / Anna Torriero, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Italy; and Immacolata Scancarello, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Italy 256 E-Learning to Games-Based E-Learning, From / Thomas M Connolly, University of the West of Scotland, UK; and Mark Stansfield, University of the West of Scotland, UK 268 E-Learning to T-Learning, From / Roberto Cuccu, University of Cagliari, Italy 276 Electronic Knowledge a Plural Thought?, Is / Franco Frabboni, University of Bologna, Italy 284 Electronic Loyalty Programs Comparative Survey / Yasin Ozcelik, Fairfield University, USA 286 Enhancement of Recorded Respiratory Sound Using Signal Processing Techniques / Feng Jin, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; and Farook Sattar, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 291 ERP Integration into Existing Courses: A Three-Step Approach / Jaideep Motwani, Grand Valley State University, USA; and Asli Y Akbulut, Grand Valley State University, USA 301 E-Tutor / Maria Ranieri, University of Florence, Italy 308 Evaluating Usability to Improve Efficiency in E-Learning Programs / Emilio Lastrucci, University of Basilicata, Italy; Debora Infante, University of Basilicata, Italy; and Angela Pascale, University of Basilicata, Italy 315 Factors Determining Teachers’ Beliefs and Perceptions of ICT in Education / Athanassios Jimoyiannis, University of Peloponnese, Greece 321 Fostering Collaboration in CSCL / Donatella Persico, Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy; Francesca Pozzi, Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy; and Luigi Sarti, Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy 335 GIS Use in Landscape Archaeology / Cristina Corsi, Università di Cassino, Italy 341 WCMS Acceptance with College Students in Estonia usefulness which describes the user’s perceptions of the expected benefits derived from using a particular IS system (Davis, 1989) Usage is the dependent variable in the TAM, and it is “theorized to be influenced by perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use” (p 320) In general, IS researchers have confirmed the relationships in the TAM (see Straub, Limayem, & Karahanna, 1995) Researchers (e.g., Brown, 2002; Lee et al., 2003; Limayem, Cheung, & Chan, 2003; Pan, Siva, & Brophy, 2003) have studied the adoption and acceptance of WCMS in college environments Brown (2002) studied the acceptance of WebCT among college students in a developing country, The Republic of South Africa (RSA) He found that perceived ease of use is strongly related to usage and perceived usefulness Limayem et al (2003) found support among the constructs used to investigate the adoption (and continuance intention) of WCMS among students in Hong Kong, a developed economy Lee et al (2003) reported strong relationships between perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness as did Brown (2002) However, other researchers have reported equivocal results regarding the suitability and relevance of the TAM for WCMS in higher learning contexts For example, Pan et al (2003) concluded that the TAM may in fact not be applicable to higher educational settings following the lack of support among the relationships for the constructs in their study In the same vein, other findings in the IS literature examining the relationships in the TAM framework have indicated mixed results as well (Gefen & Straub, 2000) Nevertheless, the TAM remains the most widely used framework for studying technology adoption and acceptance by IS researchers the research framework and hypotheses Figure illustrates the TAM as well as a research model used for the study The arrows in Figure indicate the directions of the hypotheses (H1–H3) that are discussed in-depth below Perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness have been noted as important predictors of information systems (IS) usage (Adams, Nelson, & Todd, 1992; Davis, 1989; Igbaria, Zinatelli, Cragg, & Cavaye, 1997; Straub et al., 1995) Studies have shown that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are good predic840 tors of usage (e.g., Adams et al., 1992, Igbaria et al., 1997; Straub et al., 1995) As previously noted, others have raised doubts as to the veracity of the framework or model for VLE tools in higher educational settings (Pan et al., 2003) Gefen and Straub (2000) suggested that perhaps some aspects of the TAM may be relevant for IS acceptance in the developed West They listed 42 studies using the TAM and noted that 25 of these studies did not show perceived ease of use to be a significant predictor; the others showed mixed results and only nine studies seemed to uphold the view that perceived ease of use is a predictor of usage At a general level, Gefen and Straub suggested that the perceived usefulness construct tends to support the TAM consistently Similarly, other researchers (e.g., Anandarajan, Igbaria, & Anakwe, 2002; Brown, 2002) using the TAM to research IS acceptance in developing countries underscored the pertinence of relevance of regional contextual influences For example, Anandarajan et al (2002) and Brown (2002)—researching WebCT acceptance among students—found that perceived usefulness is not a significant predictor of usage, which is contrary to the view in Gefen and Straub This information indirectly strengthens the observations in Gefen and Straub highlighting the role of contextual considerations In this regard, results for the acceptance of WCMS in a developing country like RSA indicated that a strong relationship exists between perceived ease of use and usage Despite its size, Estonia leads Eastern Europe with regard to the adoption and use of ICT products for socio-economic development With regard to the Internet diffusion per capita, Estonia is among the world’s lead- Figure The technology acceptance model Perceived Usefulness Usage H2 H1 H3 Perceived Ease of Use WCMS Acceptance with College Students in Estonia ers (WEF, 2004) Estonian leadership in ICT products’ use and diffusion has benefited various Web-based and e-learning initiatives in the country (Estonian eUniversity, 2004; The Tiger Leap Foundation, 1997) Given these favorable conditions, it would be reasonable to conjecture that use of, and experience with, Web-based technologies, including WCMS, among students in the country will be positive Following the foregoing discussion, we propose a set of hypotheses: H1: Perceived ease of use of WCMS among Estonian college students will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of WebCT H2: Perceived usefulness of