www.downloadslide.net 610 UNIT 3 Control and Regulation + CLINICAL CASE Wrap-Up Remember Me? Helen has the progressive neurological disorder Alzheimer’s disease The hallmark of Alzheimer’s is loss of memory But patients also experience a gradual loss of cognitive functioning involving orientation, concentration, problem solving, judgment, and language In the end stage, the person can no longer perform any activities of daily living and needs total care This incurable disease can run for or more years before the patient dies During life, the brain with Alzheimer’s is deficient in the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) Diagnosis is established by ruling out other causes of memory loss On autopsy Alzheimer’s can be confirmed by an atrophied brain with wide sulci and shrunken gyri; under the microscope, we see abnormal plaques and neurofibrillary tangles that impair nerve transmission 16 If memory loss is her first symptom, what part of Helen’s brain is first affected? As her disease progresses, which additional brain regions become involved? H elen’s doctor will check her mental orientation A normal result is “oriented x3,” which means the patient recognizes the three attributes of person, place, and time In which order did Helen lose her orientation as her disease worsened? The doctor gave Helen a trial of the drug donepezil, a cholinesterase inhibitor Why did this help? Where specifically did the drug act? See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book Related Clinical Terms alpha1-receptor agonists: Drugs used to treat hypotension (lowblood pressure) by stimulating a1 receptors to cause vasoconstriction of blood vessels alpha2-receptor agonists: Drugs used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure) by stimulating a2-adrenergic receptors to inhibit sympathetic vasomotor centers beta-adrenergic blockers: Drugs that decrease heart rate and force of contraction, lowering peripheral blood pressure by acting on beta-adrenergic receptors to diminish the effects of epinephrine M16_MART9867_11_GE_C16.indd 610 parasympathetic blocking agents: Drugs that target the muscarinic receptors at neuromuscular or neuroglandular junctions parasympathomimetic drugs: Drugs that mimic parasympathetic stimulation and increase the activity along the digestive tract sympathetic blocking agents: Drugs that bind to receptor sites, preventing a normal response to neurotransmitters or sympathomimetic drugs sympathomimetic drugs: Drugs that mimic the effects of sympathetic stimulation 22/08/17 9:39 AM www.downloadslide.net 17 The Special Senses Learning Outcomes These Learning Outcomes correspond by number to this chapter’s sections and indicate what you should be able to after completing the chapter 17-1 ■ Describe the sensory organs of smell, trace the olfactory pathways to their destinations in the brain, and explain the physiological basis of olfactory discrimination p 612 17-2 ■ Describe the sensory organs of taste, trace the gustatory pathways to their destinations in the brain, and explain the physiological basis of gustatory discrimination p 616 17-3 ■ Identify the internal and accessory structures of the eye, and explain the functions of each p 618 17-4 ■ Describe how refraction and the focusing of light on the retina lead to vision p 627 17-5 ■ Explain color and depth perception, describe how light stimulates the production of nerve impulses, and trace the visual pathways to their destinations in the brain p 629 17-6 ■ Describe the structures of the external, middle, and internal ear, explain their roles in equilibrium and hearing, and trace the pathways for equilibrium and hearing to their destinations in the brain p 638 M17_MART9867_11_GE_C17.indd 611 23/08/17 5:30 PM + 17 www.downloadslide.net CLINICAL CASE A Chance to See Makena is a 12-year-old Kenyan girl living with her family in a small village in subSaharan Africa Their village is miles away from roads, electricity, and health care Her family is very poor, and lives on less than $1.25 per day Makena’s daily chores include walking hours to collect water, every morning before school and again after school Water is so precious in this part of the world that nobody in Makena’s village has ever taken a shower Makena is a bright girl, but she does not well in school She can’t see the chalkboard in her classroom She can’t see the soccer ball when she tries to play with her classmates She even has trouble seeing the path that leads to the dry riverbed where she collects water from a deep hole She has no idea that other people can see these things better No one in Makena’s village wears eyeglasses, and most not even know what they are Makena’s teacher, however, studied at the University of Nairobi and knows that glasses can correct vision problems The teacher thinks perhaps nearsightedness is a problem for Makena. Can a desperately poor child, many miles away from health care of any kind, obtain glasses to correct her poor vision? To find out, turn to the Clinical Case Wrap-Up on p 655 An Introduction to the Special Senses 17-1 Olfaction, the sense of smell, involves olfactory receptors responding to airborne chemical stimuli Our knowledge of the world around us is limited to those characteristics that stimulate our sensory receptors We may not realize it, but our picture of the environment is incomplete Colors we cannot see guide insects to flowers Sounds we cannot hear and smells we cannot detect give dolphins, dogs, and cats key information about their surroundings What we perceive varies considerably with the state of our nervous system For example, during sympathetic activation, you experience a heightened awareness of sensory information You hear sounds that normally you would not notice Yet, when concentrating on a difficult problem, you may be unaware of fairly loud noises Finally, our perception of any stimulus reflects activity in the cerebral cortex, but that activity can be generated by the nervous system itself In cases of phantom pain syndrome, for example, a person feels pain in a missing limb During an epileptic seizure, a person may experience sights, sounds, or smells that have no physical basis In our discussion of the general senses and sensory pathways in Chapter 15, we introduced basic principles of receptor function and sensory processing We now turn to the five special senses: olfaction (smell), gustation (taste), vision, equilibrium (balance), and hearing The sense organs involved are structurally more complex than those of the general senses, but the same basic principles of receptor function apply That is, all of the special sense receptors also transduce an arriving stimulus into action potentials that are then sent to the CNS for interpretation and possible p 561 ATLAS: Embryology Summary 13: The Developresponse ment of Special Sense Organs Learning Outcome Describe the sensory organs of smell, trace the olfactory pathways to their destinations in the brain, and explain the physiological basis of olfactory discrimination The sense of smell, called olfaction, is made possible by paired olfactory organs These olfactory organs, which are located in the nasal cavity on either side of the nasal septum, contain olfactory sensory neurons What happens when you inhale through your nose? The air swirls within your nasal cavity This turbulence brings airborne substances, including water-soluble and lipid-soluble substances called odorants, to your olfactory organs A normal, relaxed inhalation carries a small sample (about percent) of the inhaled air to the olfactory organs If you sniff repeatedly, you increase the flow of air and so odorants, increasing the stimulation of the olfactory receptors Once these receptors are stimulated, they send signals to the olfactory cortex, which interprets them Let’s look more closely at this process Anatomy of the Olfactory Organs The olfactory organs are made up of two layers: the olfactory epithelium and the lamina propria (Figure 17–1a) The olfactory epithelium contains the olfactory sensory neurons, supporting cells, and regenerative basal epithelial cells (stem cells) (Figure 17–1b) This epithelium covers the inferior surface of the cribriform plate, the superior portion of the perpendicular plate, and the superior nasal conchae of the ethmoid p 266 The second layer, the underlying lamina propria, consists of areolar tissue, numerous blood vessels, and nerves This layer 612 M17_MART9867_11_GE_C17.indd 612 22/08/17 9:41 AM www.downloadslide.net Chapter 17 The Special Senses 613 Figure 17–1 The Olfactory Organs Basal epithelial cell: divides to replace worn-out olfactory sensory neurons Olfactory Pathway to the Cerebrum Olfactory epithelium Olfactory nerve fibers (I) Olfactory bulb Olfactory tract Central nervous system Olfactory gland To olfactory bulb Cribriform plate Olfactory nerve fibers Lamina propria Developing olfactory sensory neuron Olfactory sensory neuron Olfactory epithelium Supporting cell Cribriform plate Mucous layer Dendritic bulb Superior nasal concha Substance being smelled a The olfactory organ on the right side of the nasal septum also contains olfactory glands Their secretions absorb water and form thick, pigmented mucus Olfactory sensory neurons are highly modified nerve cells The exposed tip of each sensory neuron forms a prominent dendritic bulb that projects beyond the epithelial surface (see Figure 17–1b) The dendritic bulb is a base for up to 20 cilia-shaped dendrites that extend into the surrounding mucus These dendrites lie parallel to the epithelial surface, exposing their considerable surface area to odorants Between 10 and 20 million olfactory receptors fill an area of roughly cm2 (0.8 in.2) If we take into account the exposed dendritic surfaces, the actual sensory area probably approaches that of our entire body surface Olfactory Receptors and the Physiology of Olfaction Olfactory reception begins with the binding of an odorant to a G protein–coupled receptor in the plasma membrane of an olfactory dendrite This creates a depolarization called a generator potential This potential leads to the generation of action potentials, which are then carried to the CNS by sensory afferent fibers Please study this process in Spotlight Figure 17–2a before reading on M17_MART9867_11_GE_C17.indd 613 Olfactory dendrites: surfaces contain 17 receptor proteins (see Spotlight Figure 17–2) b An olfactory receptor is a modified neuron with multiple cilia-shaped dendrites Olfactory Pathways The olfactory pathway begins with afferent fibers leaving the olfactory epithelium that collect into 20 or more bundles These bundles penetrate the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone to reach the olfactory bulbs of the cerebrum, where the first synapse occurs (see Figure 17–1a) Efferent fibers from nuclei elsewhere in the brain also innervate neurons of the olfactory bulbs Axons leaving the olfactory bulb travel along the olfactory tract to the olfactory cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, the hypothalamus, and portions of the limbic system Olfactory stimulation is the only type of sensory information that reaches the cerebral cortex directly All other sensations are relayed from processing centers in the thalamus Certain smells can trigger profound emotional and behavioral responses, as well as memories, due to the fact that olfactory information is also distributed to the limbic system and hypothalamus The activation of an afferent fiber does not guarantee an awareness of the stimulus Considerable convergence takes place along the olfactory pathway, and inhibition at the intervening synapses can prevent the sensations from reaching the olfactory cortex p 537 As seen in Spotlight Figure 17–2a, the olfactory receptors themselves adapt very little to an ongoing stimulus 22/08/17 9:41 AM www.downloadslide.net SPOTLIGHT Figure 17–2 Olfaction and Gustation Stimulus Olfaction and gustation are special senses that give us vital information about our environment Although the sensory information is diverse and complex, each special sense originates at specialized neurons or receptor cells that communicate with other sensory neurons OLFACTION Olfactory receptors are the dendrites of specialized neurons When odorant molecules bind to the olfactory receptors, a depolarization known as a generator potential results This graph shows the action potentials produced by a generator potential Stimulus removed Action potentials +30 mV a Dendrites Specialized olfactory neuron −70 mV Stimulus Threshold −60 −70 Generator potential to CNS Time (msec) b GUSTATION RECEPTOR CELL mV Stimulus removed Stimulus Threshold −60 −70 Gustatory epithelial cell −70 mV Depolarization Synapse at dendrite Time (msec) Sensory neuron −70 mV AXON Stimulus +30 mV The receptors for the senses of taste, vision, equilibrium, and hearing are specialized cells that have unexcitable membranes and form synapses with the processes of sensory neurons As this upper graph shows, the membrane of the stimulated receptor cell undergoes a graded depolarization that triggers the release of chemical transmitters at the synapse These transmitters then depolarize the sensory neuron, creating a generator potential and action potentials that are propagated to the CNS Because a synapse is involved, there is a slight synaptic delay However, this arrangement permits modification of the sensitivity of the receptor cell by presynaptic facilitation or inhibition Stimulus +30 Action potentials Synaptic delay −60 −70 Generator potential to CNS Time (msec) 614 M17_MART9867_11_GE_C17.indd 614 22/08/17 9:41 AM www.downloadslide.net In general, odorants are small organic molecules The strongest smells are associated with molecules of