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1 CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW POLICIES ON ASSURANCE FOR GENERAL EDUCATION ACCESS, ETHNIC MINORITIES 1.1 The necessity of the thesis 1.1.1 Rationales Northwestern region is regarded as the core of Northern midland and mountainous area This is the habitat of more than 11,6 million residents, rooted from more than 30 ethnic groups, of which, about 63% belongs to ethnic minorities Northwestern region is the strategic zone with typical geographical features in terms of national defence, security, potential for natural resources and cultural traditions of ethnic people However, the access to general education here is still limited Particularly, in 304 most difficult communes, the number of settled classes is inadequate, 15.930 villages have not established kindergarten; the quality of education and human resource is low: nearly 21% ethnic minorities (in school age) is illiterate, the number of untrained people (in working age) reaches 89,5%; especially, that number of ethnic minorities is 94,2% (the highest ones respectively are Mảng 98,7%, La Hủ 97,7%, Xinh Mun 94,6%, Lô Lô 93,3%); Under the context of more rapid and stronger socio-economic gap, Northernwestern might be left behind in regard of economic, educational and social aspects; which results in serious problems related to security, politics and society Therefore, the thesis on “Policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region” was explored and carried out through an experimental study 1.1.2 Literature review on policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities 1.1.2.1 Domestic studies Hà Quế Lâm (2002), Phạm Văn Dương (2003), Hoàng Văn Phấn (2004), Nguyễn Thị Nhung (2012), Nguyễn Lâm Thành (2014), Nguyễn Thị Thu Hà et al (2015) agrred on the criterion to identify and reflect the situation of ethnic minorities, which should include income, expenses, living conditions as well as possibilities to access to essential services (heathcare, education, electricity, water resource, market, etc) Phạm Thái Hưng et al, (2008) conducted an evaluation on Program 135 Period II, National target program on poverty reduction, Resolution 30a, Clean water and sanitation in rural areas, Education for everyone, Program 134 and other poverty reductioni programs These authors aimed at (i) Fostering the assess to services linked with healthcare, education, vocational training, legislative 27 support, housing and water resource; (ii) Providing assistance for production development through policies in terms of previledged credit; land for poor households of ethnic minorities; agriculture, forestry and fisheries; job development; labor export; (iii) Improving fundamental infrastructure for most difficult communes The research by Trần Thị Hạnh, Phan Văn Hùng and Nguyễn Cao Thịnh (UNDP-CEMA 2011) focused on an analysis into policies related to assurance for education and healthcare for ethnic minorities and mountainous people They also pointed out drawbacks of these policies Phạm Ngọc Thưởng (2012) indictaed minus points of current kindergarten education policies for ethnic minorities In the period of 20072012, 22,1% households escaped from poverty whereas up to 14,3% others committed to this situation The poverty rate reduced from 57,5% to 49,2% compared with target of 30% The rate of primary and lower secondary school enrollment at the right age is greatly lower than the requirements (85,4% compared with 95%; 70,9% compared with 75% respectively) In addition, the level of objective achievement is highy different among various ethnic groups So, it is necessary to obtain more support for these communes based on future programs with more effecve design and focus on typical conditions, demands and culture of specific ethnic groups 1.1.2.2 International studies International studies on assurance for education access of ethnic minorities: The study by Kamrul (2013) was carried out with reliance on the evaluation related to project namely “Inter-community development” in Bangladesh from 2000 to 2012 This project aimed at a happier life for mother and children in diffcult families in Chittagong hill, Bangladesh- the area with 13 different ehtnic minorities, who were usually exposed to the shortage of clean water, inadequate education facilities, weak communication, other social problems and racial discrimination The focus of this project was the estblishment of commnunity support centers; preschool shemes for children, programs for students at primary and lower secondary schools; programs on healthcare education, sanitation and income generation for the poor Studies on perspectives and guanranteeing policies on access to general education for ethnic minorities:WEF (2015) announced Incheon declaration on global education forum in 2015, when ministries of eduation from involving countries agreed on their commitment to objectives and orientations of millennium education policy and policy on education for everyone This commitment was reflected by the following points: (i) compulsory and generalized education; (ii) equality and integration; (iii) financial organizations and policy banks to develop the network of credit loans for residents to help households improve economic conditions and be afford to pay for their children to go to school at the right age and avoid school dropping for early participation in the workforce, especially, policies for students rooted from Northwestern region to continue and complete general education based on sponsorship; (ii) policies on propagandizing and attracting students of ethnic minorities in Northwestern region to go to school 5.2.3 Solutions to complete policies on infrastructure development for Northwestern region: (i) Fostering medium-term investment policies in the period of 2021-2025 on road system, inter-village to ensure convenience for residents and their children to go to schools Capital source might be called from the state budget or BOT, BT; (ii) Improving investment in infrastructure for electricity lines, communication lines, radio wave and television cables to provide multiconnection for residents with the community nationwide and worldwide, which helps propagandize legislations about education generalization 5.3 Recommendations and proposals to the state authorities: Continuing the medium-term investment capital in the period of 2021-2025 for infrastructure, schools, classrooms and repairation for schools in difficult places Assembly’s considering spending annual government budget for provinces with low income; incapability of budget self-balance; impossibility for investment in infrastructure for daily boarding lower secondary schools with ethnic girls, especially investment in rooms for public services for teachers and daily boarding rooms for students Organizing compulsory classes teaching and learning ethinic language and bilingual mastery (mother tounge and Vietnamese) at primary level only, encouraging and providing favorable conditions for self-study of speaking and writing ethnic language (if there is) in an optional basis at higher education levels Ministry of education and training’s compiling coursebooks, supplementary teaching and learning in appropriate with students rooted from ethnic minorities 26 groups in Northwestern region had a positive impact on students’ motivation to go to school and the limitation of dropping out There was positive contribution of factors like activities of Student-parent association, commune’s study encouragement association, women association, and youth union CHAPTER 5: ORIENTATION AND SOLUTIONS TO THE COMPLETION OF POLICIES ON ASSURANCE FOR GENERAL EDUCATION ACCESS FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES IN NORTHWESTERN REGION 5.1 Policies on general education access assurance for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region towards 2025, orientation towards 2030: Northwestern region has the most important location in terms of national defence and security of the country Then, the access to general education for ethnic minorities is crucial