WCMS among Estonian college students will have a positive effect on usage of WebCT H3: Perceived ease of use of WCMS among Estonian college students will have a positive effect on usage of WebCT research methodology Method and Research Constructs This exploratory study used a convenient sample of 72 students The participants came from four tertiary institutions in Estonia, that is, The Estonian Business School, Tallinn University of Technology, Tartu University, and Estonian IT College The study used judgmental sampling (Neuman, 1997), an approach that permits the researchers to self-select research elements with experience or expertise in the research theme The author self-administered a two-page questionnaire to students with WebCT experience The students were classified into two groups Thirty students in the information technology (IT) and engineering disciplines were labeled “IT savvy” and those from the social sciences and the arts as “non-IT savvy.” (See Table for their mean scores for the TAM constructs.) Importantly, a one-way ANOVA test between the two groups of students indicates little or no statistical differences between the two groups (Recall the purpose of the study is to elicit views of students that have used WebCT; thus, we did not consider the views of “nonadopting” students.) The questionnaire included validated measures from the relevant literature It contained multiple indicators for each of the constructs (see Appendix) Three and four items were used to measure perceived usefulness (PUS) and perceived ease of use (PEOU), respectively The seven items were taken from Davis (1989) and Brown (2002) The usage (USG) scale consists of two items from Igbaria (1990) The measurements were operationalized using a Likert-type scale ranging from (strongly disagree) to (strongly agree) except for WebCT usage measures which used five and six options SPSS 10.0 and PLS Graph 3.0 were used for data analysis The students’ demographic profile and the diversity in WebCT use are shown in Table data analysis The PLS (partial least squares) procedure is used to assess the casual model The approach is suitable for studies with small-sized samples (Chin, 1998) such as this one PLS recognizes two components of a casual model: the measurement model and the structural model The measurement model consists of relationships among the factors of interest (i.e., the observed variables) and the measures underlying each construct; it demonstrates the construct validity of the research instrument (i.e., how well the instrument measures what it purports to measure) The two main dimensions are the convergent validity and discriminant validity First, convergent validity (composite reliability) assesses the extent to which items on a scale are theoretically related Chin (1998) recommends items with loadings of greater than 0.70 Second, discriminant validity checks the extent to which items measure a construct The square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct is used to check this measure Fornell and Larcker (1981) recommend values higher than 0.50 In the structural model, this measure gives information as to how well the theoretical model predicts the hypothesized paths or relationships PLS software provides the squared multiple correlations (R2) for each endogenous construct in the model and the path coefficients The R2 indicates the percentage of a construct’s variance in the model while the path coefficients indicate the strengths of relationships between constructs (Chin, 1998) 841 W WCMS Acceptance with College Students in Estonia Table The breakdown of the respondents Measures and constructs IT savvy students (mean) Non-IT savvy students (mean) All students (mean) Perceived usefulness (PUS) Perceived ease of use (PEOU) Usage (time spent) (USG1) Usage (frequency) (USG2) 4.09 5.96 3.33 3.90 3.28 4.65 3.40 4.29 3.62 5.12 3.37 4.13 Number Percent Table Demographic profile of respondents Gender Male Female 32 40 44.4 55.6 Age Less than 25 years 26-39 years 63 87.5 12.5 Education (level) Year Year Year Year 13 22 13 24 18.1 30.6 18.1 33.3 Study program (Department) Business / Economics Information Technology Mechanical Engineering Philosophy Electrical Engineering 36 16 50 22.2 12.5 8.3 6.9 1-2 yrs 2-3 3-4 4-5 more than yrs 23 34 1.4 6.9 12.5 31.9 42.7 Mean Standard deviation 5.13 5.00 5.61 5.53 3.32 1.79 1.50 1.57 1.99 1.52 Years of experience with the Internet Diversity of WebCT use Web browsing downloading e-mail chat room discussion lists Each task was anchored on a Likert scale ranging from (Never use it) to (Use it a great extent) 842 WCMS Acceptance with College Students in Estonia Table Psychometric properties of constructs Construct W Item Loading t-value PEOU1 0.8037 11.2561 PEOU2 0.8640 18.9045 PEOU3 0.9008 42.8258 PEOU4 0.8519 22.8740 Perceived usefulness (AVE = 0.815) PUS1 0.9004 30.0409 PUS2 0.9352 57.0995 PUS3 0.8722 24.2192 Usage (AVE = 0.914) USG1 0.9513 52.2206 USG2 0.9611 82.7979 AVE PUS PEOU 0.815 0.903 Perceived ease of use (AVE = 0.732) Composite reliability 0.916 0.930 0.955 Table Correlations of latent constructs PUS PEOU 0.732 0.650 0.856 USG 0.914 0.503 0.714 Assessing the Measurement Model Table shows the results of the measurement model The composite reliability values were consistently above 0.9, which exceeds the recommended values by Chin (1998) The items loadings meet Chin’s (1998) guideline of between 0.60 and 0.70 Each of the construct’s AVEs exceeds the 0.5 guideline as suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981) Table shows the AVEs, intercorrelations among the constructs, and the square root of AVE (in bold text) No correlations were equal to or greater than the squared root of AVE in the leading diagonal This suggests that our measures are distinct and unidimensional In brief, the convergent and discriminant validity in this study is psychometrically adequate USG 0.956 path’s coefficients and the size of the R2 values The values are generated by PLS Graph 3.0 The test of significance of all the paths was done using the bootstrap resampling procedure with 200 resamples It can be seen that perceived ease of use has a strong effect on perceived usefulness with a path coefficient of 0.375 and accounts for 66% in the variation of perceived usefulness The perceived ease of use construct has a significant effect on usage of WebCT (path coefficient = 0.676) Inconsistent with our hypothesis (H2), perceived usefulness did not have a significant effect on WebCT usage (i.e., the path coefficient is 0.072) Together, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness explained 21% of the variance in the usage construct Assessing the Structural Model dIscussIon and conclusIon As noted above, the structural model is concerned with the explanatory power of variables Figure shows the This study investigates the acceptance of WCMS by college students in Estonia, which is an emerging 843 WCMS Acceptance with College Students in Estonia Figure The results of PLS Graph 3.0 analysis R2 = 0.66 R2 = 0.21 0.072 Perceived usefulness Usage 0.375 0.676 Perceived ease of use economy in Eastern Europe The study found support for two of the paths (i.e., hypotheses) in the TAM To our knowledge, this study is among the first to investigate this theme in the Baltic region The study found support for relationships between perceived ease of use and usage and perceived usefulness, but the data did not support the relationship between perceived usefulness and usage The empirical evidence from this study can make both practical and theoretical contributions Practically, the findings suggest that college students and other entities using WCMS and related technologies use them more when the use of such tools is perceived to be less difficult to use It is not sufficient to expect that the perceived usefulness of WCMS and related VLE tools will lead to an increase in their use (and success) This finding is useful for e-learning and Web-based learning projects administrators in Estonia and similar countries that may be looking for empiric information that could enable them to maximize their returns on investment in VLE and AEE technologies Theoretically, the results in this study add to the debate regarding the results obtainable in the TAM studies in general (Gefen & Straub, 2000) and for WCMS acceptance in higher education settings in particular (Pan et al., 2003) As was discussed, Gefen and Straub (2000) suggested that some aspects of the TAM may be more important for IS acceptance in richer nations Anandarajan et al (2002) and Brown (2002) provided evidence for developing countries In this study, we enriched insight with evidence from an emerging economy country The data analysis and conclusions lend support to the 844 observations with regard to the results in the TAM studies in the developing and emerging countries; that is, perceived usefulness and usage are less of a predictor in the TAM for IS acceptance in these contexts With this contribution, the body of knowledge in the IS field is enriched and new insights could emerge For example, researchers could also investigate why such differences exist There are limitations in this study The research is exploratory; as such, a convenient sample size of 72 may be limiting The selected subjects may not be representative of all college students in Estonia (or the region) The measurement of WebCT usage was selfreported; and this might limit insight This study is a cross-sectional study; a longitudinal study may be enlightening In order to improve upon the generalizability of this study’s findings, future studies could increase the sample size as well make an effort to incorporate other relevant variables such as age, peer pressure, and facilitating conditions into the research model references Adams, D.A., Nelson, R.R., & Todd, P.A (1992) Perceived usefulness, ease of use and usage of information technology: A replication MIS Quarterly, 16(2), 227-247 Anandarajan, M., Igbaria, M., & Anakwe, U (2002) IT acceptance in a less-developed country: A motivational factor perspective International Journal of Information Management, 22(1), 47-65 WCMS Acceptance with College Students in Estonia Brown, I (2002) Individual and technological factors affecting perceived ease of use of Web-based learning technologies in a developing country Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 9(5), 1-15 Carliner, S (2005) Course management systems versus learning management systems Retrieved March 6, 2008, from http://www.learningcircuits.org/2005/ nov2005/carliner.htm Chin, W (1998) Issues and opinion on structural equation modeling MIS Quarterly, 22(1), vii-xvi Davis, F.D (1989) Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319-339 Estonian eUniversity (2004) The UNIVe Project Retrieved March 6, 2008, from http://www.e-uni ee/Minerva/ Fornell, C., & Larcker, D.F (1981) Evaluating structural equations models with unobservable variables and measurement error Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39-50 Gefen, D., & Straub, D (2000) The relative importance of perceived ease of use in the IS adoption: A study of e-commerce adoption Journal of AIS, 1(8), 1-28 Ifinedo, P (2005, September 12-15) E-learning technology adoption factors in an Eastern European country: An exploratory study In Proceedings of the 9th EastEuropean Conference on Advances in Databases and Information Systems (ADBIS’2005), Tallinn, Estonia (pp 249-262) Ifinedo, P (2006) Acceptance and continuance intention of Web-based learning technologies (WLT) use among university students in a Baltic country Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries (EJISDC), 23(6), 1-20 Igbaria, M (1990) End-user computing effectiveness: A structural equation model Omega, 18(6), 637-652 Igbaria, M., Zinatelli, N., Cragg, P., & Cavaye, A.L.M (1997) Personal computing acceptance factors in small firms: A structural equation model MIS Quarterly, 21(3), 279-305 Lee, J., Cho, H., Gay, G., Davidson, B., & Ingraffea, A (2003) Technology acceptance and social network- ing in distance learning Educational Technology & Society, 6(2), 50-61 Leidner, D.E., & Jarvenpaa, S.L (1993) The information age confronts education: Case studies on electronic classrooms Information Systems Research, 4(1), 24-54 Limayem, M., Cheung, C.M.K., & Chan, G.W.W (2003) Explaining information systems adoption and post-adoption: Towards an integrative model In Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Information Systems Neuman, W.L (1997) Social research method London: Allyn and Bacon Pan, C., Siva, S., & Brophy, J (2003) Students’ attitude in a Web-enhanced hybrid course: A structural equation modeling inquiry Journal of Educational Media and Library Sciences, 41(2), 181-194 Straub, D., Limayem, M., & Karahanna, E (1995) Measuring system usage: Implications for IS theory testing Management Science, 41(8), 1328-1342 Tavangarian, D., Leypold, M.E., Nölting, K., Röser, K.M., & Voigt, D (2004) Is e-learning the solution for individual learning? Electronic Journal of E-Learning, 2(2), 273-280 Tiger Leap Foundation, The (1997) Retrieved March 6, 2008, from