either high water or high lipid solubilities As few as four odorant molecules can activate an olfactory receptor Olfactory reception occurs on the surface membranes of the olfactory dendrites Odorants—substances that stimulate olfactory receptors—interact with receptors called odorant-binding proteins on the membrane surface The binding of an odorant to its receptor protein leads to the activation of adenylate cyclase, the enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP) Odorant molecule The cAMP opens sodium ion channels in the plasma membrane, which then begins to depolarize MUCOUS LAYER Closed sodium channel If sufficient depolarization occurs, an action potential is triggered in the axon, and the information is relayed to the CNS + + + Depolarized membrane Receptor protein Inactive G protein Olfactory sensory neuron + + adenylate ATP cyclase cAMP Some 90 percent of the gustatory epithelial cells respond to two or more different taste stimuli The different tastes involve different receptor mechanisms A salty stimulus involves the diffusion of Na+ ions through a sodium ion leak channel common in epithelial cells Stimuli for a sour or acidic taste include H+ ions that diffuse through the same epithelial Na+ channel The intracellular increase in cations leads to depolarization and neurotransmitter release Sweet, bitter, and umami stimuli bind to specific G protein–coupled receptors The resulting multiple chemical pathways lead to depolarization and neurotransmitter release cAMP cAMP Active G protein Sodium ions enter cAMP Salt and Sour Channels The diffusion of sodium ions from salt solutions or hydrogen ions from acids or sour solutions into the gustatory epithelial cell leads to depolarization + H+ + Na+ + + + + Na ion leak channel + Sweet, Bitter, and Umami Receptors Receptors responding to stimuli that produce sweet, bitter, and umami sensations are linked to G proteins called gustducins (GUST-doos- inz)—protein complexes that use second messengers to produce their effects Sweet, bitter, or umami Membrane receptor Resting plasma membrane Inactive G protein Depolarized membrane Depolarized membrane Active G protein + + Active G protein + Depolarization of membrane stimulates release of chemical neurotransmitters Active 2nd messenger Inactive 2nd messenger Activation of second messengers stimulates release of chemical neurotransmitters 615 M17_MART9867_11_GE_C17.indd 615 22/08/17 9:41 AM www.downloadslide.net 616 UNIT 3 Control and Regulation Rather, central adaptation (provided by the innervation of the olfactory bulbs by other brain nuclei) ensures that you quickly lose awareness of a new smell but remain sensitive to others Olfactory Discrimination The human olfactory system can discriminate between, or make subtle distinctions among, 2000–4000 chemical stimuli Yet, our olfactory sensitivities cannot compare with those of other vertebrates such as dogs, cats, or fishes A German shepherd dog sniffing for smuggled drugs or explosives has an olfactory receptor surface 72 times greater than that of the nearby customs inspector! Thus, the dog can smell 10,000 to 100,000 times better than a human No apparent structural differences exist among the human olfactory sensory neurons, but the epithelium as a whole contains populations with distinct sensitivities Upwards of 50 “primary smells” are known, although it is almost impossible to describe these sensory impressions effectively The CNS probably interprets each smell on the basis of the overall pattern of receptor activity Human olfactory organs can discriminate among many 17 smells, but sensitivity varies widely, depending on the nature of the odorant We can detect many odorants in amazingly small concentrations One example is mercaptan, an odorant commonly added to natural gas, which is otherwise odorless Because we can smell mercaptan at an extremely low concentration (a few parts per billion), its addition enables us to detect a gas leak almost at once The olfactory receptor population is replaced frequently Basal epithelial cells in the epithelium divide and differentiate to produce new sensory neurons This turnover is one of the few examples of neuronal replacement in adult humans Despite this process, the total number of neurons declines with age, and those that remain become less sensitive As a result, elderly people have difficulty detecting odors in low concentrations This sensory neuron decline explains why Grandpa’s aftershave smells so strong: He must apply more to be able to smell it Checkpoint Define olfaction Trace the olfactory pathway, beginning at the olfactory epithelium When you first enter the A&P lab for dissection, you are very aware of the odor of preservatives By the end of the lab period, the smell doesn’t seem to be nearly as strong Why? See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book 17-2 Gustation, the sense of taste, involves gustatory receptors responding to dissolved chemical stimuli Learning Outcome Describe the sensory organs of taste, trace the gustatory pathways to their destinations in the brain, and explain the physiological basis of gustatory discrimination M17_MART9867_11_GE_C17.indd 616 Gustation, or taste, provides information about the foods and liquids we eat and drink Gustatory (GUS-ta-tor-e) epithelial cells, or taste receptors are found in taste buds that are distributed over the superior surface of the tongue and adjacent portions of the pharynx and larynx These receptors are stimulated by dissolved food molecules This stimulation leads to action potentials that are sent to the gustatory cortex for interpretation Let’s look further into this process Anatomy of Papillae and Taste Buds The surface of the tongue has numerous variously shaped epithelial projections called lingual papillae (pa-PIL-e; papilla, a nipple-shaped mound) The human tongue has four types of lingual papillae (Figure 17–3a,b): (1) filiform (filum, thread) papillae, (2) fungiform (fungus, mushroom) papillae, (3) vallate (VAL-at; vallum, wall) papillae, and (4) foliate (FOle-at) papillae The distribution of these lingual papillae varies by region Their components also vary—most contain the sensory structures called taste buds (Figure 17–3c) Filiform papillae are found in the anterior two-thirds of the tongue running parallel to the midline groove They not contain taste buds, but they provide an abrasive coat that creates friction to help move food around the mouth Fungiform papillae are scattered around the tongue with concentration along the tip and sides Each small fungiform papilla contains about taste buds Vallate papillae appear as an inverted “V” near the posterior margin of the tongue There are up to 12 vallate papillae, and each contains as many as 100 taste buds The foliate papillae are found as a series of folds along the lateral margins with taste buds embedded in their surfaces Gustatory Receptors Taste buds are recessed into the surrounding epithelium, isolated from the unprocessed contents of the mouth Each taste bud contains about 40–100 gustatory epithelial cells and many small stem cells called basal epithelial cells (see Figure 17–3b,c) The basal epithelial cells continually divide to produce daughter cells that mature in three stages—basal, transitional, and mature Cells at all stages are innervated by sensory neurons The mature cells of the last stage are the gustatory epithelial cells Each gustatory epithelial cell extends microvilli, sometimes called taste hairs, into the surrounding fluids through the taste pore, a narrow opening Despite this relatively protected position, it’s still a hard life: A typical gustatory epithelial cell survives for only about 10 days before it is replaced Gustatory Pathways The gustatory pathway starts with taste buds, which are innervated by cranial nerves VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), and X (vagus) The facial nerve innervates all the taste buds located on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, from the tip to the 22/08/17 9:41 AM www.downloadslide.net Chapter 17 The Special Senses 617 Figure 17–3 Papillae, Taste Buds, and Gustatory Epithelial Cells Water receptors Umami (pharynx) Taste buds Taste buds Midline groove Vallate papilla Taste buds LM × 280 a Location of tongue papillae Transitional cell Foliate papillae Gustatory epithelial cell Basal epithelial cell Taste hairs 17 (microvilli) Taste pore Fungiform papilla c Taste buds in a vallate papilla A diagrammatic view of a taste bud, showing gustatory epithelial cells and supporting cells Filiform papillae b The structure and representative locations of the four types of lingual papillae Taste receptors are located in taste buds, which form pockets in the epithelium of fungiform, foliate, and vallate papillae line of vallate papillae The glossopharyngeal nerve innervates the vallate papillae and the posterior one-third of the tongue The vagus nerve innervates taste buds scattered on the surface of the epiglottis The sensory afferent fibers carried by these cranial nerves synapse in the solitary nucleus of the medulla oblongata The axons of the postsynaptic neurons then enter the medial lemniscus There, the neurons join axons that carry somatic sensory information on touch, pressure, and proprioception After another synapse in the thalamus, the information is sent to the appropriate portions of the gustatory cortex of the insula You have a conscious perception of taste as the brain correlates information received from the taste buds with other sensory data Information about the texture of food, along with taste-related sensations such as “peppery,” comes from sensory afferent fibers in the trigeminal cranial nerve (V) In addition, the level of stimulation from the olfactory receptors plays a major role in taste perception The combination of taste and smell is what provides the flavor, or distinctive quality M17_MART9867_11_GE_C17.indd 617 of a particular food or drink You are several thousand times more sensitive to “tastes” when your olfactory organs are fully functional By contrast, when you have a cold and your nose is stuffed up, airborne molecules cannot reach your olfactory receptors, so meals taste dull and unappealing The reduction in flavor happens even though the taste buds may be responding normally Without accompanying olfactory sensations, you are now limited to the basic taste sensations provided by your gustatory receptors Gustatory Discrimination and Physiology of Gustation You are probably already familiar with the four primary taste sensations: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter There is some evidence for differences in sensitivity to tastes along the axis of the tongue, with greatest sensitivity to salty–sweet anteriorly and sour–bitter posteriorly However, there are no differences in the structure of the taste buds Taste buds in all portions of the tongue provide all four primary taste sensations 22/08/17 9:41 AM www.downloadslide.net 618 UNIT 3 Control and Regulation Humans have two additional taste sensations that are less widely known The first is called umami (oo-MAH-me, derived from Japanese meaning “delicious”), a pleasant, savory taste imparted by the amino acid glutamate The distribution of umami receptors is not known in detail, but they are present in taste buds of the vallate papillae Second, although most people say that water has no flavor, research on humans and other vertebrates has demonstrated the presence of water receptors, especially in the pharynx The sensory output of these receptors is processed in the hypothalamus and affects several systems that affect water balance and the regulation of blood volume For example, the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (a hormone that regulates urination) is slightly reduced each time you take a long drink Gustation reception is described in Spotlight Figure 17–2b The threshold for receptor stimulation varies for each of the primary taste sensations Also, the taste receptors respond more readily to unpleasant than to pleasant stimuli For example, we are almost a thousand times more sensitive to acids, which taste sour, than to either sweet or salty chemicals We are a hun17 dred times more sensitive to bitter compounds than to acids This sensitivity has survival value, because acids can damage the mucous membranes of the mouth and pharynx, and many potent biological toxins have an extremely bitter taste Taste sensitivity differs significantly among individuals Many conditions related to taste sensitivity are inherited The best-known example involves sensitivity to the compound phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) This substance tastes bitter to some people, but is tasteless to others PTC is not found in foods, but compounds related to PTC are found in Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower Our tasting abilities change with age Many elderly people find that their food tastes bland and unappetizing, while children tend to find the same foods too spicy What accounts for these differences? We begin life with more than 10,000 taste buds, but by the time we reach adulthood, the taste receptors on the pharynx, larynx, and epiglottis have decreased in number By age 50, the number begins declining dramatically The sensory loss becomes especially significant because, as we have already noted, older individuals also experience a decline in the number of olfactory receptors Checkpoint Define gustation If you completely dry the surface of your tongue and then place salt or sugar on it, you can’t taste the substance Why not? Your grandfather can’t understand why foods he used to enjoy just don’t taste the same anymore How would you explain this to