to improve education standard, raise awareness and foster lesgislative ideology Specific objectives are related to the implementation of those of policies on general education for ethnic minorities, which are committed in Millenimum development goals in terms of education for ethic minorities (Decision 1557/QĐ-TTg) 5.2 Solutions to the completion of policies on assurance for general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region 5.2.1 Solutions to improve capability of institutions’ supply ethnic minorities with general education service in Northwestern region 5.2.1.1 Solutions related to contents of important policies: (i) Completing the contents of policies on investment in infrastructure for schools; (ii) Completing contents of policies on finance support for teachers; (iii) Completing contents of policies on propagandizing general education in local authorities and schools 5.2.1.2 Solutions related to management of policies on general education access assurance for ethnic minorities on Northwestern region: (i) Promoting training courses and quality improvement for human resource of ministries, sectors and the Assembly, who participate in the research and issue of policies on education access for ethnic minorities; (ii) Implementing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region, which is in relevance with better improvement of capacity of local managers and authorities being in charge of policies on education access in Northwestern region; (iii) Carrying out investigation and control for policies on education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region 5.2.2 Solutions to improve ethnic minority students’ support and attraction in Northwestern region: (i) Financial policies on encouraging micro- policies and legislation; (iv) state budget for education sponsorship Mehrotra, Vandermoortele et al, (2000) demonstrated that the government should take responsibility for providing service of general education in particular and other fundamental services in general for people According to Polacek (2011), the government should be in charge of establishing institutions and legislative frame for education services, including general education Oguzor (2011) supposed that crucial components for rural development should be related to the responsibility of public sector Polacek (2011) indicated that both public and provate sectors should get involved in the process of supplying basic social services Guo (2004) stated that the supply of social services should be carried out by non-profit nd profit organizations Matthew V Coleman (2012) pointed out that Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Cambodia focused on general education for mountainous and ethnic people based on their implementation of International commitment to education for everyone and Commitment to millennium objectives Jessica Berns, (2008) studied the system of perspectives and education policies of 10 countries (Brazil, Canada, England, Israel, Malaysia, The Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Rwanda, South Africa, United States of America) and figured out that the purpose of education policies should move forward the assurance and compulsory of education from primary school for all children without any racial discrimination at the school age Meichen Lu1 et al (2016) proved that Chinese government made great efforts in issuing policies on reducing the number of children not going to school from early of 2000s and setting up national target of education generalization (Lo, 1999; Hawkins, 1992; Liu, 2004; Yi, 2012) However, in China, there was hardly any study on decisive factors for dropping out primary school (Hannum, 2002; Hannum et al 2008; Hannum and Wang 2010) Rui Yang & Mei Wu, (2009) explored the issue of general education since the establishment of People’s republic of China in the late of 1949s and education for ethnic groups In the research by MA Rong (2009), it was identified that the government at Xinjiang autonomous region introduced apparent policies on language for teaching, which was based on the language of the ethnic people in the region Studies on factors influencing the assurance for general education service: Estevez-Abe, Iversen et al (2001) stated that the establishment and development of staff specializing in social affairs under the context of market oriented economy would be another condition affecting the supply of education service in particular and basic social services in general for disadvantaged and ethnic groups Phathombut Keawsomnuk (2017) demonstrated elements that would have an impact on education policy for 25 ethnic minorities in moutainous and boundary areas in Thailan, which covered items: (1) authority of primary school service, (2) local community, (3) non-government agency; (4) learners; (5) institutions These elements had a positive relationship with education policies for ethnic minorities Eowin and Lisa (2012) studied and applied other elements that would affect education policies, which were comprised of: (1) nongovernement organizations and benefit groups; (2) authorities, consultants and institutions; (3) unofficial personal relationships; (4) communication on policies and (5) purposes of policies’ makers Matthew V Coleman (2012) implied in his study four basic factors putting impact on education for people in moutainous areas in Laos, Vietnam, Thailan and Cambodia, namely: culture; socio-economy; the state’s policies related to education; and local road infrastructure Trương Huyen Chi, (2011) pointed out main factors that would influence the policies by Vietnam’s government, including: investment in school construction, school infrastructure; scholarship and financial support; and ethnic language teaching and learning at school Peter Chaudhry (2012), LAW Koon-chui, Agnes et al, (2012) figured out another big hindrance, which was linked with language Different studies on the assurance for general education service also provided a description of the reality and an evaluation on certain aspects of the assurance from their own perspectives in a separate and independent basis without any general assessment on any policies serving the access to general education for ethnic minorities 1.1.3 Research gap Followings are some ideas about the above literature review on domestic and international studies related to guanrateeing policies on ethnic minorities in Northwestern region: (i) There have been no studies at PhD degree working academically and systematically on assuranceing policies for the access to general education for ethnic minorities;(ii) It is essential to research and clarify the reality of access to general education (primary and lower secondary schools) for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region in the period of 2013-2017; This should help to give an evaluation on the on the assurance for education access for this subject, which was a big concern in previous studies (iii) Based on the scientific system of policies for general education access for ethnic minorities, there should be an exploration into the application of the theoretical framework to analyze the status and evaluate assuranceing policies on general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region This would serve as the basis for futher recommendations and solutions for managers, which was a great quite strong impact on the improvement of quality and satisfaction of residents with primary and lower secondary education All models revealed a close relationship between basic evaluation on education quality and satisfaction of ethnic minorities with education quality of primary and lower secondary schools 4.5 Evaluation on factors affecting assurance for education access for ethnic minorities in Northern mountainous area 4.5.1 Factors related to the State: (i) The signing and issuie of ideology, roadmaps, strategies by the Communist Party, agreement, international committment, legislative documents to create legal coridor for general education access for ethnic minorities in general and that of Northwestern in particular; (ii) Low