http://www.tiigrihype.ee/eng/sihtasutus/ tootajad.html World Economic Forum (WEF) (2004) The networked readiness index rankings 2003 Retrieved March 6, 2008, from http://www.weforum.org/pdf/Gcr/GITR_ 2003_2004/Framework_Chapter.pdf key terms Asynchronous Educational Environment (AEE): This is a learning–teaching environment in which there is no timing requirement Students can access course material any time from anywhere Emerging Economy: This term has differing interpretations; however, for the purposes of this study, we used it to refer an economy-type whose socio-economic indicators (e.g., poverty and technological levels) are better than those of developing countries (e.g., Nigeria and Burma), but lower in comparison to richer coun845 W WCMS Acceptance with College Students in Estonia tries (e.g., Italy and Canada) Examples of emerging economy countries include Estonia and Hungary Learning Management Systems (LMS): These are tools that primarily act as electronic registrars and allow the monitoring of various enrollment and related tasks in a virtual learning environment Examples of LMS include Saba, NetDimensions EKP, and SumTotal Perceived Ease of Use: This refers to the degree to which an individual believes using a particular information system would be free of effort Perceived Usefulness: This refers to an individual’s perceptions of the expected benefits from using a particular IS system 846 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM): This is a theoretical framework designed by Davis (1989) that proposes a relationship between users’ acceptance of a new IS and the users’ perceptions of the ease of use and usefulness of the IS Usage: This is the dependent variable in the TAM, and it gives an indication of the use of the information system Virtual Learning Environment (VLE): An environment that facilitates the management of courses between the instructor(s) and students It is used to be used to support flexible and distance learning Web-Based Course Management Systems (WCMS): These are tools that permit the management of asynchronous learning environments Examples include WebCT and Blackboard 847 Section: Process ICT The Wireless Revolution and Schools Terry T Kidd University of Texas School of Public Health, USA It would be counterproductive for the 21st century student to be harnessed to a computer lab—handcuffed to place and time for learning to occur Wireless technology frees education by equipping each student with a laptop computer or PDA and a wireless network card that provides an Internet connection Judith B.Rajala, President and Founder of EduHound.com IntroductIon The current wireless revolution in our society is increasing the impending need to be able to facilitate communication and have the availability of access to information at any time, place, or medium This notion of accessing information at any given time is an idea central to the application of wireless technology This idea has been made into reality with the use of WI-FI technologies and wireless networks By providing teachers with such tools for teaching to implement in various subject domains and content, schools will equip teachers in their ability to provide quality teaching and learning for the student With the new wireless revolution, students can participate in collaborative learning that extends their current educational experience Amid the current wireless revolution in our society is the impending need to be able to facilitate communication and allow any time, anywhere access to information at the tips of our fingers Norm Rose, head of Travel Technology Consulting, believes that “people will soon be able to get any information they need, wherever they are—even when, as in the case of last-minute unforeseen schedule changes or the appearance of a tasty restaurant nearby, they didn’t know they needed it” (Botelho, 2003) This notion of accessing information whenever you want it, when you want is an idea central to the application of wireless technology This idea can be made into reality with the use of WI-FI (wireless fidelity) technologies and a wireless network Since increased access to information and the ease of communication are the main goals of the wireless revolution, the next question is how can this phenomenon impact classroom instruction? With this notion, we can commit to quality teaching and student learning Background If we reflect upon the goals of many schools, districts, and universities, they are very similar to the goals of this now popular wireless revolution Schools and campuses around the world are constantly attempting to provide increased learning opportunities to their students These opportunities are attained through easily accessible information resources Instructors must also be able to communicate with all members of the learning community, such as with students, parents, colleagues, and administrators Since various new wireless technologies have been invented in order to improve and facilitate communication and information retrieval, they seem to be optimal devices to use in educational settings Wireless devices can provide students with increased access to Internet resources and various computer applications that have been designed to enhance learning situations In conjunction with a wireless network, the wireless devices can provide all students access to computer technology in their own classroom environments Students would not need to move to another environment and shift their focus on a lesson or activity when the use of computer technology is desired Especially with the relatively current release of various mobile technologies, students can each have access to their own computer at their own desks Schools and universities are now beginning to jump onto the wireless bandwagon by establishing wireless networks within their buildings Several schools and universities have also adopted some of the new mobile technologies, and teachers have integrated these technologies within their curricular instruction Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited W The Wireless Revolution and Schools maIn dIscussIon Wireless notebooks, also known as wireless laptops, are one of the most widely used forms of wireless technology in schools and campuses today Many schools and campuses are using wireless mobile labs equipped with laptop computers and occasionally a network printer, all housed in a metal rolling cart This notebook cart allows for the automatic conversion of any classroom into a fully functioning computer lab The use of wireless notebooks in