him? See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book M17_MART9867_11_GE_C17.indd 618 17-3 Internal eye structures contribute to vision, while accessory eye structures provide protection Learning Outcome Identify the internal and accessory structures of the eye, and explain the functions of each We rely more on vision than on any other special sense Our eyes are elaborate structures containing our visual receptors that enable us not only to detect light, but also to create detailed visual images We begin our discussion of these fascinating organs with the accessory structures of the eye (which provide protection, lubrication, and support), and then move on to the structures of the eyeball Accessory Structures of the Eye The accessory structures of the eye include the eyelids and the superficial epithelium of the eye, as well as the structures involved with the production, secretion, and removal of tears Figure 17–4 shows the superficial anatomy of the eye and its accessory structures Eyelids and Superficial Epithelium of the Eye The eyelids, or palpebrae, are a continuation of the skin Their continual blinking keeps the surface of the eye lubricated They also act like windshield wipers, removing dust and debris The eyelids can also close firmly to protect the delicate surface of the eye The palpebral fissure is the gap that separates the free margins of the upper and lower eyelids The two eyelids are connected, however, at the medial angle (medial canthus) and the lateral angle (lateral canthus) (Figure 17–4a) The eyelashes, along the margins of the eyelids, are very robust hairs They help prevent foreign matter (including insects) from reaching the surface of the eye The eyelashes are associated with unusually large sebaceous glands Along the inner margin of the lid are small, modified sebaceous glands called tarsal glands (not shown in the figure), or Meibomian (mı-BO-me-an) glands They secrete a lipid-rich substance that helps keep the eyelids from sticking together At the medial angle of eye, the lacrimal caruncle (KAR-ung-kul), a mass of soft tissue, contains glands producing the thick secretions that contribute to the gritty deposits that sometimes appear after a good night’s sleep Bacteria occasionally invade and infect these various glands A chalazion (kah-LA-ze-on; small lump) is a cyst that results from an infection of a tarsal gland An infection in a sebaceous gland associated with an eyelash produces a painful localized swelling known as a sty The skin covering the visible surface of the eyelid is very thin Deep to the skin lie the muscle fibers of the orbicularis oculi and levator palpebrae superioris p 396 These skeletal muscles close the eyelids and raise the upper eyelid, respectively 22/08/17 9:41 AM www.downloadslide.net Chapter 17 The Special Senses 619 Figure 17–4 External Features and Accessory Structures of the Eye. ATLAS: Plates 3c; 12a; 16a,b Superior rectus Eyelashes Pupil Lateral angle Tendon of superior oblique Eyelid Lacrimal gland ducts Lacrimal punctum Lacrimal gland Lacrimal caruncle Bulbar conjunctiva Palpebral fissure Superior lacrimal canaliculus Lateral angle Medial angle Inferior lacrimal canaliculus Orbital fat Medial angle Sclera Corneoscleral junction Lacrimal caruncle Nasolacrimal duct Inferior rectus Inferior oblique a Gross and superficial anatomy of the accessory structures ? Lacrimal sac Lower eyelid b The organization of the lacrimal apparatus Inferior nasal concha Opening of nasolacrimal duct 17 Choose the correct word from each pairing: The lacrimal gland is located (inferior, superior) and (lateral, medial) to the eye The epithelium covering the inner surfaces of the eyelids and the outer surface of the eyeball is called the conjunctiva (kon-junk-TI-vuh) It is a mucous membrane covered by a specialized stratified squamous epithelium The palpebral conjunctiva covers the inner surface of the eyelids The bulbar conjunctiva, or ocular conjunctiva, covers the anterior surface of the eye (Figure 17–4b) The bulbar conjunctiva extends to the edges of the cornea (KOR-ne-uh), a transparent part of the outer fibrous layer of the eye The cornea is covered by a very delicate squamous corneal epithelium, five to seven cells thick, that is continuous with the bulbar conjunctiva A constant supply of fluid washes over the surface of the eyeball, keeping the bulbar conjunctiva and cornea moist and clean Mucous cells in the epithelium assist the accessory glands in lubricating the surfaces of the conjunctiva to prevent drying out and friction Conjunctivitis, or pinkeye, is an inflammation of the conjunctiva The most obvious sign, redness, is due to the dilation of blood vessels deep to the conjunctival epithelium This condition may be caused by pathogenic infection or by physical, allergic, or chemical irritation of the conjunctival surface The Lacrimal Apparatus A constant flow of tears keeps conjunctival surfaces moist and clean Tears reduce friction, remove debris, prevent bacterial M17_MART9867_11_GE_C17.indd 619 infection, and provide nutrients and oxygen to portions of the conjunctival epithelium The lacrimal apparatus produces, distributes, and removes tears The lacrimal apparatus of each eye consists of (1) a lacrimal gland with associated ducts, (2) paired lacrimal canaliculi, (3) a lacrimal sac, and (4) a nasolacrimal duct (see Figure 17–4b) The fornix of the eye is a pocket created where the palpebral conjunctiva becomes continuous with the bulbar conjunctiva The lateral portion of the superior fornix receives 10–12 ducts from the lacrimal gland, or tear gland (see Figure 17–4b) This gland is about the size and shape of an almond, measuring roughly 12–20 mm (0.5–0.75 in.) It nestles within a depression in the frontal bone, just inside the orbit and superior and lateral to the eyeball p 263 The lacrimal gland normally provides the key ingredients and most of the volume of the tears that bathe the conjunctival surfaces The lacrimal secretions supply nutrients and oxygen to the corneal cells by diffusion The lacrimal secretions are watery and slightly alkaline They contain the antibacterial enzyme lysozyme and antibodies that attack pathogens before they enter the body Each lacrimal gland produces about mL of tears each day Once the lacrimal secretions have reached the ocular surface, they mix with the products of accessory glands and the oily secretions of the tarsal glands The result is a superficial “oil slick” that aids lubrication and slows evaporation 25/08/17 5:02 PM www.downloadslide.net RICE (rest, ice, compression, and elevation), 381 Rickets, 210–211, 246 Right atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve, 740 Right atrium, 735, 740 Right-to-left shunt, 823 Right ventricle, 735, 740 Rigor mortis, 353 Rima glottidis, 888 Ringer’s solution, 704 Risorius muscle, 392, 395 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 121, 131 vs DNA, 103–105 messenger (mRNA), 121, 124, 131–135 structure, 103, 104 types, 104 RNA polymerase, 132 RNA processing, 133 Rods, 623, 629, 631 Root hair, 212 lung, 894 nail, 217 penis, 1109 tongue, 940 tooth, 940 Root canal, 940, 984 Root hair plexus, 211, 565, 566 Rootlets, 483 Root sheath, hair follicle, 212 Rosacea, 225 Rotation, 318, 321–322, 388 Rotator cuff, 328, 412 Rotatores muscle, 401, 403 Rotaviruses, 1173 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), 115, 122, 123, 124 Rouleaux, 708 Round ligaments liver, 956 uterus, 1123, 1140 Round window, 641 Rubrospinal tracts, 576, 577 Ruffini (bulbous) corpuscles, 565, 566 Ruffled border, 233 Rugae stomach, 947 urinary bladder, 1056 vagina, 1125 Rule of nines, 220 R wave, 752 S Saccule, 641, 643 Sacral artery, middle/lateral, 811 Sacral canal, 280 Sacral cornua, 280 Sacral crest, median/lateral, 280 Sacral curve, 274–275 Sacral foramina, 280 Sacral hiatus, 280 Sacral plexus, 492, 497–498 Sacral promontory, 282 Sacral tuberosity, 280 Sacral vein, 819 Sacroiliac joint, 280, 298 Sacrum, 274, 280–282, 298, 324, 331 Saddle joints, 319 Sagittal plane, 59, 60 Sagittal section, 59, 60 Sagittal sinus, inferior/superior, 516, 812, 816 Sagittal suture, 257, 258 Saliva, 942, 943–944 Salivary amylase, 942, 944, 973 Salivary glands, 270, 942–943 Salivatory nucleus, inferior/ superior, 944 Salpingitis, 1148 Saltatory propagation, 459, 461 Salts, 90, 106 Salty receptors, 617 Sarcolemma, 341 Sarcoma, 197 Sarcomere contracted, 347, 352, 355 length–tension relationships, 357–358 resting, 347, 354 structure, 343–346 Sarcoplasm, 341–342 Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 342 Sartorius muscle, 392, 422 Satellite cells, 442, 445 Satiety, 951 Saturated enzyme, 102 Saturated fatty acid, 94 Saturation limit, enzyme, 102 Saturation limits, 141 Scab, 218 Scala media (cochlear duct), 641, 646 Scala tympani (tympanic duct), 646 Scala vestibuli (vestibular duct), 646 Scalene muscles, 405 Scalp (epicranium), 393, 395 Scanning electron micrograph (SEM), 112, 119, 159 Scanning techniques, 62 Scaphoid, 296 Scapula, 290, 292–293 Scapular nerve, dorsal, 495 Scapular spine, 292 Scarring phase, injury repair, 218, 219 Scar tissue, 193, 219 Schilling test, 733 Schizophrenia, 604 Schwann cells, 442, 445, 446 Sciatic nerve, 298, 496, 497 Sciatic notch, greater/lesser, 298 Scientific method, 51 Sclera, 620 Scleral venous sinus, 626 Scleroderma, 225 Sclerotherapy, 830 Scopolamine (Transderm Scop), 645 Scotoma, 628 Scrotal cavity, 1104 Scrotum, 1103, 1104–1105 Scurvy, 243 Seasonal affective disorder (SAD), 683 Sebaceous follicles, 214–215 Sebaceous (oil) glands, 214–215, 223 Seborrheic dermatitis, 215 Sebum, 214 Secondary active transport, 143, 144 Secondary amenorrhea, 1139 Secondary brain vesicles, 514 Secondary curves, 274 Secondary memories, 600 Secondary oocyte, 1129, 1151 Secondary ossification center, 237 Secondary ovarian follicle, 1129, 1130, 1131 Secondary response, to antigen, 866, 867 Secondary spermatocytes, 1113 Secondary structure, protein, 100, 101 Secondary tumor, 153 Second-class lever, 385, 386 Second-degree burn, 220 Second heart sound, 761 Second messengers, 467, 590, 662, 663 Second-order neuron, 568 Second trimester changes in maternal systems, 1167 changes in uterus, 1167, 1168 fetal development, 1161–1163, 1166 overview, 1153, 1164–1165 Secretin, 965, 966 Secretion in collecting system, 1046 digestive, 962, 977 at distal convoluted tubule, 1045–1046 modes, 172 in nephron loop, 1041–1042 at proximal convoluted tubule, 1041 types, 172 in urine formation, 1033, 1039–1041 Secretory phase, uterine cycle, 1132, 1133 Secretory piece, immunoglobulin, 865 Secretory sheet, 171, 947 Secretory vesicles, 125 Section anatomical, 59 of textbook, 49 Sectional anatomy, 50, 59, 60 Sectional planes, 59, 60 Segmental arteries, 1026 Segmental blocks, 1123 Segmental bronchi, 890 Segmentation, 936, 937 Segments, electrocardiogram, 752 Seizure, 540 Selectively permeable membrane, 136 Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 466, 604 Selenium, 109 Self-antigens, 855 Sella diaphragm, 666 Sella turcica, 265, 666 Semen, 1102, 1109 Semicircular canals, 641 INDEX overview, 923–925 reproductive, 1143 urinary, 1061 lower See Lower respiratory system organization, 881–882 overview, 55, 881 parasympathetic effects, 596 prenatal development, 1165 at puberty, 1176 pulmonary ventilation See Pulmonary ventilation smooth muscle in, 375 sympathetic effects, 596 upper, 881, 882, 884–887 Respiratory tract, 881 “Rest and digest” response, 584 Resting membrane potential, 148, 448, 449, 451 See also Membrane potential Rete testis, 1105 Reticular activating system, 524, 603 Reticular fibers, 176 Reticular formation, 520, 522, 523, 525, 576 Reticular lamina, 165 Reticular layer, dermis, 204 Reticular tissue, 178, 179 Reticulocyte, 711 Reticulocyte count, 711 Reticulocytosis, 711 Reticuloendothelial (monocyte– macrophage) system, 846 Reticulospinal tracts, 576, 577 Retina, 622–625 Retinal, 629, 631 Retinitis pigmentosa (RP), 635, 1185 Retinoblastoma, 1185 Retinopathy, 623 Retraction, 321, 322 Retroflexion, uterus, 1123 Retrograde flow, axon, 439 Retroperitoneal, 64, 933 Retrovirus, 873 Return stroke, cilium, 120, 121 Reverberation, neural circuits, 498, 499 Reversible reaction, 85 R group, 99 Rheumatic fever, 743 Rheumatism, 331 Rheumatoid arthritis, 332, 872 Rh factor, 714, 715 Rhinitis, 929 Rhinoplasty, 207, 929 Rh negative (Rh ∙ ), 714 Rhodopsin, 629, 631, 634 RhoGAM, 719 Rhombencephalon, 514 Rhomboid muscle, major/minor, 392, 408, 410 Rh positive (Rh ∙ ), 714 Rhythm method, 1139 Rib cage, 284 Riboflavin (vitamin B2), 1010 Ribose, 103 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 121 Ribosomes, 115, 121–122 Ribs, 284, 324 1291 Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1291 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net INDEX Semicircular ducts, 641–642 Semilunar ganglion, 145 Semilunar valves, 740, 743 Semimembranosus muscle, 422 Seminal fluid, 1109 Seminal glands (vesicles), 1107–1108 Seminalplasmin, 1109 Seminiferous tubules, 1105, 1106, 1114 Semispinalis muscle group, erector spinae, 386, 401, 402, 403 Semitendinosus muscle, 422 Senescence, 1150, 1172, 1177 See also Aging Senile cataracts, 626 Senile dementia (senility), 605 Senile lentigos (liver spots), 208 Sensation, 560 Sense organs, 560 Sensible perspiration, 203, 1014, 1074 Sensitization B cells, 862 Rh factor, 715 Sensorineural hearing loss, 655 Sensory areas, cerebral cortex, 537 Sensory coding, 562 Sensory ganglia, 440 Sensory homunculus, 570, 572 Sensory neurons, 440–441, 499 Sensory nuclei, 486 Sensory pathways, 559–560, 568–573 Sensory processing centers, 559 Sensory receptors See also Special senses adaptation, 562–563 classification, 563–568 information interpretation, 561–563 overview, 560–561 stimuli detection, 561 Sentinel