quality of policy issuing and limited care about typical features of location, culture and customs of residents due to new implementation of factors related to the State policies on education assurance for ethnic minorities; (iii) Ineffective structure and mechanism of resources (workforce, physical resource and talent resource) of the Central authorities on education control in the management and implementation of education assurance for ethnic minorities through programs with integrated approaches and objectives for education generalization 4.5.2 Factors related to local area: Northern mountainous area is complex with high mountains, deep abyss and inappropriately invested road In addition, the climate is harsh with heavy rain, flash flood and lanslide Living standard is low due to income mainly from agriculture and aquaculture activities Although culture and mental life has improved, they are typically local-based and the main media means are TV and radio Therefore, it greatly affects wareness of ethnic children about schooling 4.5.3 Factors related to education service supply for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region: (i)- Appropriateness of teaching curriculum for ethnic children (Vietnamese, ethnic language, culture of ethnic minorities civic education ); (ii) In parimary and lower secondary schools with ethnic students as well as boarding and daily boarding ethnic schools, training and self-training courses for teachers about ethnic culture, suitable teaching methods with ethnic minority students, especially for the following subjects: literature, geography, mathematics based on the curriculum of Department of Ethnic minorities education 4.5.4 Factors related to ethnic minorities in Northwestern region: Those like: students’ gender, ethnic groups, culture, religion, mother tounge; household (economic condition, religion, tradition, income, number of children, job), relative’s and villages’customs as well as diversity of ethnic 24 *) General evaluation on education quality of primary institutions of Northwestern region based on parents’ feelings: Q22= 2,193 + 0,57*FT1 + 0,532*FT2 +ui; *) Parents’ satisfaction with education service of primary schools in Northwestern region: Q23= 1,468+ 0,576 *Q22 +ui So, results of regression showed that only two elements of sympathy (FT1) and tangibility (FT3) had an increasing linear relaation with quality of primary education based on respondents’ feelings and assessment However, in terms of policies, it was expected that people in this region should continuously benefit more from upgraded facilities and completed coursebooks; the model pointed out an increasing linear relationship between evaluation of education quality (Q22) and people’s satisfaction with current education quality (Q23) However, the intercept ò model ứa at 1,468 only This meant that the lower limit of people’s satisfaction with primary education quality was low, fluctuating between levels and of likert scale Regarding evaluation of the quality and satisfaction of ethnic minorities with lower secondary education supply: *) General evaluation on education quality of primary institutions of Northwestern region based on parents’ feelings: Q29= 0,616VT4+0,310VT1 +ui; *) Parents’ satisfaction with education service of lower secondary schools in Northwestern region: Q30=0,845+0,765*Q29 +ui So, regression results of model indicated that there were two factors of sympathy (VT1) and learning facilities (VT4) had an increasing relationwith the quality of lower secondary education (Q29) based on residents’ assessment Then, in order to improve education quality, ot should be prioritized to improve learning facilities (if this element changed unit, Q29 would improve 0,616 unit, whereas the sympathy of teachers and schools changed unit, Q29 would improve 0,31 unit) However, in terms of policies, it was expected that people in this region should continuously benefit more from upgraded facilities and completed coursebooks Model pointed out an increasing linear relationship between the evaluation of education quality at lower secondary school (Q29) and satisfaction of residents with current education supply (Q30) It could be concluded that if the quality of lower secondary education changed (Q29) unit, the satisfaction of ethnic people would increase 0,765 unit Therefore, based on model on linear regression identified from the researched data in provinces of Northwestern region, there was an agreement between groups of (i) sympathy of parents and students; (ii) learning facilities , both of which had a expection in previous studies; (iv) Those works in the past were lack of the systemization for different perspectives and solutions to better implement assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region in the future These policies for ethnic groups in Vietnam are still limited in terms of both theoretical and experimental aspects Therefore, the thesis on “Policies on assurance for access to general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region” in the upcoming time should be regarded as a significant study 1.2 Research objectives, scope and subject 1.2.1 Research objectives: 1.2.1.1 Research objectives: This study aimed at systemizing related theories and evaluating the reality of assuranceing policies for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region in accessing to general in the period of 2013 -2017; this should help to propose solutions, other polciies on general education access for ethnic groups in this region towards 2025, provide an orientation towards 2030 Specific objectives are as the followings: (i) Analyzing a literature review and establishing a framework on assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern area; (ii) Working on previous experiences linked with policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in certain countries in region and worldwide; (iii) Giving an analysis into status and an evaluation on policies for general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern area in Vietnam in the period of 2013-2017 ; (iv) Focusing on the systemization and assessment on reality and implementation of general education access for ethnic groups in Northwestern region in the period of 2013-2017; Describing the context of special policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region towards 2025, and orientation towards 2030; (v) Proposing perspectives, roadmaps and solutions for better implementation of general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region towards 2025, and orientation towards 2030 1.2.1.2 Research questions: For the achievement of those research objectives, the thesis was desgined to answer the following questions: (1) Based on the literature review and theories on assuranceing policies, what is the access to general education? What are some lessons learnt from other countries in the region and worldwide in terms of general education access for ethnic minorities?; (2) How is the reality of policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region in Vietnam in the period of 20132017?; (3) How is the systemization and evaluation of the reality and 23 implementation of assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region in Vietnam from 2013 to 2017?; (4) What are recommendations for the completion and enhancement of assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region? 