educational settings has many advantages First, the lack of network cables allows more flexibility in instructional activities Students can work in collaborative groups with their devices without being confined to a static room layout They can even move into a different room with the devices, as long as they are in the range of the wireless network The reduction in cords can also significantly “clean up the computing facility” (McKimmy, 2003) Second, instructional time can be saved because students not need to relocate in order to use computers within any instructional activity Also, in the case of using a mobile lab, each student can have access to his own computer and time can be saved because students not need to take turns completing their assignments on the computer By comparison, in the higher education setting, instructional time can be saved because “fewer cords means less setup time for class lectures” (DeCerce, 2001) Third, the smaller size of the laptop computers and the comfort of having the computers in their familiar classroom environment can help both students and teachers feel relaxed and not “overwhelmed by big desktop computers that neither student nor teacher can see around” (Rajala, 2003) As Jamie McKenzie (2001), the editor of From Now On - The Educational Technology Journal, states, “Finally we have computers that can sit on a desk with no more mess or bother than a textbook.” Having computers at the students’ desks creates a scenario where an instructor can move seamlessly between two classroom environments When students have the laptop covers down, the room is an ordinary classroom A computer lab environment results by simply lifting up the laptop covers (Levine, 2002) A fourth advantage is offered due to the increased access of computers among students At the University of Alberta in Canada, a mobile lab can be checked out and “makes it possible for some classes to get computer access when it otherwise might have been impossible since the regular computer labs 848 are heavily used, especially by classes that book for an entire term” (Davies, Carbonaro, & Kendal, 2003) This same principle can apply to elementary schools, middle schools, and junior high schools because those students often have to share access to one or two computer labs as well The list of advantages regarding the use of wireless notebooks can continue, but there are also a few issues that need to be considered Price is often an issue that interferes with the availability of wireless devices in a classroom Most laptops cost between $1,000 and $3,000 (Caverly & MacDonald, 2003), costing “50% to 100% more than their desktop counterparts” (McKimmy, 2003) Laptops are also harder to upgrade due to the hardware used is designated only for that particular brand and model, making it difficult to integrate future technologies (McKimmy, 2003) It is also known that laptop batteries can only last for to hours, unless replaced with another charged battery (students must shut down the computer before initiating the switch) or plugged into an electrical outlet with an AC adapter This may cause a distraction in a classroom or loss of instructional time, as well as an increased need for surge protectors (increasing wires and cabling) Security can also be an issue if a wireless network and security protocols are not configured properly Most wireless networks, including the more common 802.11b standard, provide “a form of encryption known as WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), however it is notoriously weak” (McKimmy, 2003) If configured properly through additional security measures, wireless networks can be relatively safe features According to McKimmy: One option is to control access to the network based on the individual machine’s MAC address (message authentication code), a unique number that identifies its NIC (network interface card) Unknown computers may be denied access if their MAC address is not in an authorized list Other alternative to method listed previously is the notion of the VPN or the virtual private network system Another issue that often comes up is that students may begin to use their laptops for purposes other than the classroom task at hand With the capability of Internet access, instant messaging, and various computer games, wireless laptops can often detract student attention from the lesson However, Lawrence Levine (2002), a teacher of mathematics, has found software applications, such as CrossTec Corp.’s “NetOp School” and SMART Technologies’ “SynchronEyes,” that help The Wireless Revolution and Schools teachers or instructors monitor student laptop use According to Levine, these programs “allow instructors to monitor and take control of a student’s machine, as well as project the screen of a student’s laptop so that everyone in class can see it.” In this way, students are discouraged from using their laptops for purposes other than class-related uses Despite some of the issues raised against the use of wireless laptops, there have been many successful scenarios demonstrating their benefit to educational environments and student learning Several schools in Louisiana, through a project called Project CREATE (Careers, Research and Exploration, Application, and Technology Education), a wireless mobile computer lab was used to help ninth grade students improve their technology skills and conduct a research project Students used word processing skills and electronic and Internet-based research skills to create a research project based on a career The students also created a portfolio compiling their best writing and computer application activities Due to this project, “Mandeville High School’s Iowa Test of Educational Development (ITED) scores rose an average of 20%, thus, contributing to an overall increase in the school’s 2002 performance score.” In addition, “363 of 365 students scored 75% or higher on the final checklist, which included computer application skills such as creating and formatting word processing documents, envelopes, labels and tables, as well as collecting data in a spreadsheet and insetting it in a word-processing document” (Styron & Disher, 2003) Levine (2002), at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey has also used wireless laptops to teach his students mathematics He often provides a complete set of class notes that are available to his students on the Web He mentions that the students can download the notes after class However, it seems that notes can also be referred to in class with the use of the wireless laptops by