node, 879 Sepsis, 220 Septa lung, 894 testes, 1105 thymus, 840 Septicemia, 733 Septum pellucidum, 515 Serial processing, neural circuits, 498, 499 Serosa, 936 Serotonin, 466, 468, 473, 604, 683, 725 Serous fluid, 187 Serous glands, 172 Serous membranes (serosa), 60, 186–187 Serous pericardium, 736 Serratus anterior muscle, 408, 409 Serratus posterior muscle, 405 Sertoli (nurse) cells, 670, 690, 692, 1114–1115, 1117, 1118 Sertraline (Zoloft), 466 Serum, 704 Sesamoid bones, 228, 229 Set point, 65 Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 929 Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID), 872, 1185 Sex cells (germ cells, reproductive cells), 112 Sex chromosomes, 1178 Sex differences blood volume, 704 body composition, 1069, 1070 hematocrit, 706 pelvis, 306, 307 pulmonary volume and capacity, 904 skeletal system, 307 Sex hormones See Androgen(s); Estrogens; Testosterone Sex-linked inheritance, 1179, 1181–1182 Sexual arousal, 599, 1137, 1138 Sexual function, 1137–1138 Sexual intercourse, 1102, 1137 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 1139 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 1139 Shaft definition, 229, 231, 290 femur, 301 penis, 1109 rib, 284 Shallow (costal) breathing, 901 Sharpey’s fibers, 236 Shingles, 489 Shin splints, 303, 434 Shiver, 1016 Shivering thermogenesis, 1016 Shock, 801–802 Shock-wave lithotripsy, 1066 Short bones, 228, 229 Short chain-polypeptides, 661 Short (myenteric) reflexes, 598, 937, 938 Short-term memories, 600 Shoulder girdle See Pectoral girdle Shoulder (glenohumeral) joint, 292, 328–329, 335 Shoulder separation, 328 Sickle cell disease (SCD), 703, 709, 732, 1180, 1185 Sick sinus syndrome, 772 Sigmoid artery, 810 Sigmoid colon, 967 Sigmoid sinus, 816 Signs, 51 Simple columnar epithelium, 166, 168, 170 Simple cuboidal epithelium, 166, 168, 170 Simple diffusion, 138 Simple epithelium, 166 Simple fracture, 248 Simple glands, 171 Simple inheritance, 1178, 1179, 1180–1181 Simple squamous epithelium, 166, 167 Simple sugars, 91 Single covalent bond, 81 Sinoatrial (SA) node, 749, 764–765 Sinus(es), 230, 271 Sinusitis, 273 Sinusoids (sinusoidal capillaries), 779, 780, 958 Sinus rhythm, 749 Situs inversus, 112, 159 Skatole, 970 Skeletal muscle(s) actions, 387–388, 392 age-related changes, 371 atrophy, 371 blood supply, 339 connective tissue organization, 339–340 fatigued, 371–372 functions, 338–339, 378 hormones and, 278 hypertrophy, 371 insertions, 347, 385–387, 392, 431 names, 389–392, 431 nerves, 339 origins, 347, 385–387, 392, 431 overview, 188, 390–391, 392–393 physical conditioning and, 369–371 sympathetic effects, 596 tension production, 361 tone, 362 Skeletal muscle fibers atrophy, 371 vs cardiac contractile cells, 753 contraction See Contraction, skeletal muscle control, 349 development, 340–341 distribution, 369–371 hypertrophy, 371 innervation, 339 muscle performance and, 369–371 overview, 339 sliding-filament theory, 347–348 structure, 340–348, 378 tension production, 357–360 types, 369 Skeletal muscle tissue vs cardiac muscle tissue, 377, 748 connective tissue organization, 339–340 contraction See Contraction, skeletal muscle functional organization, 340–341 functions, 188 locations, 188 metabolic functions, 1004 metabolism, 365–369 overview, 188, 189 vs smooth muscle tissue, 377 tension production, 361 Skeletal system See also Bone age-related changes, 306, 309 axial skeleton, 255–288 functions, 227–228, 332 integration with other systems cardiovascular, 825 digestive, 979 endocrine, 696 integumentary, 333 lymphatic, 874 muscular, 430 nervous, 606 overview, 333 reproductive, 1143 respiratory, 924 urinary, 1061 overview, 54, 227–228, 251 prenatal development, 1164 at puberty, 1176 sex differences, 306, 308 Skill memories, 600 Skin See also Integumentary system age-related changes, 221 dermis See Dermis disease-related changes, 209, 219 epidermis See Epidermis functions, 199 hypodermis, 179, 181, 199, 206 injury repair, 218–219 innervation, 206 parasympathetic effects, 596 structure, 199 sympathetic effects, 596 tension lines, 205 thick, 200, 202 thin, 200, 202 water immersion effects, 203 Skin cancers, 210 Skin-fold test, 1021 Skin graft, 220 Skin tests, 870 Skin turgor, 205 Skull age-related changes, 308 anterior view, 259 cranial bones, 255, 257, 262–267 facial bones, 257, 267–271 fontanelles, 272–274 foramina and fissures, 259 horizontal section, 261 infant, 272–274 inferior view, 259 joints, 324 lateral view, 258 movements, 324 nasal complex, 271–272 orbital complex, 271 overview, 255, 285–286 posterior view, 258 sagittal section, 260 sex differences, 307 superior view, 258 sutures, 257, 258 Sleep, 602–603 Sleep disorder, 603 Sliding-filament theory, 347–348 Slow-adapting receptors, 562 Slow calcium channels, 755 Slow fibers, 369, 370 Slow pain, 563 Slow potassium channels, 756 Slow wave (deep) sleep, 604 Small cardiac vein, 748 Small intestine (small bowel) absorption in, 966 glands, 962 gross anatomy, 961, 962 histology, 961–964 hormones, 964, 965–966 physiology, 964 regional specializations, 963–964 regulation, 964–966 secretions, 964–964 1292 Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1292 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net Somatic motor association area (premotor cortex), 538, 577 Somatic motor neurons, 441 Somatic motor pathways, 559, 573 Somatic nervous system (SNS) vs autonomic nervous system, 582–583, 599, 600 basal nuclei, 576–578 cerebellum, 576–578 corticospinal pathway, 573–575 motor homunculus, 575 overview, 437, 573–574 Somatic reflexes, 503, 553 Somatic sensory neurons, 441 Somatic sensory pathways, 568–573 Somatomedins, 668 Somatosensory association cortex, 538 Somatostatin (growth hormone– inhibiting hormone), 671, 951, 965 Somatotopy, 570 Somatotropin See Growth hormone Sound, 645–646 Sour receptors, 617 Spastic paralysis, 580 Spatial summation, 471, 472 Special circulation, 798–799 Special senses, 560, 610 gustation See Gustation hearing See Hearing olfaction See Olfaction prenatal development, 1164 vision See Vision Specific immunity/defenses See Adaptive (specific) immunity (adaptive defenses) Specificity, 102, 853–854 Sperm, 1102, 1109, 1114, 1115, 1116, 1151 Spermatic cords, 426, 1103 Spermatids, 1113, 1114 Spermatocytes, primary/ secondary, 1113–1114 Spermatogenesis, 1113–1115, 1117 Spermatogonia, 1113 Sperm count, 1109 Spermiation, 1114 Spermiogenesis, 1113, 1114, 1115 Sperm receptors, 1152 S phase, interphase, 150 Sphenoid, 259, 260–261, 265–266 Sphenoidal fontanelles, 273, 274 Sphenoidal sinus, 260, 266, 272 Sphenoidal spine, 266 Sphenopalatine ganglia, 546 Sphincter (circular muscle), 375, 384 Sphincter pupillae, 622 Sphygmomanometer, 830 Spicules, 241 Spina bifida, 288 Spinal accessory nerve See Accessory nerve (XI) Spinal anesthesia, 485 Spinal cord, 443, 444, 481–486 Spinal cord injury, 480, 510 Spinal curves, 274–275 Spinal ganglia, 483–484 Spinal flexors, 403 Spinal fusion, 288 Spinalis muscle group, erector spinae, 400, 402, 403 Spinal meninges, 483, 484–486 Spinal meningitis, 486 Spinal nerves anatomy, 488 overview, 436, 484 peripheral distribution, 488–493 plexuses, 492–498 Spinal reflexes brain’s effect on, 506–507 monosynaptic, 500, 503–505 overview, 480, 500–501 polysynaptic, 501, 503, 505–506 reinforcement and inhibition, 506–507 voluntary movement and, 506 Spinal root, accessory nerve, 550 Spinal shock, 510 Spinal tap (lumbar puncture), 485 Spindle apparatus, 120, 151 Spindle fibers, 151 Spindle formation, 1152 Spine See Vertebral column Spine (bone marking), 230 Spino-accessory nerve See Accessory nerve (XI) Spinocerebellar ataxia, 1185 Spinocerebellar pathway, 571, 573, 574 Spinocerebellar tracts, anterior/ posterior, 571, 573, 574 Spinothalamic pathway, 569, 570, 574 Spinothalamic tracts, anterior/ lateral, 569, 570, 574 Spinous process, vertebrae, 275, 276 Spiral artery, 1124 Spiral CT scan, 63 Spiral fracture, 248 Spiral ganglion, 547, 650 Spiral organ (organ of Corti), 646, 648 Spirometer, 904 Splanchnic nerves, 585, 588 Spleen, 841–842 Splenectomy, 842 Splenic artery, 809, 812, 842 Splenic flexure, 967 Splenic vein, 821, 842 Splenius muscle, capitis/cervicis, 386, 403 Splenomegaly, 879 Split-thickness graft, 220 Spongy (trabecular) bone, 229, 235, 249 Spongy urethra, 1058 Spontaneous abortion, 1169 Spontaneous mutations, 1184 Sports drinks, 373, 1079 Sports injuries, 328, 552 See also Athletes Spot desmosomes, 164, 165 Sprain, 315 Sputum, 929 Squamous cell carcinoma, 210 Squamous epithelium, 166, 167 Squamous part, temporal bone, 263 Squamous suture, 258, 271 Stapedius muscle, 640 Stapes, 640 Starches, 93 Start codon, 134 State of equilibrium, 69 States of consciousness, 602–603 States of matter, 83 Stato-acoustic nerve See Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Stellate macrophages, 846, 868, 958 Stem cells basal epithelial, 612, 616 embryonic, 155 epithelial, 166 induced pluripotent, 155 lymphoid, 710, 723, 843 myeloid, 710, 723 overview, 149 therapeutic uses, 155 Stent, cardiac, 747 Stercobilinogens, 712 Stercobilins, 712, 970 Stereocilia, 641 Sterile (infertile), 1140 Sternal end, clavicle, 290 Sternoclavicular joint, 292 Sternocleidomastoid muscle, 400, 401 Sternohyoid muscle, 401 Sternothyroid muscle, 401 Sternum, 285, 324, 331 Steroid-binding proteins, 704 “Steroid creams,” 682 Steroid hormones, 659, 661, 665, 1137 See also specific hormones Steroids, 96–97 Stethoscope, 738, 761 Stimulus, 65 Stimulus frequency, 360 Stomach digestion and absorption in, 951 functions, 947 gross anatomy, 947, 948 histology, 947, 949 regulation, 951, 952–953 secretory glands and gastric secretions, 949–951 Stop codon, 135 Strabismus, 655 Straight artery, 1124 Straight sinus, 812, 816 Straight tubule, 1105 Stratified columnar epithelium, 166, 168, 170 Stratified cuboidal epithelium, 166, 168, 169 Stratified epithelium, 166 Stratified squamous epithelium, 166, 167 Stratum, 200 Stratum basale (stratum germinativum), 200–201, 202 Stratum corneum, 202, 203 Stratum granulosum, 202, 203 INDEX Small proteins, 661 Small ribosomal unit, 121, 134 Small saphenous vein, 817 Smegma, 1109 Smoking, 923 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), 115, 122, 123 Smooth muscle tissue vs cardiac muscle tissue, 377 control of contractions, 376–377 excitation–contraction coupling, 375–376 functions, 189, 375–377 length–tension relationships, 376 locations, 189 overview, 189, 190, 379 vs skeletal muscle tissue, 377 structure, 375 tone, 377 Sneezing, 921 Snellen chart, 655 Sodium (Na ∙ ) absorption, 976, 978 electrochemical gradient, 448, 450–451 functions in human body, 75, 1009 homeostatic regulation, 1077–1078 imbalances, 1076, 1078–1079, 1081 ionic bond formation, 80–81 normal ECF range, 1081 in plasma, 1033 reabsorption at collecting system, 1046 reabsorption at distal convoluted tubule, 1044 reabsorption at proximal convoluted tubule, 1041, 1043 recommended daily allowance, 1009 in urine, 1033, 1054 Sodium bicarbonate, 1087 Sodium channels in action potential generation, 456–457 fast/slow, 755 in photoreception, 632–633 voltage-gated, 348 Sodium chloride (NaCl), 80, 81 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 90 Sodium monohydrogen phosphate, 1084 Sodium–potassium ATPase, 143, 458, 677 Sodium–potassium exchange pump, 143, 449, 451, 458 Soft keratin, 213 Soft palate, 885, 939 Solar (celiac) plexus, 597 Soleus muscle, 424, 426 Solids, 83 Solitary nucleus/nuclei, 522, 573 Solubility, 87, 907 Soluble fiber, 984 Solute, 87 Solution, 87 Solvent, 87 Soma (cell body), 190, 191, 438 Somatic cells, 112–113 See also Cell(s) 1293 Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1293 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net INDEX Stratum lucidum, 202, 203 Stratum spinosum, 201 Stress, 693, 871 Stress fractures, 305 Stress-induced cardiomyopathy, 748 Stress response (general adaptation syndrome [GAS]), 693, 694 Stress urinary incontinence, 1059 Stretch marks, 205 Stretch reflexes, 500, 502, 503–504 Striated muscle, 188, 190, 341 Strict dominance, 1179, 1180 Stridor, 929 Stroke See Cerebrovascular accident Stroke volume (SV), 759, 762, 763, 765–767, 768 Stroma ovary, 1120 reticular tissue, 176 Stromal cells, 843 Strong acid, 90, 1083 Strong base, 90, 1083 Structural formula, 81, 92 Structural lipids, 97 Structural proteins, 97 Stupor, 557 Stuttering, 929 Sty, 618 Styloglossus muscle, 398 Stylohyoid ligaments, 270 Stylohyoid muscle, 400, 401 Styloid process radius, 296 skull, 260, 264, 308 ulna, 296 Stylomastoid foramen, 259, 264, 265 Stylopharyngeus muscle, 946 Subacromial bursa, 329 Subarachnoid space, 485, 517 Subatomic particles, 74 Subcapsular space, 838 Subclavian artery, 776, 804, 806 Subclavian trunk, left/right, 835 Subclavian vein, 816 Subclavius muscle, 408, 409 Subcoracoid bursa, 329 Subcutaneous injection, 206 Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis, superficial fascia), 179, 181, 199, 206 Subdeltoid bursa, 329 Subdural hemorrhage, 517 Subdural space, 484, 517 Sublingual ducts, 943 Sublingual glands, 942–943 Submandibular ducts, 943 Submandibular ganglion, 547, 591 Submandibular glands, 270, 943 Submucosa digestive tract, 936 trachea, 889 Submucosal glands, duodenal, 962 Submucosal neural plexus, 936 Subpapillary plexus, 206 Subscapular bursa, 329 Subscapular fossa, 292 Subscapularis muscle, 328, 388, 410, 412 Subscapular nerve, 495 Subserous fasciae, 181 Substance P, 467, 469, 564 Substantia nigra, 524, 525 Substrate-level phosphorylation, 991 Substrates, 101 Sucrase, 973, 975 Sucrose, 92–93, 975 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 917 Sudoriferous glands, 215 Suffixes, 53 Sulci, cerebral cortex, 512 Sulcus (bone marking), 230 Sulfadiazine, 520 Sulfate ion, absorption, 978 Sulfisoxazole, 520 Sulfur (S), 75 