1.2.2 Research subject and scope: (i) The subject of this thesis was assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region; (ii) Research scope: both theories and practices of assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region with selected provinces namely Lào Cai, Điện Biên, Sơn La, Lai Châu and Hòa Bình for practical evidences; (iii) Duration: the secondary data was chosen from 2013 to current time, the primary data was collected through a survey in 05 provinces Lào Cai and Điện Biên, Sơn La, Lai Châu, Hòa Bình in 2018; (iv) Research content: The thesis concentrated on policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region at primary and lower secondary schools The author carried out a survey and passed by 220 sheets of questioonaire for 220 households having children at primary and lower secondary schools in provinces of Điện Biên, Lào Cai, Sơn la, Lai Châu and Hòa Bình The number of collected responses was 210 The number of completed sheets for SPSS 22 processing was 187 (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2006) 1.3 Research methods Policies on assurance for general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region - Basis - The State - Local authorities - Local ethnic minorities themselves in Northwestern region Guarantee Sympathy Tangibility Quality of general education service Satisfaction with general education service Travelling time 1.3.1 Research frame The thesis established a theoretical frame on special policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region Influencing factors on policies on assurance for general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region Trust Response - Objectives - Subject - Object - Contents - Specific sub- Implementation results - Access - Quality Performance Financial support Diagram 4.1: Model on variables to evaluate the quality of general education service 4.4.3 Data processing method Regading model 2, primary data was collected in 11/2018, the author applied statistical analysis with SPSS 22 to evaluate the satisfaction of students and their families with the quality of general education service at different stage of education ladder: primary and lower secondary: Step 1: determining the scale for variables based on Cronbach's Alpha; Step 2: analizing EFA towards factors of SERVPERF model to evaluate the quality of geenral education at each education level; Step 3: Implementing linear regression for independent variables based on the variable of education quality; Step 4: Giving final regression conclusion with correlation and statistical meaning and commenting on regression results related to the thesis’s objectives 4.4.4 Regression results Regarding evaluation of the quality and satisfaction of ethnic minorities with primary education supply: 22 general knowledge education attached with physical and mental education, multi-ethnic culture preservation, encouragement of the main ethnic language’s development through teachers and students; (vii) enhanced policies on human resource for teachers and staff; (viii) promotion of education socialization in moutainous areas, people’s better awareness and actions A large number of local areas have mobilized the participation and contribution of community; (ix) improved and standardized infrastructure and teaching and learning facilities 4.3.2 Drawbacks and reasons 4.3.2.1 Drawbacks of policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region: (i) Research on the instruction, insurance, adjustment and amendment of policies; (ii) Activities of implementation; (iii) Unregular investigation and control by Minitries and sectors on programs and projects related to infrastructure and incorporation in policy instruction 4.3.2.2 Reasons for those drawbacks: Firstly, Northwestern region is located in the mountainous area with boundary, large scale, dangerous and seperated geographical feature, difficult transport; harsh climate, low population density and uneven population distribution: difficult for planning and building schools; Secondly, regulation on student support in cash In fact, due to poor educational background, ethnic culture and customs, a lot of households not use this sum of money for learning; Thirdly, unadjusted and inappropriate regulations on the amount of financial support compared with current cost and inflation 4.4 Theoretical frame for evaluating the quality and satisfaction of ethnic minorities in Northwestern region with the supply of general education service 4.4.1 The selected model for evaluation Based on the model measuring service quality by Parasuraman 1988, the author proposed other new elements to survey and test, including time for travelling from their houses to schools (H6); Academic performance according to regulation by Ministry of education and training (H7) and financial support for students besides tuition fee reduction policy (H8) So, researched elements were: Trust (H1); Response (H2); Guarantee (H3); Sympathy (H4); Tangible facilities (H5); Time for going to school (H6); Academic performance (H7); Expense support (H8) All variables were surveyed and inclusive in 31 questions for households living in Northwestern region with provinces namely Điên Biên, Lào Cai, Lai Châu, Hào Bình, Sơn La In these surveyed households, there were children studying at primary and lower secondary schools 4.4.2 Data and research sample of the model 1.3.2 Research methods Firstly, desk research: In addition to qualitative method, this study also applied quantitative method to analyze, evaluate and propose recommendations for the quality assurance of general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region Quantitative method helped to clarify the relationship among factors affecting residents‘ satisfaction with their access to general education in Northwestern region in Vietnam Secondly, ethnographic fieldnotes: In order to employ this method, the author experienced fieldtrips to explore mental and physical life of ethnic minorities in Northwestern region Thirdly, data collection method: To obtain data for qualitative and quantitative methods, besides secondary data about the assurance of general education for ethnic people in Northwestern region, which was collected from Ministries, departments, sectors of local and central authorities; the author also conducted a survey with questionnaire and in-depth interview to gather primary data ” Forthly, data processing method: Regarding primary data, the author used statistical approach with SPSS to compare and assess the satisfaction of students and their families with their access to general education and its quality provided by local insitutions Fifthly, data analysis method: (i) Classes-based statistical analysis: In terms of primary data, the author found out classes related to reality of getting access to and benefits from policies on general education for ethnic minorities based on criterion of local standards, regional development, gender, household demography, background knowledge, etc These criterion were analyzed with subject groups numbered 1,2,3 The category of classes helped the author in identifying comparisons and reality of general education of different surveyed groups within different minorities, local areas, development, number of poeple in a household and academic knowledge … (ii) Model-based analysis: In this thesis, model SERVPERF was applied to evaluate the quality of general education service that ethnic minorities got involved in and felt (iii) Regression and tests: One-way analysis of varianceOne-way ANOVA was used to test whether or not there were differences in evaluation on reality of general education and its quality in provinces namely Lào Cai, Điện Biên, Sơn La, Lai Châu and Hòa Bình 1.4 Thesis’s new contributions in terms of academic, theoretical basis and research methods 21 This study provided a scientific systemization of theories related to policies on general education access assurance for ethnic minorities in regard of the following aspects: definition, characteristics of ethnic minorities, their education access; factors affecting education access of ethnic minorities; perspective on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities and concept, characteristics, contents and principles of policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities; factors affecting policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities; international experience in similar countries with lessons learnt regarded as practical basis for recommended solutions - Findings and recommendations based on the thesis’s research and survey + The establishment and proposal for theoretical models and implementation of linear regression based on collected data to assess the reality of ethnic