having each student find the class Web page Following an in class lecture, Lavine also prepares an activity for his students to complete with the use of their laptops to help reinforce the concepts presented in his lecture He notifies his students when the use of the laptop is appropriate in class by asking them to put their laptop cover up Levine realizes that some challenges can arise with the use of wireless laptops in the classroom, but he feels that “the effort expended to deal with these challenges is more than compensated by the opportunities that such classrooms present to utilize technology as a teaching and learning tool.” Even though the use of wireless laptops seems more prevalent among elementary, secondary, and higher education students, preschool students are also benefiting from the use of wireless laptops At the Primrose School at Bentwater in Atlanta, Georgia, teachers use wireless laptops to engage students in curricular based lesson activities For example, during small group instruction on a unit about air transportation, each of eight students uses a laptop to learn more about hot-air balloons Their teacher helps them turn on their laptops, access the Internet, and connect to a preselected Web site on the Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta While visiting this Web site, students learn how to count balloons, recognize different shapes, and look at an image of the inside of a hot-air balloon while their teacher explains how these balloons work The Web site also gives students an idea for the type of balloon they would like to create for the art project they will design following their 20 minute mini-lesson (Scott, 2003) Many believe that technology activities are not developmentally appropriate for young students, but this example definitely provides proof that even small children can benefit from the use of wireless technology Handhelds, commonly referred to as personal digital assistants (PDAs), are slowly gaining popularity in instructional settings Their pocket-sized portable feature makes them easy to manage and use in the classroom Akin to the wireless notebooks, many PDAs also now have integrated wireless capabilities that allow students to use the Internet and perform various network related functions when in the range of a wireless network There are several advantages to using handhelds in the classroom for both instructors and students First, when comparing the price of a handheld to the price of a laptop, there is a large discrepancy While laptops cost thousands of dollars, handhelds cost hundreds of dollars, “with basic models starting at less than a $100” (Caverly & MacDonald, 2003) The affordability of a wireless PDA vs a wireless laptop may indeed make these devices eventually one of the more popular choices among wireless devices used in the classroom In addition, since PDAs are “using two major operating systems (Palm OS or PocketPC OS, with Blackberry OS a distant third), applications for these devices are prolific and platform ambivalent” (cited in Caverly & MacDonald, 2003) The availability of various software 849 W The Wireless Revolution and Schools programs at shareware sites that are usable on different PDA models allows these devices to be more accessible to all users These software applications include tutorial and tool software available on regular computers Along with these applications, PDAs provide students and teachers with organizational management Students can schedule appointments, store addresses, make todo lists, respond to e-mail, make calculations, track assignments, and read e-books Programs such as “4.0 Student (Handmark, 2003) or Active Student Organizer (Siang, 2003) track homework, quizzes, test details, due dates, scores, textbooks, grades, and even forecast GPA” (Caverly & MacDonald, 2003) Teachers can use PDAs in a similar fashion to obtain instant access to student records and grades from a school server Specialized tutorials have also been created to help students with vocabulary, science, grammar, foreign languages, and other subject areas PDAs can also provide support for students with disabilities, due to text-to-speech readers and spell checkers that pronounce words and definitions (Caverly & MacDonald, 2003) One of the most distinct features of a PDA that differentiates it from a desktop or laptop computer is its infrared beaming capability With this capability, students can easily transfer files either to their peers, to their teacher (who can instantly assess the work, store the grade on a spreadsheet, and beam it back to the student), or maybe eventually store them on a local networked server The files can also be synched to a desktop or laptop computer for additional storage Although the personal desk assistant has several notable advantages, there are still many features that need to be improved Viewing Web sites composed of several frames can be frustrating and sometimes not accessible In addition, it can be bothersome to have to continuously scroll both horizontally and vertically to view an entire Web page due to the small screen size According to Caverly and MacDonald, “the version of Office packaged on PocketPC PDAs is limited, not allowing formatting or tables in word processing, charts in spreadsheets, editing or animation in a slide show, or frames in Web pages.” All of these limitations can be slightly frustrating in an educational setting Some administrators have also discussed the misuse of PDAs in educational settings They are afraid that students will use these devices to cheat on tests, play games, or send notes and e-mail to their friends (Trotter, 2001) In one instance, a student “installed a software program that turned his PDA into a remote control for 850 the classroom TV, which allowed him to turn it on and off from the back of the room” (cited in Yuen & Yuen, 2003) Regardless of these limitations, there have been several successful programs initiated that demonstrate the educational benefits of using PDAs within the classroom environment In a history class at Stagg High School in Oakland Park, Illinois, students used Palm III handhelds to check stock prices on the Internet and write reports about the management of the fantasy stock portfolios they created by using the foldable keyboards as input devices (Trotter, 2001) At that same school, in a geography course, students used their handhelds to create a concept map, using PiCoMap, which they could then beam to their peers or their teacher with the infrared beaming feature (Trotter, 2001) In Hartland, Michigan, sixth