Summation, 471 Sunburn, 208, 220 Sun protection factor (SPF), 210 Sunscreen, 210 Superficial, 58 Superficial anatomy, 50, 53 Superficial fascia (hypodermis, subcutaneous layer), 179, 181, 199, 206 Superficialis (muscle name), 392 Superficial lymphatics, 834 Superficial reflexes, 503 Superfoods, 1012 Superior, 58 Superior border, scapula, 292 Superior colliculus, 524, 576, 644 Superior ganglion, 548, 549 Superior mesenteric artery, 588, 810, 812 Superior mesenteric ganglion, 588 Superior mesenteric vein, 821 Superior oblique muscle, 395, 396 Superior rectus muscle, 395, 396 Superior vena cava, 740, 812, 816, 818 Superoxide anions, 717 Supination, 321 Supinator muscle, 415, 417 Supine, 57 Supporting connective tissues, 174, 182–186 See also Bone; Cartilage Suppression (genetic), 1181 Suppression factors, 833 Suppressor/inducer T cells, 833 Suprachiasmatic nucleus, 529, 530 Supraclavicular nerve, 493 Supra-optic nucleus, 671 Supra-orbital foramen, 259, 263 Supra-orbital margin, 263 Supra-orbital notch, 263 Suprarenal (adrenal) gland, 660, 680–683 Suprascapular nerve, 495 Supraspinatus muscle, 328, 410, 412 Supraspinous fossa, 292 Supraspinous ligament, 323 Sural nerve, 497 Surface anatomy, 50, 53 Surface antigens, 714 Surface tension, 82, 892 Surfactant, 892, 903 Surgical anatomy, 50 Surgical neck, humerus, 293 Suspensions, 88 Suspensory ligaments breast, 1126 eye (ciliary zonule), 622 ovary, 1120 uterus, 1120 Sutural (Wormian) bone, 228, 257 Suture, 313 Sutures, skull, 257, 258 Swallowing (deglutition), 888, 946 Swallowing center, 946 Swallowing reflex, 599, 946 Sweat, 215–216, 1079 See also Perspiration Sweat glands, 215–216 Sweet receptors, 615, 617 “Swollen glands,” 839 Sympathetic activation, 589 Sympathetic blocking agents, 610 Sympathetic chain ganglia, 585, 588 Sympathetic division, ANS activation, 589 functional effects, by system, 596 functional organization, 584–585, 586, 588 integration with parasympathetic division, 597–599 neurotransmitter release and, 589–591 overview, 437, 584, 586, 594 vs parasympathetic division, 593–594 Sympathetic nerves, 490, 491, 585 Sympathetic reflexes, 599 Sympathomimetic drugs, 610 Symphysis, 313 Symport (cotransport), 141, 1039 Symptoms, 51 Synapse chemical, 463 cholinergic, 464, 465 electrical, 462–463 functions, 349, 462, 463–464 nitroxidergic, 591 structure, 463 Synapsis, 1111–1112 Synaptic cleft, 349, 350, 463 Synaptic communication, 657, 658 Synaptic delay, 464 Synaptic fatigue, 466 Synaptic (axon) terminal, 439 Synaptic vesicles, 463 Synarthrosis, 312, 313 Synchondrosis, 313 Syncope, 830 Syncytiotrophoblast, 1154 Syncytium, functional, 375 Syndesmosis, 313 Syndrome, 72 Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of ADH (SIADH), 691, 1100 Synergist (muscle), 387 Synergistic effect, hormones, 692 Synesthesia, 655 Synostosis, 313 Synovial fluid, 188, 315 Synovial joint accessory structures, 315–316 classification, 319, 322 movements, 316–322, 334 stabilization, 316 structure, 235, 314–316, 334 synovial fluid and, 188 Synovial membranes, 187, 188, 314 Synovial tendon sheath, 316, 417 Synovitis, 336 Synthesis reaction, 84 Syphilis, 580 Systemic anatomy, 50 Systemic circuit arteries, 735, 804–812 See also Arteries overview, 735, 736 pressures within, 783–785, 786, 906 veins, 735, 812–821 See also Veins velocity within, 786 Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), 879 Systemic physiology, 51 Systole, 757, 758–759 Systolic pressure, 785 T T3 (triiodothyronine), 674, 680, 691 T4 (thyroxine), 244, 661, 674, 680, 691, 1016 Tabes dorsalis, 510 Tachycardia, 751 Tachypnea, 929 Tactile assessment, 569 Tactile corpuscles, 206, 565, 566 Tactile disc, 201, 206, 565, 566 Tactile receptors, 564–566 Tail epididymis, 1106 pancreas, 954 sperm, 1116 Tail fold, 1161 Talipes equinovalgus, 510 Talus, 303, 331 Tanning bed, 210 Target cells, 657 Tarsal bones, 303–304, 331 Tarsal glands, 618 Tartar, 941 Taste buds, 616, 617 Taste hairs, 616 Taste pore, 616 Taste receptors (gustatory epithelial cells), 615, 616, 617 Taste sensations, 618–619 See also Gustation Tattoos, 219 Tay–Sachs disease, 478, 1184, 1185 T cells, 721 activation, 855, 858–859, 862 antigen presentation, 855–857 antigen recognition, 857–858, 859 1294 Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1294 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net Terminal ganglion, 591 Terminal hairs, 214 Terminal segment, aorta, 809 Terminal web, 118 Terminologia Anatomica (TA), 53 Tertiary memories, 600 Tertiary ovarian follicle, 1130, 1131 Tertiary structure, protein, 100, 101 Testes (testicles) anatomy, 1103–1105 descent, 1140, 1141 endocrine functions, 660, 670, 690 functions, 1102 histology, 1105–1106 Testicular artery, 810, 1104 Testicular cancer, 1140 Testicular vein, 820, 1104 Testosterone effects, 243, 244, 690, 1116, 1117, 1142, 1176 integumentary system and, 1176 muscle metabolism and, 369 production and secretion, 670, 1102, 1105, 1117, 1142 structure, 96 Testosterone-binding globulin (TeBG), 704 Tetanus, 353, 360 Tetracycline, 520 Tetrad, 1112 Tetraiodothyronine (T4), 244, 674, 680, 691 Tetralogy of Fallot, 823 Tetrose, 91 Text–art integration, 49 Textbook, introduction to, 48–49 Thalamic nuclei, 527, 528 Thalamus, 512, 513, 527–528 Thecal endocrine cells, 1131 Therapeutic abortion, 1169 Therapeutic cloning, 1189 Thermal inertia, 87 Thermoreceptors, 564 Thermoregulation blood in, 703 in burn patient, 220 disorders, 1017 heat exchange mechanisms, 1014 heat gain/loss regulation, 1014–1015 hypothalamus in, 66–67 individual variations, 1016–1017 integumentary system in, 217 muscle activity and, 368 negative feedback in, 66–68 in neonates, 1016, 1173 organ systems involved in, 69 overview, 1013–1014 skeletal muscle and, 338–339 sweat glands and, 217 Theta waves, 540 Thiamine (vitamin B1), 1010 Thiazides, 1046 Thick filaments, 118, 341, 343, 346 Thick skin, 200, 202 Thigh See Lower limb Thin filaments, 341, 345–346 Thin skin, 200, 202 Third-class lever, 385, 386 Third-degree burn, 220 Third heart sound, 761 Third-order neuron, 568 Third trimester changes in maternal systems, 1167 changes in uterus, 1167, 1168 fetal development, 1161, 1163, 1166 overview, 1153, 1164–1165 Third ventricle, 515 Thirst center, 530 Thoracentesis, 897 Thoracic aorta, 809, 810 Thoracic artery, 804, 1126 Thoracic cage, 283–285, 286, 324 Thoracic cavity, 61–62 Thoracic curve, 274–275 Thoracic duct, 835, 836 Thoracic vein, internal, 816 Thoracic vertebrae, 275, 278–279, 281 Thoracodorsal nerve, 495 Thoracolumbar division, ANS See Sympathetic division, ANS Thoroughfare channel, 780 Threonine, 1003 Threshold, 455 Threshold potential, 348 Thrill, 830 Thrombin, 726 Thrombocyte(s) (platelets), 182, 705, 706–707, 722, 724 Thrombocyte-stimulating factor, 724 Thrombocytopenia, 728 Thrombocytopoiesis, 724 Thrombolytic, 733 Thrombomodulin, 727 Thrombophilia, 728 Thrombophlebitis, 830 Thromboplastin (Factor III), 725 Thrombopoietin, 724 Thromboxane A2, 725 Thromboxanes, 661 Thrombus, 733 Thymic (Hassall’s) corpuscles, 840 Thymic lobes, 840 Thymine, 103, 104 Thymosins, 153, 687, 690, 841 Thymus, 660, 687, 690, 832, 839–841, 844 Thyrocervical trunk, 804, 806 Thyroglobulin, 674 Thyrohyoid muscle, 401 Thyroid-binding globulins (TBGs), 674 Thyroid cartilage, 674, 888 Thyroidectomy, 701 Thyroid follicles, 674, 675 Thyroid function tests, 701 Thyroid gland anatomy, 673–674, 675 C cells and calcitonin, 674 follicles, 674, 675 hormones See Thyroid hormone(s) Thyroid hormone(s) See also specific hormones functions, 677, 680 heart rate and, 767 intracellular binding, 664, 665 iodine and, 677 muscle metabolism and, 369 in normal growth, 693 overview, 659 structure, 661 synthesis and regulation, 674, 676–677 Thyroiditis, 872 Thyroid peroxidase, 674 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, thyrotropin), 670, 672, 674, 1016 Thyrotoxicosis, 701 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), 670, 1016 Thyroxine (T4), 244, 661, 674, 680, 691, 1016 Tibia, 303, 304, 331 Tibial artery, posterior/anterior, 811 Tibial collateral ligament, 327 Tibialis muscle, anterior/ posterior, 424, 427 Tibial nerve, 497 Tibial tuberosity, 303 Tibial vein, anterior/posterior, 817 Tic douloureux, 145 Tickle sensation, 566 Tidal volume (VT ), 903, 904, 905 Tight junction, 164, 165 Tinea, 225 Tinnitus, 655 Tissue age-related changes, 192 connective See Connective tissue definition, 51, 52, 161 epithelial See Epithelial tissue inflammation, 191–192, 193 membrane See Membrane muscle, 161, 188–190, 195 See also Cardiac muscle tissue; Skeletal muscle tissue; Smooth muscle tissue nervous See Nervous tissue regeneration, 192, 193 response to injury, 191–192 types, 161, 162 Tissue cholinesterase, 592 Tissue culture, 204 Tissue engineering, 197 Tissue factor (Factor III), 725 Tissue level of organization, 52, 55, 161 See also Tissue Tissue membrane See Membrane Tissue perfusion, 791 Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA), 728 Tissue rejection, 197 Tissue repair, 850 Tissue transplantation, 197 Tissue typing, 855 Titin, 343, 345 Tolerance, of immune system, 855 Tongue, 398, 616–618, 940 Tongue muscles, extrinsic/ intrinsic, 940 Tonicity, 140 Tonic receptors, 562 Tonic response, 562 Tonsillitis, 837 Tonsils, 837 Tooth See Teeth INDEX circulation and life span, 843 costimulation and clonal selection, 857–858 production, 843, 844 types, 852 Tear (lacrimal) gland, 263, 619 Tears, 619–620 Tectorial membrane, 646 Tectospinal tracts, 576, 577 Tectum, 524, 525, 576 Teeth age-related changes, 308 anatomy, 940–941 decay, 951 sets, 941–942 sex differences, 307 types, 941 Teeth grinding, 270 Tegmentum, 524 Telencephalon, 514 Telodendria, 438, 439 Telomerase, 154 Telomeres, 153 Telophase, mitosis, 151 Temperature body See Body temperature effect on diffusion rate, 137 effect on enzymes, 103 effect on hemoglobin, 912 regulation See Thermoregulation Template strand, DNA, 132 Temporal bone, 259, 260–261, 263–265 Temporalis muscle, 262, 389, 397 Temporal lines, inferior/superior, 262, 263 Temporal lobe, 532, 536, 537 Temporal processes, 263, 269 Temporal summation, 471, 472 Temporal vein, 816 Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) syndrome, 270 Temporoparietalis muscle, 393, 395 Tendinous inscriptions, 387, 407 Tendon(s), 174, 179, 180, 315, 339 Tendon reflex, 505 Teniae coli, 967 Tenosynovitis, 434 Tension definition, 349 motor units and production of, 361–362 production by muscle fibers, 357–360 production in skeletal muscles, 361 Tension lines, skin, 205 Tensor fasciae latae muscle, 420 Tensor tympani muscle, 640 Tensor veli palatini muscle, 398, 399 Tentorium cerebelli, 516 Teratogens, 1184 Teres (muscle name), 392 Teres major muscle, 387, 410, 412 Teres minor muscle, 328, 388, 410, 412 Terminal bronchioles, 892 Terminal cisternae, 342 1295 Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1295 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net INDEX Tooth socket (alveolus), 940 Tophi, 336 Torticollis, 434 Total body water, 1100 Total lung capacity, 905 Total peripheral resistance, 783–785 Trabeculae lymph nodes, 838 pulmonary, 894 spongy bone, 234 Trabeculae carneae, 740 Trabecular artery, 842 Trabecular vein, 842 Trace elements, 75 Trachea, 889–890 Tracheal cartilages, 889 Tracheal glands, 889 Trachealis muscle, 889 Tracheostomy, 888 Traction, 253 Tracts, CNS, 486, 514, 523 Traits, 1178 Transamination, 1002, 1003 Transcortins, 680, 704 Transcription, 131–132 Transcytosis, 144 Transderm Scop (scopolamine), 645 Transducin, 633 Transduction, 561 Trans face, Golgi apparatus, 125 Transferrin, 704, 712 Transfer RNA (tRNA), 131, 133 Transfusion(s), 715 Transfusion reaction, 714, 715 Transient ischemic attack (TIA), 557 Transitional epithelium, 168, 169, 1055 Translation, 133–135 Translocation, 1182 Translocation defect, 1183 Transmission electron micrograph (TEM), 159 Transplantation, 855, 857, 1060 Transport globulins, 704, 707 Transport maximum (Tm), 1040 Transport proteins, 98 Transport vesicles, 123 Transposition of the great vessels, 823 Transthyretin, 674, 704 Transudate, 187 Transurethral prostatectomy (TURP), 1118 Transverse acetabular ligament, 330 Transverse arch, foot, 305 Transverse cervical nerve, 493 Transverse colon, 967 Transverse costal facets, vertebrae, 278 Transverse foramina, vertebrae, 277 Transverse fracture, 248 Transverse lines, sacrum, 282 Transverse perineal muscle, 407 Transverse (horizontal) plane, 59, 60 Transverse pontine fibers, 523, 526 Transverse processes, vertebrae, 274, 275 Transverse (cross) section, 59, 60 Transverse sinus, 516, 812, 816 Transverse tubules (T tubules), 341 Transversus (muscle name), 392 Transversus abdominis muscle, 405 Transversus thoracis muscle, 405 Trapezium, 296 Trapezius muscle, 392, 408, 409 Trapezoid, 296 Trauma See Injury Traumatic brain injury, 552 Treppe, 359, 360 Tretinoin (Retin-A), 205 Triacylglycerols See Triglycerides Triad, 342 Triaxial joint, 318 Tricarboxylic acid cycle See Citric acid cycle Triceps brachii muscle, 365, 387, 388, 412, 415 Trick knee, 328 Tricuspid valve, 740 Trigeminal nerve (V), 545, 551 Trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux), 145 Triglycerides blood levels, 997 catabolism, 590, 671, 958, 975, 997–998 formation, 96, 686, 987 storage, 96 structure and function, 95–96 Trigone, 1056 Triiodothyronine (T3), 674, 680, 691 Trimesters, 1153 Triose, 91 Tripeptide, 99 Triple covalent bond, 81 Triplet code, 131 Triplets, 1172 Triquetrum, 296 Trisaccharides, 975 Trisomy, 1183 Trisomy 21 See Down syndrome Tritium, 76 Trochanters, 230, 301 Trochlea definition, 230 humerus, 295 talus, 303 Trochlear nerve (IV), 544, 551 Trochlear notch, 295 Trophoblast, 1154 Tropic hormones, 668 Tropomyosin, 345 Troponin, 345 True labor, 1169 True (lesser) pelvis, 299 True ribs, 284 