minorities’ access to general education; identification of factors affecting quality of general education access of these people and their satisfaction with general education; the construction of model on factors affecting policies on genereal education access in Northwestern region based on the survey with managers being involved in different phases of policy making process like planning, organization and investigation, control of policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities + Application of regression model and evaluation of reality related to sub-policies to determine the prioritized order of solutions to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of policies on assurance for general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region Specific solutions to general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region: those on enhancement of general education service supply by institutions; those on empowerment of sponsorship and attraction of ethnic students in ths region; those on completion of policies on development of Northwestern infrastructure and recommendations for the Assembly, Government, Ministries and local authorities (i) – policies on fostering propagandization and publicity of laws related to education; (ii) active involvement of local authorities in supporting and supervising the assurance of general education for ethnic minorities (policy bank, micor-financial organziations, NGOs); (iii) local information system and communication ensuring broad implementation through TV channels, radio channels and through learning encouragement association to ethnic households 4.2 An evaluation on the status of general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region 4.2.1 Evaluation on the assurance for general education foe thnic minorities in Northwestern region: (i) the status of education access ensures equality and fairness among ethnic groups without any discrimination; (ii) there is further improvement in gender equality among ethnic students in general and ethnic minorities in particular There is still big gap in education access in different levels of different ethnic groups 4.2.2 Evaluation on the status of education access from institutions: (i) there is an enhancement in transperancy for general education service supply; (ii) there is an improvement in giving explanation to process of education access assurance;(iii) there is guarantee for anticipation in education access; (iv) there is motivation, which gradually contributes to the development of education access for ethnic students;(v) there is assurance for autonomy in progress in intitutions 4.3 Evaluation on the status of general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region 4.3.1 General achievements: Policies on general education assurance for ethnic minorities in general and those for residents in Northwestern region in particular in the period of 2013-2017: (i) policies on learning assistance and living expense support for students from primary to lower and upper secondary levels; policies on tuition fee reduction; learning assistance; (ii) living condition support (meals, residence, transport …) for ethnic minority students; (iii) policies on beneficiary for social welfare with results in the expansion of network of institutions, permanent classrooms at all stages of education ladder; (iv) upgraded infrastructure at permanent and semi-permanent state for classroom, laboratory and dormintory; expected facilities for teaching and learning demands; innovated coursebooks, journals and internet-based information compatible with features of each ethnic group and local area; (v) improved social fair in education access, especially for ethnic students in remote areas; (vi) friendly education environment with dynamic activities; 1.5 Thesis structure The thesis contents was presented in chapters: Chapter 1: Literature review on policy assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities; Chapter 2: Theoretical basis for general education access for ethnic minorities; Chapter 3: Reality of general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region; Chapter 4: Reality of policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern 20 (2010); Sandy Baum (2003); Rosaline (2014) and Nguyễn Đức Vinh (2009); Sixthly, tradition had a negative impact on YaccessTH with -0,214 This reflected this study’s hypothesis and matched with regression results of income; Seventhly, Radio (the rate of the rate of ethnic households listening to Voice of Vietnam, or local television) negatively affected YaccessTH and YaccessTHCS with -0,086 and -0,221 This was an unexpected result based on literature review; Eighthly, both DisTH and DisTHCS had positive impact on YaccessTH and YaccessTHCS with 0,447 and 1,082 So, the regression results were contrastive to the theoretical model region; Chapter 5: Orientation and solutions to the access of general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL BASIS FOR POLICIES ON ASSURANCE FOR GEENRAL EDUCATION FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES 2.1 General education access for ethnic minorities 2.1.1 Concept, characteristics of ethnic minorities 2.1.1.1 Concept of ethnic minorities: Ethnic minorities are groups of people with limited number and disadvantaged position in Vietnam, who have typical characteristics of racial, regional and linguistic aspects which make these people different from the majority ones They have mutual awareness and clear motivation in utilizing group spirit to survive and achieve their aims of equality with the majority in terms of both legislative and practical areas 2.1.1.2 Basic characteristics of ethnic minorities: (i) limited number in comparison with the majority of people in the same country; (ii) disadvantaged position in the society represented by potential; (iii) unique features of culture based on racial, ethnic, linguistic identities, customs and conventions; (iv) awareness about culture preservation 2.1.2 General education access for ethnic minorities 2.1.2.1 The role of education for ethnic minorities: All nations and international organizations always state that education provision for ethnic minorities is one of prioritized strategies and policies, investment into education is investment for development; education is regarded as objective as well as motivation for socio-economic development 2.1.2.2 Definition and features of general education access for ethnic minorities: this refers to the state’s supply of sufficient education service in response to learning demand of local people, the state’s encouragement for ethnic minorities to go to school in order to achieve its objectives of general education for primary and lower secondary background 2.1.2.3 Features of general education access for ethnic minorities: Complete establishment of institutions in mountainous provinces to meet learning demand of people in school age; appropriate institutions and curriculums for typical characteristics of ethnic minorities in the region; assurance for general education access in mountainous region in the context of hindrances from natural conditions, culture, language, customs and socio-economy 2.1.2.4 Neccessity for general education access assurance for ethnic minorities: This means the state ensures basic rights for its people so that they can integrate and catch up with socio-economic development of the country CHAPTER 4: REALITY OF POLICIES ON GENERAL EDUCATION ACCESS ASSURANCE FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES IN NORTHWESTERN REGION 4.1 The status of policies on general education access assurance for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region 4.1.1 Policies on school infrastructure investment: This refers to upgrading facilities for teaching and learning purposes, including school, classroom, furniture, library, playing ground, physical room, dormintory, lighting system, 4.1.2 Policies on finance for teachers at institutions: (i) This ensures mechanism for managers, teachers who are ethnic; (ii) This guarantees complete payment