graders at Hartland Farms Intermediate learned about the polar regions of the earth They were required to investigate a particular polar animal In order to this, the students used their Palm handhelds to record facts they found in magazines such as National Geographic They were also able to use FlingIt to send Web pages about their topic to their handheld devices Students then beamed these useful resources to their group members and interested peers, so that they could have off-line access to the pages at home After their research on a polar animal, the students took a trip to the zoo and could document their trip or any new information that would contribute to their research project with Kodak PalmPix cameras (Curtis, Luchini, Bobrowsky, Quintana, & Soloway, 2002) Programs on the handheld and peripherals associated with the handheld were used to enhance this group of students’ learning experiences Teachers and administrators have also found that handhelds can be used as excellent tools for the purpose of increasing home–school communication Strom and Strom (2003) conducted a field test, with the cooperation of Motorola, on high school students from low- and middle-income households Faculty from that school were asked to use a PDA to record both positive and negative student behaviors and send those to parents throughout the day using a pager messaging system Both parents and teachers were given a School Code of Recordable Events (SCORE) card that had 50 predetermined statements that describe typical behaviors of students assigned to a certain code Teachers were to use these codes to send messages to parents throughout the day about their child’s behavior In this way, parents would receive more immediate feedback on The Wireless Revolution and Schools both positive and negative behavior and could provide their children with the proper form of reinforcement or punishment According to Strom and Strom, “the requirement of immediacy for giving parents feedback about student behavior is an important condition of effective positive or negative reinforcement and punishment.” At the conclusion of the field-based portion of the study, surveys were distributed to faculty, parents, and students The results of the surveys “confirmed that use of personal digital assistants and pagers can improve communication between the school and home” (Strom & Strom, 2002) Hence, PDAs can not only provide direct educational benefits to students, but can also facilitate communication between all members of the learning community Tablet PCs are one of the newest forms of wireless mobile technology They preserve the relative screen size of a laptop computer, but function much like a PDA due to the use of a stylus as an input mechanism Both quantitative and qualitative research has been conducted on the educational benefits these devices may provide Although this device is in its infancy stage in relation to its use in educational settings, many of its features have been found beneficial to learners The handwriting recognition feature and the ability to save notes written in Windows Journal in either handwriting form or as digital text can allow students to preserve the notes as if they took them on a sheet of paper or search their digital notes for certain keywords or phrases Like both the wireless notebooks and PDAs, Tablet PCs allow for flexible educational settings, where students can form collaborative groups and still have access to their own wireless device Tablet PCs can also provide students with instant assessment, just as PDAs do, with the use of handwriting recognition features Instant polling, brainstorming, and results from team and group activities can be easily shared with the entire class due to the Tablet PC’s wireless networking feature With programs such as Silicon Chalk and Colligo, “users can discover one another, set up connections, and start to communicate in an informal manner” (Lomas & Rauch, 2003) This feature of the Tablet PC encourages the formation of collaborative learning groups, a common occurrence within constructivist learning environments Alternative methods of input, such as keyboard, stylus, and voice recognition are also available This may provide increased accessibility by addressing the varying needs of different learners Another important advantage of the Tablet PC is its portable size, lightweight feature, and adjustable monitor and display settings, allowing it to take on the functionality and practicality of an ordinary class notebook with the additional benefit of advanced computer technology Similar to the wireless notebooks and handhelds, Tablet PCs also have a few issues that need to be addressed First of all, since Tablet PCs are a rather new form of mobile technology, the cost of the Tablet PC usually exceeds the cost of a wireless notebook, most pricing well over $2,000 (Ashenhurst, 2003) However, this price will most likely decrease as the demand for Tablet PCs increases Based on personal experience with a Compaq Tablet PC TC1000, Tablet PCs also seem to download information at a slower rate their wireless notebook counterparts, maybe due to the combination of processor speed and memory available Another cumbersome aspect is that a CD-RW/DVD drive would have to be attached as an external drive Thus, the only means for backing up data or transferring files without an external drive are through the USB ports Even though a few issues may exist, Tablet PCs have been used successfully in educational environments At Sharon Academy in Vermont, Art teacher Ed Koren uses Tablet PCs to help students draw He states that students often get upset during the drawing process, but by using the Tablet PC, students can “do it without fearing that they’re going to make a mistake They can always go backwards, or can erase, or they can just start again The Tablet PC accents and influences the quality of the work that the students are able to do” (cited in “Freedom and versatility,” 2003) Comparatively, at Ocoee Middle School, “when students come into the classroom, they log onto their Tablet PCs and go to Microsoft® Class Server 3.0 where they can find their assignments, worksheets, and quizzes, allowing them to be self-directed and work at their own pace Teachers access each student’s work through Class Server where they can correct assignments, provide immediate feedback, and enhance their ability to individualize curriculum” (cited in “Tablet PCs Go to School,” 2003) Since the Tablet PC is one of the newest forms of mobile technology, several studies are still currently