Trunk(s), 495 arteries, 809–812 lymphatic, 835 veins, 819–821 Trypsin, 103, 955, 973 Trypsinogen, 955, 973 Tryptophan, 659, 661, 1003 Tuber cinereum, 528 Tubercle definition, 230 humerus, greater/lesser, 293 pubic, 298 rib, 284 Tuberculin skin test, 870 Tuberculosis, 884 Tuberosity definition, 230 humerus, deltoid, 293 iliac, 298 ischial, 298 radial, 296 tibial, 303 d-Tubocurarine, 478 Tubular fluid, 1030 Tubular glands, 171 Tubular maximum (transport maximum), 1040 Tubulin, 120 Tubulo-alveolar glands, 171, 955 Tumor(s), 153, 444 See also Cancer Tumor grading, 197 Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), 846, 861 Tumor-specific antigens, 847–848 Tumor staging, 197 Tunica albuginea, 1105, 1120 Tunica externa (tunica adventitia), 775 Tunica intima, 774, 775 Tunica media, 774, 775 Tunica vaginalis, 1104 Turbulence, 785 TURP (transurethral prostatectomy), 1118 Tussis, 929 T wave, 752 Twins, 1150, 1172, 1189 Twitch, 358–359 Two-point discrimination test, 569 Tympanic cavity (middle ear), 264, 639–640 Tympanic duct (scala tympani), 646 Tympanic membrane, 264, 639, 647–648 Tympanic reflex, 553 Type diabetes, 687, 688, 872 Type diabetes, 95, 687, 688 Type AB blood, 714, 715 Type A blood, 714, 715 Type A fibers, axon, 462, 563 Type B blood, 714, 715 Type B fibers, axon, 462 Type C fibers, axon, 462, 563 Type O blood, 714, 715 Tyrosine, 207, 659, 661, 674, 976 U Ubiquinone (coenzyme Q), 994 Ubiquitin, 122 Ulcer, 212 Ulna, 295–296, 331 Ulnar artery, 806, 807 Ulnar collateral arteries, 804 Ulnar collateral ligament, 324 Ulnar nerve, 294, 494, 497 Ulnar notch, 296 Ulnar styloid process, 296 Ulnar vein, 816 Ultrasound, 63 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 208 Umami, 618 Umami receptors, 615 Umbilical artery, 821, 1056, 1161 Umbilical cord, 1161 Umbilical ligaments, middle/ lateral, 1056 Umbilical vein, 821, 1161 Unconscious, 602 Unicellular exocrine glands, 171 Unicellular glands, 171 Uniparental disomy, 1182 Unipennate muscle, 384 Unipolar neurons, 440 Universal donors, 716 Universal recipients, 716 Unmyelinated axon, 444, 446, 459 Unsaturated fatty acid, 94 Upper limbs arteries, 806 bones, 293–298, 308 joints, 331 movements, 331 muscles, 410–419 veins, 816, 817 Upper motor neuron, 573 Upper respiratory system, 881, 882, 884–887 Up-regulation, 662 Uracil, 103, 104 Urea, 958, 1002, 1033, 1046, 1049 Urea cycle, 1002, 1003 Ureteric orifices, 1056 Ureters, 1023, 1055–1056 Urethra, 1023, 1057–1058, 1107 Urethral glands, 1126 Urethral orifice, external, 1058 Urethral sphincter, internal/ external, 407, 1057, 1058 Uric acid, 1033, 1054 Uridine triphosphate (UTP), 996 Urinalysis, 1051, 1054 Urinary bladder, 1023, 1056–1057 Urinary obstruction, 1059 Urinary (capsular) space, 1029 Urinary system age-related changes, 1059–1060 anatomy, 1023, 1025 changes in pregnancy, 1167 functions, 1024 integration with other systems overview, 1061 reproductive, 1143 kidney See Kidney overview, 55, 1023 parasympathetic effects, 596 prenatal development, 1165 smooth muscle in, 375 sympathetic effects, 596 urine transport, storage, and elimination, 1055–1059 Urinary tract, 1023 Urination (micturition), 599, 1023, 1058–1059 Urine 1296 Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1296 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net characteristics, 1023, 1051 color, 1051 composition, 1051, 1054 formation, 1033–1034 osmotic concentration, 1049–1051 solutes in, 1033 transport, storage, and elimination, 1055–1059 volume regulation, 1049–1051 Urobilin, 1054 Urobilinogens, 712, 970 Urobilins, 712, 970 Urogastrone, 962 Urogenital triangle, 406, 407 Urologist, 1066 Urticaria, 225 Uterine artery, 1123 Uterine cavity, 1123 Uterine cycle hormonal regulation, 1135, 1136 menstrual phases, 1132, 1133 overview, 1123, 1132 proliferative phase, 1132, 1133 secretory phase, 1132, 1133 Uterine fibroids (leiomyomas), 1148 Uterine glands, 1123, 1124 Uterine prolapse, 1148 Uterine tubes, 1102, 1120–1121, 1151 Uterine wall, 1123–1124 Uterosacral ligaments, 1123 Uterus anatomy, 1121–1123 changes in pregnancy, 1167, 1168 histology, 1123–1124 overview, 1102 suspensory ligaments, 1123 Utricle, 641, 643 Uvea (vascular layer), eye, 620–622 Uvula, 940 V hepatic, 820 hepatic portal, 821 hypophyseal, 671 ileocolic, 821 iliac, 819 inferior mesenteric, 821 inferior vena cava, 740, 817–821 intercostal, 816 jugular, 519, 816 lumbar, 820 maxillary, 816 median cubital, 705 obturator, 819 ovarian, 820, 1120 palmar, 816 pancreatic, 821 pancreaticoduodenal, 821 phrenic, 820 plantar, 817 popliteal, 817 pulmonary, 742, 804 radial, 816 rectal, 821 renal, 820, 1026, 1028 sacral, 819 small saphenous, 817 splenic, 821, 842 subclavian, 816 superior mesenteric, 821 superior vena cava, 740, 812, 816, 818 temporal, 816 testicular, 820 thoracic, 816 tibial, 817 trabecular, 842 ulnar, 816 umbilical, 821, 1161 vertebral, 816 Vellus hairs, 214 Venipuncture, 705 Venoconstriction, 782 Venous pressure, 783, 785, 787–788 Venous return, 765, 781, 787–788, 799 Venous valves, 781–782 Ventilation-to-perfusion (V/Q) ratio, 914–915 Ventral (anterior), 56, 57, 58 Ventral nuclei, thalamus, 527, 528 Ventral respiratory group (VRG), 916, 918 Ventral (anterior) roots, 483 Ventricles brain, 444, 514–515 heart, 735, 740–743 Ventricular diastole, 758, 759, 760–761 Ventricular ejection, 759 Ventricular fibrillation (VF), 754 Ventricular septal defect, 823 Ventricular systole, 758, 759 Ventricular tachycardia (VT, V-tach), 754 Venules, 774, 777, 781 Verapamil, 767 Vermiform appendix, 837, 967, 968 Vermis, 524 Vernix caseosa, 215 Versatility, of adaptive immunity, 854 Vertebrae age-related changes, 308 anatomy, 275–276 cervical, 275, 277–278, 281 coccyx, 274, 281, 282–283 functions, 274 lumbar, 275, 279–280, 281 sacrum, 274, 280–282 thoracic, 275, 278–279, 281 Vertebral arch, 275, 276 Vertebral artery, 519, 804 Vertebral body, 275, 276 Vertebral border, scapula, 292 Vertebral canal, 276 Vertebral column joints, 324 movements, 323–324 muscles, 400–403 regions, 275–283, 286 spinal curvature, 274–275 Vertebral end, rib, 284 Vertebral end plates, 322 Vertebral foramen, 275, 276 Vertebral ribs, 284 Vertebral vein, 816 Vertebra prominens, 278 Vertebrochondral ribs, 284 Vertebrosternal ribs, 284 Vertigo, 655 Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), 999 Vesicles, 143, 514 Vesico-uterine pouch, 1119 Vesicular follicle, 1131 Vesicular transport, 143–145, 157 Vessels blood See Blood vessels lymphatic, 182, 832, 833–836 Vestibular complex, 641 Vestibular duct (scala vestibuli), 646 Vestibular folds, 888 Vestibular ganglia, 644 Vestibular glands, greater/lesser, 1126 Vestibular ligaments, 888 Vestibular nerve, 547, 644 Vestibular nuclei, 547, 576, 644 Vestibule female external genitalia, 1124, 1126 internal ear, 641 nasal, 885 oral cavity, 393, 939 Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), 547, 551, 644 Vestibulo-ocular reflexes, 553 Vestibulospinal tracts, 576, 577, 644 Villi, 1155 See also intestinal villi and microvilli Villikinin, 965 Virilism, 701 Virus(es), 870 Viscera, 61 Visceral layer glomerulus, 1029 serous pericardium, 64, 736, 739 Visceral motor neurons, 441 INDEX Vaccine, 353, 832, 853, 879, 943 Vagina, 1102, 1124–1126 Vaginal branches, blood vessels, 1125 Vaginal canal, 1124 Vaginal fornix, 1124 Vaginal smear, 1126 Vaginitis, 1126 Vagus nerve (X), 548–550, 551, 917 Valence shell, 77 Valine, 1003 Vallate papillae, 517, 616 Valsalva maneuver, 795 Valves cardiac, 740–743 lymphatic, 835 venous, 781–782 Valvular heart disease, 743 Variable segments, antibody, 863 Varicella-zoster virus, 489 Varicose veins, 782 Varicosity, sympathetic, 589, 590 Vasa recta, 1032, 1042, 1051, 1053 Vasa vasorum, 775 Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), 781 Vascular layer, eye, 620–622 Vascular murmur, 830 Vascular phase, hemostasis, 725, 726 Vascular resistance, 783–784, 785 Vascular spasm, 725 Vas deferens (ductus deferens), 672, 1106–1107, 1108 Vasectomy, 1148 Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), 965, 966 Vasoconstriction, 591, 671, 776 Vasoconstrictors, 793 Vasodilation, 591, 776 Vasodilators, 791, 792 Vasomotion, 791 Vasomotor center, 520, 793, 795 Vasomotor reflex, 599 Vasomotor tone, 793 Vasopressin See Antidiuretic hormone Vasovagal, 605 Vastus intermedius muscle, 422, 424 Vastus lateralis muscle, 399, 422, 424 Vastus medialis muscle, 422 Vegetarian diet, 1005, 1008 Veins abdomen, 817–818, 820 vs arteries, 775–776 brain, 812, 815, 816 characteristics, 181, 774 chest, 816, 817 head and neck, 812, 815, 816 hepatic portal system, 820–821 lower limbs, 817–819 pelvis, 818, 819 structure, 774–775, 776, 777 systemic, 812–821 types, 781 upper limbs, 816, 817 valves, 781–782 Veins listed adrenal, 820 antebrachial, 816 arcuate, 1028 axillary, 816 azygos, 816 basilic, 816 brachial, 816 brachiocephalic, 816 cardiac, 745, 748 central retinal, 623 cephalic, 816 cerebral, 812, 816 colic, 821 cortical radiate, 1027 cystic, 121 digital, 817 esophageal, 816 facial, 816 femoral, 817, 819 fibular, 817 gastric, 821 gonadal, 820 great cerebral, 816 great saphenous, 817 hemi-azygos, 816 1297 Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1297 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net Visceral motor system See Autonomic nervous system Visceral nervous system See Autonomic nervous system Visceral peritoneum, 64, 933, 1120 Visceral pleura, 64, 894, 897 Visceral portion, serous membrane, 187 Visceral reflex arc, 598 Visceral reflexes, 503, 553, 597–598, 599 Visceral sensory neurons, 441 Visceral sensory pathways, 573 Visceral smooth muscle cells, 377 Visceral smooth muscle tissue, 936 Viscera serosa, 61 Viscosity, 784, 785 Vision accommodation, 628 acuity, 628 age-related changes, 626, 628 image formation and reversal, 628, 629 photoreception, 632–633 physiology, 629–635 refraction, 625 refractive problems, 630 visual pathways, 635–637 Visual acuity, 628 Visual association area, 538 Visual axis, eye, 623 Visual cortex, 537, 636 Visual pathways, 635–637 Visual pigments, 629, 631, 634–635 Vital capacity, 905 Vitamin(s) absorption, 969–970, 977, 978 definition, 209, 1009 fat-soluble, 977, 1009–1010 storage in liver, 958–959 toxicity, 1011 water-soluble, 977, 1010–1011 Vitamin A bone growth and, 243 deficiency/excess, 986, 1010, 1011, 1021 functions in human body, 1010 recommended daily allowance, 1010 in visual physiology, 631, 634–635 Vitamin B1 (thiamine), 1010 Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), 1010 Vitamin B3 (niacin), 1010 Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), 969, 1010 Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), 1002, 1010 Vitamin B7 (biotin), 969, 1010 Vitamin B9 (folic acid), 1010 Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) absorption, 711, 950, 978 bone growth and, 243 deficiency/excess, 1010 functions in human body, 1010 recommended daily allowance, 1010 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), 243, 1010 Vitamin D, 1010 Vitamin D3, 209–211, 243, 687 Vitamin E, 1010 Vitamin K absorption in large intestine, 969 in blood clotting, 728 bone growth and, 243 deficiency, 728, 970, 1010 excess, 1010 functions in human body, 1010 recommended daily allowance, 1010 Vitiligo, 209 Vitreous body, 620, 625, 626 Vitreous chamber (posterior cavity), 620 Vitreous humor, 626 Vocal cords, 888 Vocal folds, 888 Vocal ligaments, 888 Volatile acids, 1082, 1083 Volkmann’s canals, 233 Volt (V), 145 Voltage-gated ion channels, 348, 452–453 Volume depletion, 1079 Vomer, 268–269 Vomiting (emesis), 953 Vulva, 1126 Vulvovaginal candidiasis, 1148 W Wallerian degeneration, 447 Wandering (free) macrophages, 175, 846 Waste products, 69 Water (H2O) absorption, 976, 977 allocation of losses, 1075 balance See Fluid balance digestive secretion and reabsorption, 976 distribution of gains, 1066–1076 facultative reabsorption, 1049 functions, 106 gains and losses, 1073–1074 in human body, 86–87, 1069, 1070 metabolic generation, 1073–1074 movement, 1071–1072 obligatory reabsorption, 1049 properties, 86–87 reabsorption at proximal convoluted tubule, 1041 reabsorption in collecting system, 1046 reabsorption in large intestine, 969 in solutions, 87–88 sources, 106 structure, 79, 82–83, 106 weight loss and, 1075 Water channels (aquaporins), 140, 1049 Water depletion (dehydration), 1075 Water excess (hyperhydration), 1075–1076 “Water follows salt,” 1072 Water gains, 1073–1074 Water intoxication, 1076 Water receptors, 618 Water-soluble vitamins, 977, 1010–1011 Water vapor, 906 Wavelength, 627, 645, 646 Wave summation, 360 Weak acid, 90, 1083 Weak base, 90, 1083 Weaning, 1173 Weight loss, water and, 1075 Wernicke’s area, 538 Wharton’s jelly, 176 Wheeze, 929 Whiplash, 278 White blood cells (WBCs), 182, 706–707 abundance, 717, 722 characteristics and functions, 716–717, 722 circulation and movement, 717 differential count, 721 production, 721–724 types, 707, 717, 720–721, 722 in urine, 1054 White coat hypertension, 830 White column, posterior/anterior/ lateral, 486 White commissure, anterior, 486 White fat, 177 White matter cerebellum, 524 cerebrum, 532–534 characteristics, 444 medulla oblongata, 522 midbrain, 525 pons, 523 spinal cord, 486 White muscles, 370 White pulp, spleen, 842 White ramus communicans, 484, 491, 585 Whole blood, 704–705, 706 See also Blood Wisdom teeth, 942 Withdrawal reflex, 501, 505 Word roots, 53 Work, 83 Wormian (sutural) bone, 228, 257 Wright’s stain, 717 Wrist, 296 X X chromosome, 1181 Xenograft, 879 Xenotransplant, 197 Xerosis, 203 Xiphoid process, 285 X-linked inheritance, 1181–1182 X-linked traits, 1182 X-rays, 62 Y Y chromosome, 1181 Yellow bone marrow, 227, 235, 710 Yolk sac, 710, 1157, 1158, 1160 Yolk stalk, 1161 Z Zika virus, 1139 Zinc, 1009 Z lines, 345 Zoloft (sertraline), 466 Zona