for teachers’ experience allowance 4.1.3 Policies on teacher resource and manager development (i) Local management authorities of education and institutions always strictly concentrate, plan and manage the quality and quantity of teaching staff; (ii) There are training courses for teachers, staff and managers; (iii) There should be mechanism with special attention to staff who are ethnic; (iv) There is an improvement in the process of testing, evaluating and training schemes for education staff 4.1.4 Policies on finance for students: (i) It is essential to completely implement financial mechanism for students, which ensures all conditions for their living and learning requirements in boarding schools as well as improvement for education quality; (ii) There are policies on tuition reduction and scholarship; 4.1.5 Policies on social infrastructure development in mountainous area (i) – Local infrastructure (road system, bridges, electricity ) helps students to go to school more conveniently; (ii) Telecommunication system, internet helps students to access to and apply networks in their studies 4.1.6 Policies on propagandizing general education 10 19 This contributes to their living stability and comprehensive development for mountainous and remote areas 2.1.3 Factors affecting the assurance of general education access for ethnic minorities 2.1.3.1 Factors from state policies: they play an important role and have parallel influence on general education access of ethnic minorities 2.1.3.2 Factors from local areas: they play an important role and have parallel influence on general education access of ethnic minorities 2.1.3.3 Factors from education supplying system (public and private schools): they play an important role and have parallel influence on general education access of ethnic minorities These include: (i) facilities serving teaching and learning needs; (ii) facilities related to teaching and learning process; (iii) Quality, academic expertise, training courses and financial polciies for teachers and school managers; (iii) Appropriateness between teaching curriculum and learning reality of students from ethnic minorities 2.2 Policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities 2.2.1 Definition and objectives of policy assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities: this refers to all perspectives, solutions and tools that the State uses to put an impact on subjects related to the assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities This aims to deal with problems of policies and the implementation of objectives for the assurance of general education access under the orientation of national targets 2.2.2 Principles of policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities: (i) Legislation; (ii) Administration; (iii) Fairness; (iv) Equality; (v) Effectiveness and efficiency 2.2.3 Policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities: 2.2.3.1 Classification of policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities: (i) Based on policy issuing levels; (ii) Based on policy contents 2.2.3.2 Contents of policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities: the rate of ethnic households doing -/+ traditional handicraft (%) TV the rate of ethnic households watching + Vietnam television or local television (%) 10 Radio the rate of ethnic households listening to + Voice of Vietnam, or local television (%) 11 WomenRW the rate of ethnic girls from 15 years old + being literate (%) 12 Laber15 the percentage of trained ethnic people + having jobs from15 years old (%) Source: Author’s self-collection based on previous publications Based on the survey in 2015, results of analysis and linear regression for factors affecting primary education access: YaccessTH = 79,924 0,003*Income +0,447*DisTH + 2,910*Service -0,214*Tradition + 0,170*TV -0,086*Radio+0,396* Laber15 + ui (2) Results of analysis and linear regression for factors affecting lower secondary education access: YaccessTHCS = 26,623 +1,082*DisTHCS + 7,039*Service + 0,310*Tradition + 0,418*TV -0,221*Radio+ 0,170* WomenRW + 1,064* Laber15 + ui (3) Results of regression analysis showed that education access for ethnic children through primary education access (YaccessTH) and lower secondary education access (YaccessTHCS) was affected by certain important factors, including: Firstly, the service (the rate of ethnic households joining tourism and service) had a positive impact on YaccessTHCS and YaccessTH with correlation of 2,910 and 7,039 Obviously, this result was compatibale with studies by Phạm Thị Mộng Hoa, Lâm Thị Mai Lan, (1999); Secondly, communication (the rate of ethnic households watching Vietnam television or local television) also positively affected YaccessTHand YaccessTHCS with correlation of 0,170 and 0,418 This result was compatible with that by Thanh Tâm (2016); Thirdly, Laber15 (the percentage of trained ethnic people having jobs from15 years old) had a positive impact on YaccessTH and YaccessTHCS, with correlation of 0,396 and 1,064 The regression results matched with those in theories; Forthly, WomenRW (the rate of ethnic girls from 15 years old being literate) passively affected YaccessTHCS with 0,17 However, this factor did have statistical meaning for YaccessTH This confirmed previous studies (Indu Bhushan et al, 2001; Võ Thành Sơn et al, 2001; Nguyễn Đức Vinh, 2009); Fifthly, income (income/person/household) negatively affected YaccessTH with -0,003 This result was contrasted to that by Trần Quý Long (2014); Nguyễn Quốc Nghị Tradition 18 11 Yaccess = β0 + β1 Income + β2 TotalHous + β3 UseDien - β4 DisTH + β5 Service + β6Tradition + β7 TV + β8 Radio+ β9 WomenRW + β10 Laber15 + ui (1) Dependent variables: Yaccess measured by Age specific enrolment rate (ASER) (%) Independent variables: Income, the rate of ethnic households with permanent and semi-permanent housing ( TotalHous), the rate of ethnic households using electricity (UseDien), average distance from house to schools (DisTH), the rate of ethnic households joining tourism and service (Service Tradition), the rate of ethnic households doing traditional handicraft (Tradition ), the rate of ethnic households listening to Voice of Vietnam, Vietnam television or local television (TV, Radio), the rate of ethnic girls from 15 years old being literate (WomenRW), the percentage of trained ethnic people having jobs from15 years old (Laber15) Table 3.1: Variables of linear regression with factors affecting education access No Variables YaccessTH YaccessTHCS Income TotalHous UseDien DisTH DisTHCS Service Contents Age specific enrolment (ASER) (%) income/person/household (thousand VND) the rate of ethnic households with permanent and semi-permanent housing The trend of relationship between independent and dependent variables Dependent variables Independent variables +/+ (%) the rate of ethnic households using electricity (%) average distance from house to primary schools (km) average distance from house to lower secondary schools (km) the rate of ethnic households joining tourism and service (%) + - Supply of policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities Policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities - Primary education - Lower secondary education Policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities - Aims - Beneficial subject - Contents - Assurance for human resource of implementation Demand for policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities Scale, features and demand for education of ethnic minorities - Scale and demand or education - Features (age, background, cultural customs, language, gender, tyoe of ethnic group, family) Policy implementation and provision of general education - Arrangement of State’s mechanism for policy implementation - Capacity of service supply linked with general education (system, scale, type ) - Service support agencies (social organizations, NGOs, macro-finance…) - Service quality assurance and control Evaluation on policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities - Criterion on capacity of education