underway and should provide more real-life examples that demonstrate the benefits of the Tablet PC in educational settings The similarity in the functions of this device with the wireless notebooks and handhelds, in combination with the additional new features present only in the Tablet PC, will surely provide increased benefits in communication and information retrieval within educational environments 851 W The Wireless Revolution and Schools conclusIon Looking back upon all of these wireless mobile devices, it seems that classrooms have and are continuing to become part of the current wireless revolution The wireless notebooks, handhelds, and Tablet PCs have all been used in various ways within different educational settings However, all of these wireless mobile devices have demonstrated their capability of enhancing and benefiting all members of the learning community, including students, teachers, professors, administrators, and parents These devices provide the learning community with improved communication and invaluable resources The devices truly support the any time/anywhere learning philosophy and have proved that they can be used in educational settings not to use technology for technology’s sake, but to use technology to support and enhance learning situations The Technology Department at the Brunswick School in Greenwich, Connecticut, a private, independent college preparatory school for boys in grades PreK-12, sums up the idea behind using mobile technology rather nicely by noting that “it would be counterproductive for the 21st century student to be harnessed to a computer lab—handcuffed to place and time for learning to occur” (cited in Rajala, 2003) With the new wireless revolution, students can participate in the any time, any place learning that seems to provide the most natural learning environment Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (WMTE’02) Retrieved March 6, 2008, from http://java.cs.vt.edu/public/classes/communities/readings/Curtis-Soloway-2002.pdf Davies, J., Carbonaro, M., & Kendal, G (2003) Implementing a mobile lab in a faculty of education T.H.E Journal, 31(3), 29-30, 32-35 DeCerce, J (2001) Students and faculty on same wavelength at SUNY Morrisville T.H.E Journal, 28(8), 26-27 Freedom and versatility at Sharon Academy (2003) Retrieved March 6, 2008, from Microsoft Education, http://www.microsoft.com/education/ ?ID=SharonAcademy Levine, L E (2002) Laptop classrooms present new teaching challenges T.H.E Journal, 30(5), 10 Lomas, C., & Rauch, U (2003, December 14) Learning with tablet PCs: True learning tools or trendy devices Syllabus Magazine Retrieved March 6, 2008, from http://www.syllabus.com/article.asp?id=8106%20 McKenzie, J (2001) The unwired classroom: Wireless computers come of age From Now On: The Educational Technology Journal, 10(4) Retrieved March 6, 2008, from http://www.fno.org/jan01/wireless.html McKimmy, P B (2003) Wireless mobile instructional labs: Issues and opportunities International Journal of Instructional Media, 30(1), 111-114 references Rajala, J B (2003) Wireless technology in education T.H.E Journal, 31(3), 28 Ashenhurst, J (2003, June) The tablet PC (Part Two) Sounding Line Retrieved March 6, 2008, from http:// www.soundingline.com/magazine/2003/2003_June/ tablet_pc_pt2.htm Scott, L (2003) Wireless tots T.H.E Journal, 31(3), 16, 18, 20, 22 Botelho, G (2003, October 15) Wireless technology could be the next “boom.” Retrieved March 6, 2008, from CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/ ptech/10/15/sprj.ws.overview/ Caverly, D C., & MacDonald, L (2003) Techtalk: How technology has changed developmental education Journal of Developmental Education, 27(1), 38-39 Curtis, M., Luchini, K., Bobrowsky, W., Quintana, C., & Soloway, E (2002) Handheld use in K-12: A descriptive account In Proceedings of the IEEE International 852 Strom, P S., & Strom, R D (2002) Teacher-parent communication reforms The High School Journal, 86(2), 14-21 Strom, P S., & Strom, R D (2003) Uniting adolescent support systems for safe learning environments The Educational Forum, 67(2), 164-173 Styron, R., & Disher, F (2003) Improving school performance and career preparation with a wireless computer lab T.H.E Journal, 31(3), 40-42 Tablet PCs go to school (2003) Retrieved March 6, 2008, from Microsoft Education, http://www.microsoft com/education/?ID=SharonAcademy The Wireless Revolution and Schools Trotter, A (2001) Handheld computing: New best tech tool or just a fad? Education Week, 21(4), Retrieved March 6, 2008, from http://www.edweek.org/ew/newstory.cfm?slug=04palm.h21 Yuen, S C., & Yuen, P K (2003) PDAs as educational power tools Tech Directions, 62(9), 14-17 key terms Education Technology: The use of information, communication, and technological devices and processes to enhance, extend, and engage, the teaching and learning process to promote quality teaching and active student learning and engagement Handheld: Handheld devices (also known as handhelds) are pocket-sized computing devices that are rapidly gaining popularity as the access to information in every walk of life becomes more and more mission critical PDA (Personal Digital Assistant): A portable computing device for organizing personal data such as telephone numbers, appointments, and notes It technology device is capable of transmitting and receiving data when equipped with a wireless module Tablet PC: A computer shaped in the form of a notebook or a slate with the capabilities of being written on through the use of digitizing tablet technology or a touch screen Wireless Application: Wireless application protocol (WAP) is an application environment and set of communication protocols for wireless devices designed to enable manufacturer-, vendor-, and technology-independent access to the Internet and advanced telephony services Wireless Technology: The term wireless technology is generally used for mobile IT equipment It encompasses cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking 853 W .. .Encyclopedia of Information Communication Technology Antonio Cartelli University of Cassino, Italy Marco Palma University of Cassino, Italy Volume I A-Im InformatIon ScIence... coverage of multiple disciplines in the field of information and communication of science and technology in this authoritative encyclopedia will contribute to a better understanding of all topics,... University of Technology, Australia; Hitendra Pillay, Queensland University of Technology, Australia; and Vinesh Chandra, Queensland University of Technology, Australia 532 Management Information