fasciculata, 681, 682 Zona glomerulosa, 680, 681 Zona pellucida, 1129, 1151 Zona reticularis, 681, 682 Zone of overlap, 344 Zwitterions, 99, 1085 Zygomatic arch, 263, 264 Zygomatic bones, 269 Zygomaticofacial foramen, 269 Zygomatic process, 263 Zygomaticus muscle, major/ minor, 395 Zygote, 1144, 1151 INDEX 1298 Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1298 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net COMMON ABBREVIATIONS USED IN SCIENCE ACh AChE ACTH ADH ADP AIDS ALS AMP ANP ANS AP ARDS atm ATP ATPase AV AVP BCOP BMR BPG bpm BUN C CABG CAD cAMP CAPD CCK CD CF CHF CHP CsHP CNS CO CoA COMT COPD CP CPK, CK CPM CPR CRF CRH CSF CT CVA CVS DAG DC DCT DDST DIC DJD DMD DNA DO DPM DSA E ECF ECG EDV EEG EKG ELISA EPSP ERV ESV ETS FAD FAS FES FMN acetylcholine acetylcholinesterase adrenocorticotropic hormone antidiuretic hormone adenosine diphosphate acquired immunodeficiency syndrome amyotrophic lateral sclerosis adenosine monophosphate atrial natriuretic peptide autonomic nervous system arterial pressure adult respiratory distress syndrome atmospheric pressure adenosine triphosphate adenosine triphosphatase atrioventricular arginine vasopressin blood colloid osmotic pressure basal metabolic rate bisphosphoglycerate beats per minute blood urea nitrogen large calorie; Celsius coronary artery bypass graft coronary artery disease cyclic-AMP continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis cholecystokinin cluster of differentiation cystic fibrosis congestive heart failure capillary hydrostatic pressure capsular hydrostatic pressure central nervous system cardiac output; carbon monoxide coenzyme A catechol-O-methyltransferase chronic obstructive pulmonary disease creatine phosphate creatine phosphokinase continuous passive motion cardiopulmonary resuscitation chronic renal failure corticotropin-releasing hormone cerebrospinal fluid; colony-stimulating factors computerized tomography; calcitonin cerebrovascular accident cardiovascular system diacylglycerol Doctor of Chiropractic distal convoluted tubule Denver Developmental Screening Test disseminated intravascular coagulation degenerative joint disease Duchenne's muscular dystrophy deoxyribonucleic acid Doctor of Osteopathy Doctor of Podiatric Medicine digital subtraction angiography epinephrine extracellular fluid electrocardiogram end-diastolic volume electroencephalogram electrocardiogram enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay excitatory postsynaptic potential expiratory reserve volume end-systolic volume electron transport system flavin adenine dinucleotide fetal alcohol syndrome functional electrical stimulation flavin mononucleotide Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1299 FRC FSH GABA GAS GC GFR GH GH–IH GHP GH–RH GIP GnRH GTP Hb hCG HCl HDL HDN hGH HIV HLA HMD HP hPL HR Hz ICF ICOP IGF IH IM IP3 IPSP IRV ISF IUD IVC IVF kcal LDH LDL L-DOPA LH LLQ LM LSD LUQ MAO MAP MC MD mEq MHC MI mm Hg mmol mOsm MRI mRNA MS MSH MSH–IH NAD NE NFP NHP NO NRDS OP Osm OXT PAC PAT PCT functional residual capacity follicle-stimulating hormone gamma aminobutyric acid general adaptation syndrome glucocorticoid glomerular filtration rate growth hormone growth hormone–inhibiting hormone glomerular hydrostatic pressure growth hormone–releasing hormone gastric inhibitory peptide gonadotropin-releasing hormone guanosine triphosphate hemoglobin human chorionic gonadotropin hydrochloric acid high-density lipoprotein hemolytic disease of the newborn human growth hormone human immunodeficiency virus human leukocyte antigen hyaline membrane disease hydrostatic pressure human placental lactogen heart rate Hertz intracellular fluid interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure insulin-like growth factor inhibiting hormone intramuscular inositol triphosphate inhibitory postsynaptic potential inspiratory reserve volume interstitial fluid intrauterine device inferior vena cava in vitro fertilization kilocalorie lactate dehydrogenase low density lipoprotein levodopa luteinizing hormone left lower quadrant light micrograph lysergic acid diethylamide left upper quadrant monoamine oxidase mean arterial pressure mineralocorticoid Doctor of Medicine millequivalent; (10−3) major histocompatibility complex myocardial infarction millimeters of mercury millimole milliosmole magnetic resonance imaging messenger RNA multiple sclerosis melanocyte-stimulating hormone melanocyte-stimulating hormone–inhibiting hormone nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide norepinephrine net filtration pressure net hydrostatic pressure nitric oxide neonatal respiratory distress syndrome osmotic pressure osmoles oxytocin premature atrial contraction paroxysmal atrial tachycardia proximal convoluted tubule PCV PEEP PET PFC PG PID PIH PIP PKC PKU PLC PMN PNS PR PRF PRL psi PT PTA PTC PTH PVC RAS RBC RDA RDS REM RER RH RHD RLQ RNA rRNA RUQ SA SCA SCID SEM SER SGOT SIADH SIDS SLE SNS STD SV SVC T3 T4 TB TBG TEM TIA Tm TMJ t-PA TRH tRNA TSH TSS U.S UTI UTP UV V˙A VD V˙E VT VF VLDL VPRC VT WBC packed cell volume positive end-expiratory pressure positron emission tomography perfluorochemical emulsion prostaglandin pelvic inflammatory disease prolactin-inhibiting hormone phosphatidylinositol protein kinase C phenylketonuria phospholipase C polymorphonuclear leukocyte peripheral nervous system peripheral resistance prolactin-releasing factor prolactin pounds per square inch prothrombin time post-traumatic amnesia; plasma thromboplastin antecedent phenylthiocarbamide parathyroid hormone premature ventricular contraction reticular activating system red blood cell recommended daily allowance respiratory distress syndrome rapid eye movement rough endoplasmic reticulum releasing hormone rheumatic heart disease right lower quadrant ribonucleic acid ribosomal RNA right upper quadrant sinoatrial sickle cell anemia severe combined immunodeficiency disease scanning electron micrograph smooth endoplasmic reticulum serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion sudden infant death syndrome systemic lupus erythematosus somatic nervous system sexually transmitted disease stroke volume superior vena cava triiodothyronine tetraiodothyronine, or thyroxine tuberculosis thyroid-binding globulin transmission electron micrograph transient ischemic attack transport (tubular) maximum temporomandibular joint tissue plasminogen activator thyrotropin-releasing hormone transfer RNA thyroid-stimulating hormone toxic shock syndrome United States urinary tract infection uridine triphosphate ultraviolet alveolar ventilation anatomic dead space respiratory minute volume tidal volume ventricular fibrillation very low-density lipoprotein volume of packed red cells ventricular tachycardia white blood cell 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net FOREIGN WORD ROOTS, PREFIXES, SUFFIXES, AND COMBINING FORMS Each entry starts with the commonly used form or forms of the prefix, suffix, or combining form followed by the word root (shown in italics) and its English translation One example is also given to illustrate the use of each entry a-, a-, without: avascular ab-, ab, from: abduct -ac, -akos, pertaining to: cardiac acr-, akron, extremity: acromegaly ad-, ad, to, toward: adduct aden-, adeno-, adenos, gland: adenoid adip-, adipos, fat: adipocytes aer-, aeros, air: aerobic metabolism -al, -alis, pertaining to: brachial alb-, albicans, white: albino -algia, algos, pain: neuralgia allo-, allos, other: allograft ana-, ana, up, back: anaphase andro-, andros, male: androgen angio-, angeion, vessel: angiogram ante-, ante, before: antebrachial anti-, ant-, anti, against: antibiotic apo-, apo, from: apocrine arachn-, arachne, spider: arachnoid arter-, arteria, artery: arterial arthro-, arthros, joint: arthroscopy astro-, aster, star: astrocyte atel-, ateles, imperfect: atelectasis aur-, auris, ear: auricle auto-, auto, self: autonomic baro-, baros, pressure: baroreceptor bi-, bi- two: bifurcate bio-, bios, life: biology -blast, blastos, precursor: osteoblast brachi-, brachium, arm: brachiocephalic brachy-, brachys, short: brachydactyly brady-, bradys, slow: bradycardia bronch-, bronchus, windpipe, airway: bronchial carcin-, karkinos, cancer: carcinoma cardi-, cardio-, kardia, heart: cardiac -cele, kele, tumor, hernia, or swelling: blastocele -centesis, kentesis, puncture: thoracocentesis cephal-, cephalos, head: brachiocephalic cerebr-, cerebrum, brain: cerebral hemispheres cerebro-, cerebros, brain: cerebrospinal fluid cervic-, cervicis, neck: cervical vertebrae chole-, chole, bile: cholecystitis -chondrion, chondrion, granule: mitochondrion chondro-, chondros, cartilage: chondrocyte chrom-, chromo-, chroma, color: chromatin circum-, circum, around: circumduction -clast, klastos, broken: osteoclast coel-, -coel, koila, cavity: coelom colo-, kolon, colon: colonoscopy contra-, contra, against: contralateral corp-, corpus, body: corpuscle cortic-, cortex, rind or bark: corticospinal cost-, costa, rib: costal cranio-, cranium, skull: craniosacral cribr-, cribrum, sieve: cribriform -crine, krinein, to separate: endocrine cut-, cutis, skin: cutaneous cyan-, kyanos, blue: cyanosis cyst-, -cyst, kystis, sac: blastocyst cyt-, cyto-, kytos, a hollow cell: cytology de-, de, from, away: deactivation Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1300 dendr-, dendron, tree: dendrite dent-, dentes, teeth: dentition derm-, derma, skin: dermatome desmo-, desmos, band: desmosome di-, dis, twice: disaccharide dia-, dia, through: diameter digit-, digit, a finger or toe: digital dipl-, diploos, double: diploid dis-, dis, apart, away from: disability diure-, diourein, to urinate: diuresis dys-, dys, painful: dysmenorrhea -ectasis, ektasis, expansion: atelectasis ecto-, ektos, outside: ectoderm -ectomy, ektome, excision: appendectomy ef-, ex, away from: efferent emmetro-, emmetros, in proper measure: emmetropia encephalo-, enkephalos, brain: encephalitis end-, endo-, endon, within: endometrium entero-, enteron, intestine: enteric epi-, epi, upon: epimysium erythema-, erythema, flushed (skin): erythematosis erythro-, erythros, red: erythrocyte ex-, ex, out of, away from: exocytosis extra-, exter, outside of, beyond, in addition: extracellular ferr-, ferrum, iron: transferrin fil-,filum,thread: filament -form, -formis, shape: fusiform gastr-, gaster, stomach: gastrointestinal -gen, -genic, gennan, to produce: mutagen genicula-, geniculum, kneelike structure: geniculates genio-, geneion, chin: geniohyoid gest-, gesto, to bear: gestation glosso-, -glossus, glossus, tongue: hypoglossal glyco-, glykys, sugar: glycogen -gram, gramma, record: myogram gran-, granulum, grain: granulocyte -graph, -graphia, graphein, to write, record: electroencephalograph gyne-, gyno-, gynaikos, woman: gynecologist hem-, hemo-, haima, blood: hemopoiesis hemi-, hemi-, one half: hemisphere hepato-, hepaticus, liver: hepatocyte hetero-, heteros, other: heterozygous histo-, histos, tissue: histology holo-, holos, entire: holocrine homeo-, homoios, similar: homeostasis homo-, homos, same: homozygous hyal-, hyalo-, hyalos, glass: hyaline hydro-, hydros, water: hydrolysis hyo-, hyoeides, U-shaped: hyoid bone hyper-, hyper, above: hyperpolarization hypo-, hypo, under: hypothyroid hyster-, hystera, uterus: hysterectomy -ia, -ia, state or condition: insomnia idi-, idios, one's own: idiopathic in-, in-, in, within, or denoting negative effect: inactivate infra-, infra, beneath: infra-orbital inter-, inter, between: interventricular intra-, intra, within: intracapsular ipsi-, ipse, itself: ipsilateral iso-, isos, equal: isotonic -itis, -itis, inflammation: dermatitis 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net karyo-, karyon, body: megakaryocyte kerato-, keros, horn: keratin kino-, -kinin, kinein, to move: bradykinin lact-, lacto-, -lactin, lac, milk: prolactin lapar-, lapara, flank or loins: laparoscopy -lemma, lemma, husk: sarcolemma leuk-, leuko-, leukos, white: leukemia, leukocyte liga-, ligare, to bind together: ligase lip-, lipo-, lipos, fat: lipoid lith-, lithos, stone: cholelithiasis lys- lyso-, lysis, a loosening: hydrolysis macr-, makros, large: macrophage mal-, mal, abnormal: malabsorption mammilla-, mammilla, nipple: mammillary mast-, masto-, mastos, breast: mastoid mega-, megas, big: megakaryocyte melan-, melas, black: melanocyte men-, men, month: menstrual mero-, meros, part: merocrine meso-, mesos, middle: mesoderm meta-, meta, after, beyond: metaphase micr-, mikros, small: microscope mono-, monos, single: monocyte morph-, morpho-, morphe, form: morphology multi-, multus, much, many: multicellular -mural, murus, wall: intramural myelo-, myelos, marrow: myeloblast myo-, mys, muscle: myofilament narc-, narkoun, to numb or deaden: narcotics nas-, nasus, nose: nasolacrimal duct natri-, natrium, sodium: natriuretic necr-, nekros, corpse: necrosis nephr-, nephros, kidney: nephron neur-, neuri-, neuro-, neuron, nerve: neuromuscular oculo-, oculus, eye: oculomotor odont-, odontos, tooth: odontoid process -oid, eidos, form, resemblance: odontoid process oligo-, oligos, little, few: oligopeptide -ology, logos, the study of: physiology -oma, -oma, swelling: carcinoma onco-, onkos, mass, tumor: oncology oo-, oon, egg: oocyte ophthalm-, ophthalmos, eye: ophthalmic nerve -opia, ops, eye: myopia orb-, orbita, a circle: orbicularis oris orchi-, orchis, testis: orchiectomy orth-, orthos, correct, straight: orthopedist -osis, -osis, state, condition: neurosis ost-, oste-, osteo-, osteon, bone: osteocyte oto-, otikos, ear: otolith para-, para, two like parts or a pair: paraplegia path-, -pathy, patho-, pathos, disease:pathology pedia-, paidos, child: pediatrician per-, per, through, throughout: percutaneous peri-, peri, around: perineurium phago-, phago, to eat: phagocyte -phasia, phasis, speech: aphasia -phil, -philia, philos, love: neutrophil phleb-, phleps, a vein: phlebitis -phobia, phobos, fear: claustrophobia phot-, photo-, phos, light: photoreceptor Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1301 -phylaxis, phylax, a guard: prophylaxis physio-, physis, nature: physiology -plasia, plasis, formation: dysplasia platy-, platys, flat: platysma -plegia, plege, a blow, paralysis: hemiplegia -plexy, plessein, to strike: apoplexy pneum-, pneuma, air: pneumotaxic center pod-, podo-, podos, foot: podocyte -poiesis, poiesis, making: hemopoiesis poly-, polys, many: polysaccharide post-, post, after: postanal pre-, prae, before: precapillary sphincter presby-, presbys, old: presbyopia pro-, pro, before: prophase proct-, proktos, anus: proctology pterygo-, pteryx, wing: pterygoid pulmo-, pulmo, lung: pulmonary pulp-, pulpa, pulp: pulpitis pyel-, pyelos, trough or pelvis: pyelitis quadr-, quadrans, one quarter: quadriplegia re-, re-, back, again: reinfection retro-, retro, backward: retroperitoneal rhin-, rhis, nose: rhinitis -rrhage, rhegnymi, to burst forth: hemorrhage -rrhea, rhein, flow, discharge: diarrhea sarco-, sarkos, flesh: sarcomere scler-, sclero-, skleros, hard: sclera -scope, skopeo, to view: colonoscope -sect, sectio, to cut: transect semi-, semis, half: semitendinosus -septic, septikos, putrid: antiseptic -sis, -sis, state or condition: metastasis som-, -some, soma, body: somatic spino-, spina, spine, vertebral column: spinothalamic pathway stalsis, staltikos, contractile: peristalsis sten-, stenos, a narrowing: stenosis stomy, stoma, mouth, opening: colostomy stylo-, stylus, stake, pole: stylohyoid sub-, sub, below; subcutaneous super-, super, above or beyond: superficial supra-, supra, on the upper side: supraspinous fossa syn-, syn, together: synthesis tachy-, tachys, swift: tachycardia telo-, telos, end: telophase tetra-, tettares, four: tetralogy of Fallot therm-, thermo-, therme, heat: thermoregulation thorac-, thorax, chest: thoracentesis thromb-, thrombos, clot: thrombocyte -tomy, tome, to cut: appendectomy tox-, toxikon, poison: toxemia trans-, trans, through: transudate tri-, tres, three: trimester tropho-, trophe, nutrition: trophoblast trophy, trophikos, nourishment: atrophy -tropic, trope, turning: adrenocorticotropic tropo-, tropikos, turning: troponin uni-, unus, one: unicellular uro-, -uria, ouron, urine: glycosuria vas-, vas, vessel: vascular zyg-, zygotos, yoke: zygote 07/09/17 1:38 PM www.downloadslide.net Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1302 19/09/17 5:27 PM www.downloadslide.net Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1303 19/09/17 5:27 PM www.downloadslide.net Z05_MART9867_11_GE_IDX.indd 1304 19/09/17 5:27 PM GLOBAL EDITION www.downloadslide.net Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology For these Global Editions, the editorial team at Pearson has collaborated with educators across the world to address a wide range of subjects and requirements, equipping students with the best possible learning tools This Global Edition preserves the cutting-edge approach and pedagogy of the original, but also features alterations, customization, and adaptation from the North American version GLOBAL EDITION ELEVENTH EDITION Martini • Nath Bartholomew ELEVENTH EDITION Martini • Nath • Bartholomew G LO B A L EDITION This is a special edition of an established title widely used by colleges and universities throughout the world Pearson published this exclusive edition for the benefit of students outside the United States and Canada If you purchased this book within the United States or Canada, you should be aware that it has been imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology Pearson Global Edition Martini_11_129222987X_Final.indd 15/09/17 7:38 AM ... portion of the superior fornix receives 10– 12 ducts from the lacrimal gland, or tear gland (see Figure 17–4b) This gland is about the size and shape of an almond, measuring roughly 12 20 mm (0.5–0.75... orientation of the image on the retina and that of the object Visual Acuity How well you see, or your visual acuity, is rated by comparison to a “normal” standard The standard vision rating of 20 /20 is... the level of detail seen at a distance of 20 feet by a person with normal vision That is, a person with a visual acuity of 20 /20 sees clearly at 20 feet what should normally be seen at 20 feet
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Xem thêm: Fundamentals of anatomy and physiology 11th global edition by martini 2, 16-10. Aging Produces Various Structural and Functional Changes in the Nervous System, 17-1. Olfaction, the Sense of Smell, Involves Olfactory Receptors Responding to Airborne Chemical Stimuli, 17-3. Internal Eye Structures Contribute to Vision, while Accessory Eye Structures Provide Protection, 17-5. Photoreceptors Transduce Light into Electrical Signals that are then Processed in the Visual Cortex, 17-6. Equilibrium Sensations Monitor Head Position and Movement, While Hearing Involves the Detection and Interpretation of Sound Waves, 18-2. The Endocrine System Regulates Physiological Processes by Releasing Bloodborne Hormones that Bind to Receptors on Remote Target Organs, 18-3. The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland Produces and Releases Hormones Under Hypothalamic Control, while the Posterior Lobe Releases Hypothalamic Hormones, 18-4. The Thyroid Gland Synthesizes Thyroid Hormones that Affect the Rate of Metabolism, 18-6. The Paired Adrenal Glands Secrete Several Hormones that Affect Electrolyte Balance and Stress Responses, 18-8. The Pancreas is both an Exocrine Organ and an Endocrine Gland that Produces Hormones Affecting the Blood Glucose Level, 18-9. Many Organs have Secondary Endocrine Functions, 18-10. Hormones Interact Over our Lifetime to Produce Coordinated Physiological Responses, 19-2. Red Blood Cells, Formed by Erythropoiesis, Contain Hemoglobin that Transports Respiratory Gases, 19-3. The ABO and Rh Blood Groups are Based on Antigen– Antibody Responses, 19-4. The Various Types of White Blood Cells Contribute to the Body’s Defenses, 19-6. The Process of Blood Clotting, or Hemostasis, Stops Blood Loss, 20-1. The Heart is a Four-Chambered Organ that Pumps Blood Through the Systemic and Pulmonary Circuits, 20-2. The Cells of the Conducting System Distribute Electrical Impulses Through the Heart, Causing Cardiac Contractile Cells to Contract, 20-3. The Contraction–Relaxation Events that Occur During a Complete Heartbeat make up a Cardiac Cycle, 20-4. Cardiac Output is Determined by Heart Rate and Stroke Volume, 21-1. Arteries, which are Elastic or Muscular, and Veins, which Contain Valves, have Three-Layered Walls; Capillaries have Thin Walls with Only One Layer, 21-2. Pressure and Resistance Determine Blood Flow and Affect Rates of Capillary Exchange, 21-3. Blood Flow and Pressure in Tissues are Controlled by both Autoregulation and Central Regulation, 21-4. The Cardiovascular System Adapts to Physiological Stress While Maintaining a Special Vascular Supply to the Brain, Heart, and Lungs, 21-7. The Systemic Circuit Carries Oxygenated Blood from the Left Ventricle to Tissues and Organs Other Than the Lungs, and Returns Deoxygenated Blood to the Right Atrium, 21-8. Modifications of Fetal and Maternal Cardiovascular Systems Promote the Exchange of Materials; the Fetal Cardiovascular System Changes to Function Independently After Birth, 21-9. Aging Affects the Blood, Heart, and Blood Vessels, 22-1. The Vessels, Tissues, and Organs of the Lymphatic System Maintain Fluid Volume and Function in Body Defenses, 22-3. Innate Defenses Respond the Same Regardless of the Invader, 22-4. Adaptive (Specific) Defenses Respond to Particular Threats and are Either Cell Mediated or Antibody Mediated, 22-5. In Cell-Mediated Adaptive Immunity, Presented Antigens Activate T Cells, which Respond by Producing Cytotoxic and Helper T Cells, 22-6. In Antibody-Mediated Adaptive Immunity, Sensitized B Cells Respond to Antigens by Producing Specific Antibodies, 22-7. Immunocompetence Enables a Normal Immune Response; Abnormal Responses Result in Immune Disorders, 22-9. The Nervous and Endocrine Systems Influence the Immune Response, 23-1. The Respiratory System, Organized into an Upper Respiratory System and a Lower Respiratory System, Functions Primarily to Aid Gas Exchange, 23-2. The Conducting Portion of the Upper Respiratory System Filters, Warms, and Humidifies Air, 23-3. The Conducting Portion of the Lower Respiratory System Conducts Air to the Respiratory Portion and Produces Sound, 23-5. Enclosed by Pleural Cavities, the Lungs are Paired Organs Made up of Multiple Lobes, 23-7. Pulmonary Ventilation—Air Exchange Between the Atmosphere and the Lungs—Involves Muscle Actions and Volume Changes that Cause Pressure Changes, 23-8. Gas Exchange Depends on the Partial Pressures of Gases and the Diffusion of Gas Molecules, 23-9. In Gas Transport, Most Oxygen is Transported Bound to Hemoglobin, Whereas Carbon Dioxide is Transported in Three Ways, 23-10. Respiratory Centers in the Brainstem, Along with Respiratory Reflexes, Control Respiration, 23-12. The Respiratory System Provides Oxygen to, and Eliminates Carbon Dioxide from, Other Organ Systems, 24-1. The Digestive System, Consisting of the Digestive Tract and Accessory Organs, Functions Primarily to Break Down and Absorb Nutrients from Food and to Eliminate Wastes, 24-2. The Oral Cavity, which Contains the Tongue, Teeth, and Salivary Glands, Functions in the Ingestion and Mechanical Digestion of Food, 24-3. The Pharynx and Esophagus are Passageways that Transport the Food Bolus from the Oral Cavity to the Stomach, 24-4. The Stomach is a J-Shaped Organ that Receives the Bolus and Aids in its Chemical and Mechanical Digestion, 24-5. Accessory Digestive Organs, Such as the Pancreas and Liver, Produce Secretions that Aid in Chemical Digestion, 24-6. The Small Intestine Primarily Functions in the Chemical Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients, 24-7. The Large Intestine, which is Divided into Three Parts, Absorbs Water from Digestive Materials and Eliminates the Remaining Waste as Feces, 24-8. Chemical Digestion is the Enzyme-Mediated Hydrolysis of Food into Nutrients that can be Absorbed and used by the Body, 24-10. The Digestive System is Extensively Integrated with Other body Systems, 25-1. Metabolism is the Sum of All the Catabolic and Anabolic Reactions in the Body, and Energetics is the Flow and Transformation of Energy, 25-2. Carbohydrate Metabolism Generates ATP by Glucose Catabolism and Forms Glucose by Gluconeogenesis, 25-3. Lipid Metabolism Provides Long-Term Storage and Release of Energy, 25-6. Adequate Nutrition Allows Normal Physiological Functioning, 25-7. Metabolic Rate is the Average Caloric Expenditure, and Thermoregulation Involves Balancing Heat-Producing and Heat-Losing Mechanisms, 26-2. Kidneys are Highly Vascular Organs Containing Functional Units Called Nephrons, 26-4. The Glomerulus Filters Blood Through the Filtration Membrane to Produce Filtrate; Several Pressures Determine the Glomerular Filtration Rate, 26-5. The Renal Tubule Reabsorbs Nutrients, Ions, and Water and Secretes Ions and Wastes; the Collecting System Reabsorbs Ions and Water, 26-6. Countercurrent Multiplication Allows the Kidneys to Regulate the Volume and Concentration of Urine, 26-7. Urine is Transported by the Ureters, Stored in the Bladder, and Eliminated Through the Urethra by Urinary Reflexes, 26-9. The Urinary System is One of Several Body Systems Involved in Waste Excretion, 27-2. Extracellular Fluid (ECF) and Intracellular Fluid (ICF) are Fluid Compartments With Differing Solute Concentrations That are Closely Regulated, 27-3. Fluid Balance Involves the Regulation and Distribution of Water Gains and Losses, 27-4. In Electrolyte Balance, the Concentrations of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphate, and Chloride Ions in Body Fluids are Tightly Regulated, 27-5. In Acid-Base Balance, Buffer Systems as well as Respiratory and Renal Compensation Regulate pH Changes in Body Fluids, 27-6. Disorders of Acid-Base Balance can be Classified as Respiratory or Metabolic, 27-7. Aging Affects Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, 28-2. The Structures of the Male Reproductive System Consist of the Testes, Duct System, Accessory Glands, and Penis, 28-3. Spermatogenesis Occurs in the Testes, and Hormones from the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and Testes Control Male Reproductive Functions, 28-4. The Structures of the Female Reproductive System Consist of the Ovaries, Uterine Tubes, Uterus, Vagina, and External Genitalia, 28-5. Oogenesis Occurs in the Ovaries, and Hormones from the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and Ovaries Control Female Reproductive Functions, 28-7. Changes in Levels of Reproductive Hormones Cause Functional Changes Throughout the Life Span, 28-8. The Reproductive System Secretes Hormones Affecting Growth and Metabolism of All Body Systems, 29-4. The First Trimester Includes Pre-Embryonic and Embryonic Development, Involving the Processes of Cleavage, Implantation, Placentation, and Embryogenesis, 29-6. During Gestation, Maternal Organ Systems Support the Developing Fetus; the Reproductive System Undergoes Structural and Functional Changes, 29-7. Childbirth Occurs Through the Process of Labor, Which Consists of the Dilation, Expulsion, and Placental Stages, 29-8. Postnatal Stages are the Neonatal Period, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, and Maturity, Followed by Senescence and Death, 29-9. Genes and Chromosomes Determine Patterns of Inheritance