provision; Criterion on quality of education provision assurance ; - Criterion on efficiency of education assurance a Policies on school facility investment: (i) Mobilizing all physical sources from the State and society to construct facilities for institutions; (ii) Making the supply of policies on assurance for general education access compatible with the demand of general education access of ethnic students b Policies on finance for teachers: (i) Ensuring added income for teachers, staff and managers of instutions who are ethnic minorties to promote and improve the quality of education; (ii) Building up a financial mechanism for the allocation of the budget for salary and suitable allowanced related to the salary c Policies on human resource development for teachers and managers: (i) Improving and enhancing expertise and skills for staff, teachers for ethnic minorities; (ii) Planning quality and quantity of recruited teachers and staff +/- 12 17 d Policies on students’ finance: (i) Supporting or decreasing tuition fee burdern for students and their families; (ii) Setting up policies on fee regulating method, tool and approach e Policies on social infrastructure development in ethnic minorities regions: (i) Planning and constructing infrastructure of road and communication; (ii) Making policies on social infrastructure development in mountainous ares due to their role in affecting the assurance for general education access of ethnic minorities f Policies on propagandizing general education to ethnic minorities in mountainous areas: (i) Propagandizing the State’s policies; (ii) Setting up community fund through communication channels (radio, TV, newspaper), … 2.2.4 Factors affecting policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities 2.2.4.1 Factors related to policy issuing: (i) Effective and scientific policy issuing process;(ii) Qualified staff in policy issuing process; (iii) Tools, analytic techniques, evaluation and assistance for policy issuing 2.2.4.2 Factors related to authorities and institutions in policy implementation: the effectiveness depends on policy implementation from central to local level 2.2.4.3 Factors related to students: Students and families make direct decision in accessing to general education in mountainous areas 2.2.4.4 Factors related to natural conditions and social infrastructure: these put an impact on the effectiveness of policy implementation 2.3 International experience in policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities and lessons learnt for the Northwestern region in Vietnam 2.3.1 Experience from China: this is a multi-ethnic country with 56 ethnic groups, in which the Hán people accounted for more than 90% of the population and the rest 55 groups were considered as minorities (Rongxing Guo, 2016) However, currently, there are still numerous challenges in the assurance for general education for these people, including (i) income obstacle; (ii) linguistic obstacle; (iii) religious and cultural obstacle; (iv) obstacle linked with expected knowledge of students and parents; (v) opportunity cost obstacle Since 1949, the People’s Republic of China announced specific policies on education generalization for ethnic minorities In particular: (i) regulations on law related to general education for ethnic minorities; (ii) state’s policies on assurance of general education China established a system of institutes and research centers at central and local levels 27 upper secondary schools) there were 225 standard ones, accounting for 51,61% 3.3.2 Status of general education access for ethnic students in Điện Biên: The status of general education assurance for ethnic students up to primary level: The number of ethnic students in general was rather stable and increased slightly in the period The number of students at lower secondary schools accounted for about 8% of provincial population equal to the average of 4036 students/ year in this period The number of ethnic students on average was 29625 studenst/year, accounting for an average of 73,64% The rate of girls and ethnic girls was quite high, equal to 47,94% and 48,48% Despite its decrease compared with primary level, the number of girls was still at high rate, ensuring gender equality in general education from lower to upper secondary schools The number of lower secondary students accessing to general education was stable and increased slightly through the period of 2013 2017 The number of students in general and that of ethnic ones in particular increased every year, which was 2,32% and 2,02% respectively The number of ethnic girls increased at an average number of 2,56%, which was higher than the number of girl students in general Based on statistics until 10/2016, in Điện Biên, there were 7.325 classrooms in total In particular, there were 4.170 permanent rooms, accounting for 56,9%, 1.633 semi-permanent ones, accounting for 22,3%, 1.522 temporary ones, accounting for 20,8%; 880 rooms for specific purposes (682 permanent rooms, equal to 77,5%, 159 semi-permanent rooms, equal to 18,1%, 39 temporary ones, equal to 4,4%; 2.476 rooms for public service, 813 permanenet rooms, equal to 32,8%, 951 semi-permanent ones, equal to 38,4%, 712 temporary ones, equal to 28,8%; 2.946 boarding rooms with 1.408 permanenet ones, equal to 47,8%, 1.032 semi-permanent ones, equal to 35%, 506 temporary ones, equal to 17,2% 73 rooms for language learning at primary and lower secondary schools 3.4 Theoretical frame for analysis and experiment about factors affecting general education access of ethnic students: In order to set up the basis for proposing solutions, the thesis created a theoretical frame to analyze factors affecting the access to general education of ethnic students Then, the study used the surveyed data with ethnic households, which was jointly carried out by Ethnic committee and General statistics office in 2015 The proposed model of factors affecting the access to general education of ethnic children in Vietnam was: 16 13 boundaries: Điện Biên has boundary with Laos, Lào Cai is next to China Therefore, this thesis conducted a survey on general education access for ethnic minorities in Lào Cai and Điện Biên to provide the most comprehensive support for the development of regions with ethnic minorities 2.3.2 Experience from other countries in ASEAN: other countries in Asean like Laos, Thailan and Cambodia put an emphasis on general education for mountainous people based on their implementation of International commitment to education for everyone and commitment to millennium objectives Contents of policies that contributed to the success of general education were: assurance for the state budget on education in general and primary school in particular; active education contribution from ODA and non-official source for ethnic minorities; innovation in decentralization of primary education management in mountainous areas and encouragement of local people participation in primary education development (Matthew V Coleman ,2012) 2.3.3 Experience from Latin American countries: A number of countries in Latin America built up programs providing financial support in cash attached with their conditions for ethnic minorities and disadvantaged people to ensure general education supply Despite certain differences, these programs agreed on direct funding through cash for households and providers’ conditions of particpants’ enrolling in all stages of general education, involving in healthcare prevention schemes for young children and working towards the poor These programs aimed at reducing poor consumption and improving results of human development Also, different programs for women focused on fostering their role in families 2.3.4 Lessons learnt for Northwestern region in Vietnam: (i) The state government should pay attention to supplying general education servcice for residents in this area through different policies such as integrating regulations of general education supply into official laws and announcing frame for free schooling In addition, it might be possible to provide cash support and physical assistance to encourage or ask students to go to school (ii) The Government should make plans and implement investment policies on local infrastructure to reduce difficulties and geographical obstacles for students to go to school in a convenient basis The government should ennhance the priority on state budget and ODA resources for infrastructure of road construction and electricity supply for ethnic minorities; (iii) The government should mobilize resources for the investment in education institutions in areas with ethnic minorities, especially ethnic boarding schools and day-boarding ones; (iv) The government should encourage different socio-economic sectors to invest in private schools and participate in supplying general education service for students, which is based on state funding Also, the 3.3.1 Status of assurance for general education for ethnic students in Lào Cai : education in Lào Cai receives the most attention and has experienced most developments compared with other provinces in the region Based on statistics in academic year 2016-2017, Lào Cai had 658 institutions with 1.458 schools and 196.792 students In particular, at kindergarten, there were 200 schools, 2.353 groups/classes; at primary level, there were 223 schools (of which, there were 42 ethnic boarding schools); at lower secondary level, there were 189 schools (of which there were 78 ethnic boarding schools); at upper secondary level, there were 36 schools (of which, there were ethnic boarding schools) The status of general education assurance for ethnic minorities at primary school: (i) Assurance of class number at primary school in the period of 2013-2017, the average number was 3320 classes, fluctuating around 3285 classes (2014-2015) to 3345 (2016-2017); Assurance of stable number of primary students, which tended to slightly increase The number of students at primary schools accounted for 11% provincial population and witnessed yearly increase of nearly 2.2% ; (iii) High number of ethnic students in this period , of which the average number was 46189 students /year, equal to 70,75% total number of annual students; (iv) Improvement of gender equality in general education for primary students reprensted by the rate of girls and ethnic girls at schools; The status of assurance for education access for ethnic students up to lower secondary level: (i) The number of students at lower secondary schools accounted for 6% total provincial population, equal to an a verage of 45.189 students/year in this period; (ii) the rate of students at lower secondary school accessing to education was stable and increased slightly during the period; (iii) The annual average rate of ethnic students was 32880 students/year, accounting for an average of 72,77% The number of girls and ethnic girls was rather high, equal to 46,95% and 46,54% The quality of facilities and conditions were gradually improved, which ensured national standard Especially, in regard of ethnic boarding and daily boarding schools, there were 48 standardized ones out of 122 schools, accounting for 36,07% In terms of general schools, the number of standard school was greater, among 436 schools, (231 primary schools, 178 lower secondary schools and 14 15 governement should foster its supervisory on projects providing support by cash for students; (v) It should encourage experts from universities, academies and institutes to propose to policy makers and research suitable policies for ethnic minorities CHAPTER 3: REALITY OF GENERAL EDUCATION ACCESS FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES 3.1 Socio-economic conditions for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region: Northwestern region is the western mountainous area in the north of Vietnam, which has boundaries between Vietnam and Laos as well as China This region includes ethnic minorities in provinces namely Sơn La, Điện Biên, Lai Châu, Hòa Bình, Lào Cai The mutual characteristics of Northwestern region are its geographical feature with dangerous and high mountains, complicated separated area with decentralized residents, difficult transport; harsh weather with great variations; multi-ethnic population with different minorities, underdeveloped economy, numerous poor villages and communes according to the state standards, difficult living standard 3.2 The status of general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region: General education for ethnic minorities nationwide in general and Northwestern region in particular continues to experience development in terms of quality and quantity at primary level However, it tends to decrease dramatically at lower secondary level and remains low at upper secondary level In specific: the number of ethnic students getting access to primary school accounts for 17,5% of nationwide students, that number for lower secondary school is 16% of total nationwide students and 12,2% for upper secondary school of nationwide students Noticeably, the number of students having chance to access to ethnic boarding schools makes up nearly 8% of total ethnic students at primary and lower secondary schools nationwide General education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region in 2015: (i) the average age for schooling was 71,30 % However, there was a big gap in dispersion of different ethnic groups (deviation was 5,97%) In particular, the lowest access rate was 59,9% (Lô Lô ethnic), the highest number was 80,4% (Lào ethnic); (ii) the average rate of primary education for children at school age was the highest in the education ladder with 90,25% and the dispersion was 4,26% (deviation), reflecting fairness for different minorities at primary level Furthermore, the lowest access rate was 76,9% (Lô Lô ethnic) and the highest one was 97% (Lào ethnic); (iii) The rate of students continuing education at the right school age at lower secondary level declined dramatically with 74,26% on average (16,0% decrease compared with primary stage) The median was 73,8% higher than the average mean and the dispersion was quite high at 8,9 % (deviation), which showed differences in lower secondary access for different ethnic groups 3.3 An analysis into the assurance for general education for ethnic minorities in two typical provinces namely Lào Cai and Điện Biên in Northwestern region Đơn vị: % Northwestern region is the western mountainous area in the north of Vietnam, which has mutual boundaries with Lào and China; here, the population is limited and skilled workers are weak, this are also has numerous ethnic minorities with low number of residents This area has the highest rate of poor households in the country In particular: Lào Cai 100 Yên 90 78.47 Bái 74.76 80 72.09 Điện 67.65 66.27 64.17 62.56 60.98 62.40 61.82 70 60.86 56.90 60.76 Biên 53.77 50.26 52.92 52.83 49.94 51.07 60 50.88 49.25 51.41 47.25 47.68 50 40.00 37.50 34.84 35.20 35.60 34.60 33.19 36.60 32.90 40 29.70 26.40 26.80 26.50 26.10 25.30 25.20 24.00 23.90 23.50 22.10 21.40 21.40 21.30 30 20.35 19.65 23.60 20 10 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 Diagram 3.5: Poverty rate in Northwestern provinces in the period of 1993-2017 In the whole period of 1993-2017, the rate of poor household in Lào Cai was the lowest with 39,3%; that number in Điện Biên in the period of 2016-2017 was 53,4% and 50,2%, which were the highest in the country The average poor rate natiowide in 2016 was 8,23% and in 2017 was 5,35% Especially, these two provinces of Điện Biên and Lào Cai are the key of the region due to their ... education for ethnic minorities, which are committed in Millenimum development goals in terms of education for ethic minorities (Decision 1557/QĐ-TTg) 5.2 Solutions to the completion of policies... communication on policies and (5) purposes of policies’ makers Matthew V Coleman (2012) implied in his study four basic factors putting impact on education for people in moutainous areas in Laos,... development (Matthew V Coleman ,2012) 2.3.3 Experience from Latin American countries: A number of countries in Latin America built up programs providing financial support in cash attached with